Indian Geography Complete Notes.pdf

GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA: 1 AN INTRODUCTION longitudinal extent is around 30°. Despite Physical Geography of India...

GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA: 1 AN INTRODUCTION longitudinal extent is around 30°. Despite Physical Geography of India this, it appears that the east-west extent is Extent and Frontiers less than the north-south extent. ˆ India is a very large country. It lies totally ˆ There is a two-hour time difference in the northern hemisphere, more precisely between Gujarat and Arunachal Pradesh. in the south-central region of the Asian As a result, time is accepted as the standard continent. The mainland of India stretches time for the entire nation along the Standard across a large portion of the earth between Meridian of India (82°30’E), which passes latitudes 8°4’N and 37°6’N and longitudes through Mirzapur (in Uttar Pradesh). As 68°7’E and 97°25’E. one travels from the south to the north, the ˆ India, the seventh-largest nation in the latitudinal extent affects the length of day world, is separated from the rest of Asia and night. by mountains and the sea, giving it a unique geographical identity. ˆ The whole length of the mainland’s coastline, including Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep, is 7,516.6 km and India’s land border is around 15,200 km long. ˆ The young fold mountains in the northwest, north and northeast encircle India. It begins to taper and extend south of roughly 22° north latitude, dividing the Indian Ocean into the Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal on the east. ˆ The mainland’s latitudinal and 1 ˆ Gujarat (Jasdan), Rajasthan (Kalinjarh), Size and Extent Madhya Pradesh (Shajapur), Chhattisgarh East-West Extent of Main 68°7' east to 97°25' east Land India (Including Pak longitude. (Sonhat), Jharkhand (Lohardaga), West occupied Kashmir-POK): Bengal (Krishnanagar), Tripura (Udaipur) South-North Extent of Main 8°4' north to 37°6' north Land India: latitude. and Mizoram are the eight Indian states Locational Extent: 8°4' N to 37°6' N latitude through which the Tropic of Cancer travels and 68°7' E to 97°25' E east longitude. (Champhai). 2  Pygmalion Point, also known as Indira monsoons, this Indian coastline is dry in the Point, is the southernmost point of the nation summer and is wet in the winter. and is situated at 6° 45′ north latitude. The Pulicat Lake and Chilka Lake are ˆ 3,214 kilometres stretch north to south significant geographical features on the east from Kashmir’s Indira Col to Kanniyakumari. coast. ˆ From the Rann of Kachachh to Arunachal Western Coastal Plains of India Pradesh, there is a 2,933 km east-west From Kerala in the south to Gujarat in the width. north, the Western Coastal Plains pass through ˆ India is the seventh-largest nation in the Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra. The western world with a total area of 32,87,263 sq km. coastal plains are 10 to 25 km wide and extend ˆ India makes up around 2.4% of the planet’s approximately 1500 km north to south. Off the total surface area. coast of Mumbai, the West Continental Shelf is at ˆ The country is divided into two latitudinal its widest. Oil is abundant in this area. There are parts by the Tropic of Cancer, which runs numerous stunning lagoons along the Malabar across the centre of the continent. Coast, which draw tourists there. Compared to ˆ The area north of the Tropic of Cancer is the eastern coast, the western coast is narrower. about twice as large as the area south of it. The western coast is further divided into four categories: Coastline of India 1. The coasts of Kachchh and Kathiawar On three of its four sides, the sea encircles the were created by the sediment that the Indus nation of India. India’s coastal lowlands run River deposited. Kachchh was formerly a along its west and east coasts. India’s coastal gulf. During the monsoons, the Kachchh plains, which span up to 7516.6 km, fall into one region is separated into the Great Rann in of two categories: the north and the Little Rann in the east by Indian Eastern Coastal Plains shallow water. Kathiawar, on the other hand, The eastern coastal plains pass through Andhra is located south of Kachchh. Pradesh and Odisha as they travel from West 2. Konkan coast: It stretches from Goa in the Bengal in the north to Tamil Nadu in the south. south to Daman in the north. The two main The eastern coastal plain contains the deltas of crops in this area are cashews and rice. the Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari and Cauveri 3. Kannada coast: It stretches between rivers. The deltas are incredibly fertile and Marmagaon and Mangalore and is known as agriculturally productive. As a result, the River the Kannada coast. Krishna’s delta is referred to as the “Granary of 4. Malabar coast: The comparatively broad South India.” Once more, the Eastern shore is Malabar coast stretches from Mangalore to split into these three sections: Kanyakumari. In southern Kerala, this area also comprises of lagoons that run parallel 1. The Utkal coast is substantially wider than to the coast. the western coastal plains and receives a great deal of rainfall. It stretches between Borders of India Chilika Lake and Kolleru Lake. Rice, coconut Name of the country Length of the border (in km) and bananas are a few of the crops grown Bangladesh 4,096.7 here. China 3,488 2. Andhra Coast: The Krishna and Godavari Pakistan 3,323 rivers flow through the Andhra coast, which Nepal 1,751 stretches between the Kolleru Lake and Myanmar 1,643 Pulicat Lake. Bhutan 699 3. Coromandel Coast: Between Pulicat Lake Afghanistan 106 and Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu is the Total 15,106.7 Coromandel coast. Due to the north-east 3 Border with China The India-Nepal Boundary ˆ Next only to its border with Bangladesh, this is India’s second-longest border. ˆ The Indian border with China is touched by five Indian states: Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. ˆ The Sino-Indian border is typically broken down into three sections: I the Western sector; (ii) the Middle sector; and (iii) the Eastern sector. ˆ Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West The Western Sector: separates China’s Sinkiang (Xinjiang) province to the Indian state of Jammu Bengal and Sikkim are the five Indian states & Kashmir. that border Nepal. Between India and Nepal, there is free movement of people and products across the porous border. ˆ The majority of the Indo-Nepalese boundary follows roughly east-west along the foothills of the Shiwalik Range. India-Bhutan Boundary ˆ The British attitude toward the state of Jammu and Kashmir is responsible for the western sector boundaries. ˆ The Aksai Chin district, Changmo valley, Pangong Tso and Sponggar Tso regions of northeastern Ladakh are all claimed by China, along with a strip that extends the full ˆ Quite peaceful border and there is no length of eastern Ladakh and is estimated to boundary dispute between the two countries. be about 5,000 square kilometres. ˆ The Huza-Gilgit region of North Kashmir is India-Bangladesh Border also claimed by China (ceded to it in 1963 by Pakistan). The Middle Sector Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand touch this border. The Eastern Sector: The 1,140 km long border between India and China begins at the easternmost point of Bhutan and ends at the intersection of India, Tibet and Myanmar close to Diphu Pass (Talu Pass). ˆ In honour of Sir Henry Mc Mahon, then- ˆ The longest border is that between India and foreign secretary of British India, who Bangladesh, stretching 4,096 kilometres. negotiated the border agreement between Great Britain and Tibet at the Shimla Accord ˆ The Radcliffe Award, which divided the in 1913–1914, this line is commonly referred former province of Bengal into two parts, to as the Mc Mahon Line. was used to determine this boundary. 4 India-Myanmar Boundary Dhanushkodi on the Tamil Nadu coast of India. Adam’s Bridge is made up of a number of islets that connects these two places. The Indo-Pakistan Boundary ˆ The country was divided in 1947 as a consequence of the Radcliffe award, whose chairman was Sir Cyril Radcliffe. This resulted in the Indo-Pakistan boundary. ˆ This boundary roughly follows the watershed between the Brahmaputra and Irrawaddy. ˆ It travels through densely forested areas, passing through Mizo Hills, Manipur and Nagaland on the Indian side and Chin Hills, Naga Hills and Kachin State on the Myanmar side. India-Sri Lanka Boundary ˆ The Palk Strait, a confined area of shallow water, separates India from Sri Lanka. ˆ Talaimanar on the Jaffna peninsula in ˆ The two most contentious areas are Sir Creek Sri Lanka is only 32 kilometres from and Jammu and Kashmir. vvvv 5  THE GEOLOGICAL 2 STRUCTURE OF INDIA Understanding the types and characteristics of rocks and slopes, the physical and chemical characteristics of soils, the availability of minerals and the resources for surface and subsurface water are all aided by a country’s geological structure. However, it is crucial that we comprehend what a geological time scale entails before we can investigate the geological structure of India. Archaean Rock System (Pre-Cambrian Rocks) ˆ Prior to 2.5 billion years ago, during the Precambrian Period, the upper crust of the earth’s surface began to cool and solidify, Rock System Based on Geological which is reflected by the exposure of gneisses History of India and granites, particularly on the Peninsula. ˆ The Archaean Rock System. This phase of tectonic evolution was the first. ˆ The Purana Rock System. ˆ These comprise the Indian Craton’s main ˆ The Dravidian Rock System. mass (Block of Indian Subcontinent of ˆ The Aryan Rock System. Gondwanaland). 6 ˆ The oldest rocks in the earth’s crust are ˆ They have significant limestone reserves of referred to as “Archaean,” a word used by J.D. cement-grade. Dana in 1782. Vindhyan System (1300-600 million ˆ There are two systems of rocks in the Archaean group. years) ˆ The enormous Vindhyan mountains are (a) Achaean System: Granites and Gneisses. where this system gets its name. (b) Dharwar System: First Sedimentary ˆ The system consists of ancient sedimentary Rocks. rocks that are 4000 metres thick and are Dharwar System superimposed on the Archaean base. ˆ From 4 billion to 1 billion years ago, the ˆ Mainly unfossiliferous rocks and the Deccan Earth was formed. trap covers much of this region. ˆ Elevated metamorphic sedimentary rock ˆ Panna and Golconda diamonds were mined system. [developed as a result of the from diamond-bearing regions in the metamorphism of Archaean gneisses and Vindhayan system. schists] ˆ It lacks metalliferous minerals but produces ˆ They are the first rocks that undergo a lot of hard stones, decorative stones, metamorphism. limestone, pure glass manufacturing sand, ˆ Found in great quantity in the Karnataka etc. district of Dharwar. Dravidian Rock System (Palaeozoic) ˆ Because they contain valuable minerals like ˆ In India, the Paleozoic rock formation, which high-grade iron ore, manganese, copper, dates back 600 to 300 million years, is known lead, gold, etc., these rocks are the most as the Dravidian systems. Due to the world’s significant economically. high-quality coal formation, it is also known as the Carboniferous rocks system. Purana Rock System ˆ There are very few of these rocks on the ˆ The Purana rock system is the collective Peninsular Shield and the majority of them name for the Cuddapah and Vindhyan rock are in the extra-Peninsular Himalayan and systems. Gangetic regions (Umaria in Rewa). ˆ They were created by the erosion and ˆ Dravidian rocks are primarily found in the deposition of rocks from the Archean and areas of PirPanjal, Handwara, Lider Valley, Dharwar formations, which is thought to Annatnag in Kashmir, Spiti, Kangra and have occurred between 140 and 600 million Shimla in Himachal Pradesh and Gharwal years ago. and Kumayun in Uttarakhand. ˆ Most of them are sedimentary in origin. ˆ The Dravidian rocks mostly consist of talc, Cuddapah System dolomite, marble, quartzites, slates, clays, sandstones and clays. ˆ Due to the extensive development of rock outcrops from the Cudappah district in Carboniferous rocks (350 million years) Andhra Pradesh. ˆ Limestone, shale and quartzite dominate the ˆ They developed as a result of the deposition 350 million year old Carboniferous rocks. of sedimentary rocks like sandstone, ˆ Upper Carboniferous limestones are the limestone, etc. and clay in synclinal folds main component of Mount Everest. (between two mountain ranges). ˆ In the Carboniferous era, coal first began to ˆ In Andhra Pradesh’s Cuddapah district, develop. outcrops can be best seen. ˆ In geology, carboniferous refers to a coal- ˆ Iron, manganese, copper, cobalt, nickel and bearing period. [The majority of coal found other metal ores can be found in these rocks. in India is not from the Carboniferous 7  period; excellent coal from the Great Lakes ˆ The Bengal and Ganges delta, the East coast Region-USA, U.K. and Ruhr region is from the and the Andaman Islands are all totally Carboniferous period] covered by the Tertiary Succession. The Salt Range, Potwar Plateau, outer Himalayan Aryan Rock System ˆ The Aryan Group, which marks the start of regions of Jammu and Punjab, Assam, Sind the Upper Carboniferous period, has arrived and Baluchistan are other places where they at the start of the final, longest and most can be found. The Karewas of Kashmir, the dramatic age, spanning from the Upper Bhangra, the Khadar of the Gangetic plains Carboniferous to the Holocene epoch. and others are significant rock systems. Gondwana System: The Gonds, Telangana’s and Andhra Pradesh’s most primitive people, are Physiographic division of India where the Gondwana System gets its name. Structure, process and developmental stage all contribute to an area’s physiography. The physical ˆ They are deposits that have been deposited attributes of India’s geography are incredibly on the surface of old plateaus in synclinal diverse. A huge area of rough topography can be troughs. found in the north, which is made up of a number ˆ The laden troughs subsided as the sediments of mountain ranges with a variety of peak shapes, built up. lovely valleys and deep gorges. The southern ˆ Terrestrial plants and animals flourished portion of Earth is a stable tableland with deeply in these troughs as fresh water and silt gathered there. carved plateaus, bare rocks and extensive scarp systems. The enormous north Indian plain lies ˆ Since the Permian epoch, this has occurred (250 million years ago) between these two. Based on these macro variations, India can Tertiary System be divided into the following physiographic ˆ About 60 to 7 million years ago, during the divisions: Eocene to Pliocene. characterised by the final disintegration of the former Gondwanan ˆ The Northern and North- Eastern Mountains. continent and the elevation of the Tethys ˆ The Northern Plain. geosynclines or Himalayas. ˆ The Peninsular Plateau. ˆ The Himalayas were created and India’s ˆ The Indian Desert. current shape took shape during the tertiary, making it the most important epoch in terms ˆ The Coastal Plains. of geology. ˆ The Islands. vvvv 8  PHYSIOGRAPHY 3 OF INDIA Northern Mountains Division of the Himalayas: Formation of Himalayas explained in Continent – Continent Convergence. 1. Shiwaliks or outer Himalayas. 2. Lesser or Middle Himalayas. 3. The Greater Himalayas. 4. The Trans-Himalayas – Tibetan Himalayas. 5. The Eastern Hills – Purvanchal: A chain of hills in North-East India. Formation ˆ Many parallel or convergent ranges in series. ˆ A highly dissected topography (of a plateau or upland divided by a number of deep valleys) is created when the ranges are separated by deep valleys. ˆ In contrast to the northern slopes, the southern slopes have high gradients. From the northern side, climbing Mount Everest is less hectic. However, due to Chinese constraints, climbers must access Nepal’s more difficult southern slopes. ˆ India, Nepal and Bhutan are home to the majority of the Himalayan ranges. The northern slopes are partially located in Tibet (trans-Himalayas) and the western ˆ From 50 km in Himachal Pradesh to less than extremities is located in Pakistan, 15 km in Arunachal Pradesh, the Shiwaliks’ Afghanistan and Central Asia. width vary. ˆ Three parallel ranges make up the Himalayas ˆ With the exception of an 80–90 km gap filled between Tibet and Ganga Plain. by the valleys of the Tista and Raidak rivers, they constitute a nearly uninterrupted series Shiwalik Range of low hills. ˆ Situated between the Lesser Himalayas and the Great Plains, Also known as outer ˆ Although Nepal’s Shiwalik range is covered Himalayas. in thick forests from North-East India to the west (the amount of rainfall in the Shiwaliks ˆ The range of altitude is 600 to 1500 metres. decreases from east to west). ˆ From the Potwar Plateau to the Brahmaputra valley, a distance of 2,400 kilometres. Middle or the Lesser Himalaya ˆ While the northern slopes are gentle, the ˆ Between the Shiwalik Mountains in the south southern slopes are steep. and the Greater Himalayas in the north. 9 ˆ Essentially parallel to both ranges. Passes in the Greater Himalayas ˆ Other names for it include Lower Himalaya State Passes of Greater Himalayas and Himachal. Jammu and Burzil Pass ˆ The 60–80 km wide and 2400 km long lower Kashmir Zoji La [La means pass] Himalayan ranges are situated. Bara Lacha La Himachal Shipki La [The Hindustan- ˆ There are elevations ranging from 3,500 to Pradesh Tibet Road connecting Shimla with Gartok 4,500 m above sea level. in Western Tibet] ˆ Over 5,050 metres above sea level, several Thaga La summits are blanketed in snow the entire Uttarakhand Niti Pass year. Lipu Lekh ˆ The lower Himalayas are divided into Nathu La Sikkim Jelep La [important trade route connecting southern slopes that are steep and bare Kalimpong (near Darjeeling) with Lhasa in (steep slopes prevent soil formation) and Tibet, passes through Jelep La (4,386 m)] northern slopes that are gentler and covered Important Passes of India in forest. ˆ The Nag Tibba and Mussoorie hills in Uttarakhand serve as a physical reminder of the Middle Himalayas. ˆ East of the Kosi River, the Sapt Kosi, Sikkim, Bhutan, Miri, Abor and Mishmi hills represent the lower Himalayas. ˆ The Middle Himalayan ranges are more friendly to human contact. Majority of the Himalayan hill resorts like Shimla, Mussoorie, Ranikhet, Nainital, Almora and Darjeeling, etc. are located here. The Great Himalaya The Trans Himalayas ˆ Also known as Himadri, the Central Himalaya, ˆ North of the Great Himalayan range are the or the Inner Himalaya. Himalayan ranges. ˆ Averaging roughly 25 kilometres in width ˆ Because the majority of it is in Tibet, it is also and 6,100 m above sea level in elevation. known as the Tibetan Himalaya. ˆ Granites and gneisses in the centre are ˆ The primary ranges are the Zaskar, Ladakh, what make up the majority of the structure, Kailas and Karakoram. which is then covered with metamorphosed ˆ It extends in an east-west direction for limestone sediments. The “Rock System” around 1,000 kilometres. ˆ The hog back topography—a long, steep ˆ 3000 metres above mean sea level is the hill or mountain ridge—is created by the average elevation. asymmetrical folds in this range, which have a high south slope and a mild north slope. ˆ This region’s typical breadth ranges from 40 km at the edges to around 225 km in the ˆ Like the other two, this mountain arc convexes to the south. middle. ˆ Abruptly comes to an end as the syntax ˆ In the Zaskar Range, the Nanga Parbat (8126 bends. One is in the Namcha Barwa in the m) is a significant range. north-east and the other is in the north- ˆ The Ladakh Range is located parallel to and Nanga west’s Parbat. north of the Zaskar Range. Just a few of the 10  peaks in this range reach heights of more in the world and the highest peak in the than 6000 metres. Indian Union. ˆ The Kailas Range (Gangdise in Chinese) in ˆ The Ladakh Plateau lies to the north-east of western Tibet is an offshoot of the Ladakh the Karakoram Range. It has been dissected Range. The highest peak is Mount Kailas into a number of plains and mountains [Soda (6714 m). River Indus originates from the Plains, Aksai Chin, Lingzi Tang, Depsang northern slopes of the Kailas range. Plains and Chang Chenmo] ˆ The northern most range of the Trans- Purvanchal or Eastern Hills Himalayan Ranges in India is the Great ˆ The Himalayas’ southern extension, known Karakoram Range also known as the as the Eastern Hills or The Purvanchal, runs Krishnagiri range. along India’s northeastern border. ˆ Karakoram Range extends eastwards from ˆ The Purvanchal is a group of relatively low the Pamir for about 800 km. It is a range with hills that are formed when the Himalayas lofty peaks [elevation 5,500 m and above]. It abruptly curve southward near the Dihang is the abode of some of the greatest glaciers canyon. of the world outside the polar regions. ˆ To the west, the Purvanchal Hills are convex. ˆ Some of the peaks are more than 8,000 ˆ They stretch from Arunachal Pradesh in metre above sea level. K2 (8,611 m) [Godwin the north to Mizoram in the south along the Austen or Qogir] is the second highest peak border between India and Myanmar. 11 ˆ The Patkai Bum Hills, which are composed ˆ The Shiwalik Mountains comprise its of strong sandstone and range in elevation southern boundary and the Zaskar Range from 2,000 to 3,000 metres, merge with the forms its northern limit. Naga Hills, whose highest peak is Saramati ˆ The Kashmir Valley is a syncline basin with (3,826 metres). ridge and valley morphology, produced by ˆ The border between India and Myanmar is the lacustrine deposits of the River Jhelum. defined by Patkai Bum and Naga Hills. ˆ It has numerous ox-bow lakes, including ˆ The Manipur hills, which are typically lower Wular Lake, Dal Lake and others. than 2,500 metres in elevation, are located ˆ It is also known as the “Vail of Kashmir,” south of the Naga Hills. because the lacustrine deposits, or karewas, ˆ Naga Hills and Manipur Hills are separated from Pulwama to Pampore, provide unique by the Barail mountain. nutrients that aid in the growth of saffron. ˆ The Indian peninsular block continues to the ˆ The area gets 100 cm of snow and rain during east as the Barail Range swings to the west the winter. and enters the Jaintia, Khasi and Garo hills. Rivers called the Ganga and Brahmaputra ˆ Alpine grasslands known as Bugyals or divide them from the main block. Marg, like Sonmarg or Gulmarg, are found ˆ South of the Manipur Hills are the Mizo Hills among the sloping ranges of the Zaskar and (previously known as the Lushai hills) which Pir Panjal that surround it. have an elevation of less than 1,500 metres. ˆ It is also called “Heaven of the Earth” The highest point is the Blue Mountain ˆ Other ranges are Ratanpir, which joins Pir (2,157 m) in the south. Panjal. Syntaxial Bends of the Himalayas ˆ The only gateway to Kashmir is the Banihal ˆ From the Indus gorge in the west to the pass which has the Jawahar tunnel (Second Brahmaputra gorge in the east, the Himalayas Largest in India) stretch in an east-west orientation. ˆ There are several passes in Greater ˆ At these gorges, the Himalayan ranges make Himalayas which connect Kashmir Valley to abrupt bends to the south. The Himalayan Ladakh and other regions like Burzil pass, syntaxial bends are what these bends are Zozila pass. known as. Kumaun Himalayas ˆ Near the Nanga Parbat, where the Indus ˆ The 320-kilometer-long Kumaun Himalayas river has carved a wide gorge, is where the are between the Satluj and Kali gorges. western syntaxial bend is found. ˆ The Namche Barwa is close to the eastern ˆ Nagtiba, Dhaula Dhar, Mussourie and syntaxial bend. portions of the Greater Himalayas are among the principal mountain ranges. Besides the longitudinal divisions, the Himalayas have been divided on the basis of from ˆ Nandadevi, Kamet, Badrinath, Kedarnath, west to east: etc. are notable peaks. ˆ The Kashmir /Punjab/ Himachal Himalayas. ˆ Particularly in Uttarkhand, there are numerous glaciers and ice caps that give ˆ The Kumaun Himalayas. rise to numerous rivers, like the Gangotri, ˆ The Central/ Nepal Himalayas. Yamunotri, Pindari, etc. ˆ The Assam/ Eastern Himalayas. ˆ It has deodar forests between 1600 and 3200 Kashmir /Punjab/ Himachal Himalayas metres above sea level and receives snowfall ˆ The Punjab Himalayas are situated between during the winter. the Satluj and Indus gorges. ˆ Bhagirathi Plain and Doons are two ˆ They have a 560 kilometre length and a 320 significant basins in this area. Tectonic km width. valleys include Kangra, Manali and Kulu. 12 ˆ Hill stations are famous because of their ˆ Since rocks are easily broken, earthquakes climate and colonial heritage. occur frequently. ˆ This region has 200cm of rainfall and its ˆ Tribes live there. more vegetated than the Kashmir Himalayas ˆ Range names are equivalent to tribal names. but prone to Seismicity and landslides because the rocks are fractured and fragile ˆ Several raging rivers cut across these especially the lesser Himalayas is composed mountains. of loose rocks like shale, limestone and ˆ This area is heavily dissected. conglomerates. Purvanchal Central/ Nepal Himalayas ˆ Although structurally distinct from the main ˆ Situated between the rivers Tista and Kali, which run west to east. Himalayan mountains, it is regarded to be a component of the Himalayas geologically. ˆ It measures 800 kilometres. ˆ Here are some of the most well-known ˆ The Brahmaputra valley is located north of mountains in the world, including Mt. Everest the Purvanchal Range. (Sagarmatha), Kanchenjunga, Makalu, ˆ Its Naga Hills contain Saramati, the highest Annapurna, Gosainthan and Dhaulagiri. mountain in the world. ˆ These mountains feature an orthoclinal ˆ The only floating national park in the world layout and the Katmandu valley is well- is located at Loktak Lake in the Manipur known. Hills. ˆ In this area, the Lesser Himalaya is referred to as Mahabharat Lekh. ˆ National Park of Keibul-Lamjao. ˆ Rivers like the Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, etc. ˆ The highest point in the Mizo Hills, formerly cut through the mountain. known as the Lushai Hills, is Blue Mountain. ˆ Kathmandu and Pokhra lacustrine valleys lie ˆ These mountains are a product of the Arakan between the Great and the Lesser Himalayas Yoma orogen. (previously, they were lakes). ˆ They contain shale, mudstone, sandstone ˆ Beyond Narayani, the Shiwalik range is and quartzite, among other loose and broken essentially nonexistent and very close to the sedimentary rocks. lesser Himalaya to the east. ˆ The Himalayas’ most shattered portion is Assam/ Eastern Himalayas this region. ˆ It is situated between the Tista River in the ˆ It is susceptible to earthquakes and west and the Brahmaputra River (Dihang landslides because of the Naga fault line. Gorges) in the east and it is 750 km long. ˆ Densely forested, 150-200 cm of rain falls ˆ The majority of the Eastern Himalayas are annually, however due to changing farming located in Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh. ecology is at stake. ˆ Shiwalik Mountains and the Greater Himalayas are intertwined in numerous places. ˆ Rainfall totals over 200 cm and thin longitudinal troughs are typical. ˆ Fluvial erosion is clearly dominant in the Assam Himalayas as a result of abundant rainfall. ˆ However, due to its proximity to the tropics and deep jungle, ice caps and glaciers were not discovered. 13 Significance of the Himalayas But doing all of this has a high environmental 1. Influence on Indian Climate: They prevent cost. rain from falling in the North-Eastern Hills 6. Mineral Resources in Himalayas: Potential and the entire Ganga Plains because to their coal and oil reserves can be found in interception of the summer monsoons that geosynclinical deposits found in tertiary originate from the Arabian Sea and Bay of rocks. Kashmir is home to coal. Some Bengal. locations in the Himalayas have deposits  To the north-west of India (Punjab, of copper, lead, zinc, gold, silver, limestone, Haryana, etc.), they direct the monsoon semi-precious stones and precious stones. winds. But because of Western However, in order to fully utilise these Disturbances that originate in the resources, cutting-edge technologies are still Mediterranean regions, these areas get needed. the most of the rainfall.  From the chilly continental air masses Northern Plain of central Asia, they shield the northern In India, the northern plains are the most recent plains. physiographic feature. The Himalayan Frontal  Sub-tropical Jet stream movement in Fault divides them from the Shivaliks, which the area is influenced by the Himalayas. are to their south (HFF). The border is a wavy, In order to bring the monsoon to India, erroneous line that runs along Peninsular they split the jet stream, which is very India’s northern frontier. The hills of Purvanchal crucial. surround the plains on their eastern side.  India would have been entirely a desert with very harsh winters if there had Northern Plain been no Himalayas. ˆ Alluvial deposits brought by rivers with 2. Defense: The Himalayas act as a natural origins in the Himalayan and Peninsular barrier for defence. regions resulted in the formation of the great  But the 1962 Chinese invasion of India plains. From east to west, these plains cover decreased the Himalayas’ importance as a distance of about 3,200 km. a line of defence. ˆ Despite having relief features that span 3. Source of Rivers: In India, approximately hundreds of kilometers, the Great Plains are half a billion people depend on the rivers remarkably uniform. that flow from the Himalayas. [This will be ˆ Bluffs, levees, ravines and khols are used to covered in further detail in the drainage break up the monotony. system]  All of the rivers are dependable year- Bhabar plains round water sources. Bhabar is a short region at the slope’s break that runs parallel to the Shiwalik foothills for 8 to 10 4. Fertile Soil: The swift flowing rivers from km. Because of this, the streams and rivers that Himalayas bring enormous amount of silt originate in the mountains often disappear in (alluvium) which constantly enrich the this area and leave behind heavy materials made Ganaga and Bramhaputra plains. of rocks and boulders. 5. Hydroelectricity: The Himalayan region offers a number of natural sites with excellent Only enormous trees with deep roots are hydroelectric power generation potential present in the area, which is unsuitable for because of its topography and swift-moving cultivation. There are building materials available, perennial rivers. There are already several including large boulders. Recently, footloose hydroelectric power facilities in existence. businesses have received encouragement. 14 Tarai plains: Marshy tracts emerge south of descends. Sand and dunes cover the area. A 25 Bhabar; this area is known as Terai. This is cm Isohyet wall separates it from the Bagar area. home to a wide variety of wildlife and has a lush Luni drains the fertile and semi-arid Bagar region growth of natural greenery. To grow sugarcane, in the south. rice and wheat in Uttar Pradesh, these forests are cleared. Punjab Haryana plain: These are created by rivers Satluj Beas and Ravi depositing sediment. Bhangar Plains: It depicts the Older alluvium- formed uplands. ˆ Doabs, a name for the rich highlands between ˆ The calcium-rich, dark-colored alluvium is these rivers. known as kankar. ˆ Because of the little streams known as Chos, ˆ Clay makes up the majority of Bhangar, the northern half of the region has seen however loam and sandy-loam can severe erosion. occasionally be found there as well. Ganga plains: They extend from Yamuna river in ˆ Saline and alkaline efflorescences known as west till Bangladesh. Reh are present in dry places. ˆ It is divided into: Khadar Plains: Younger alluvium of flood plains if the river is called Khadar. Its Alluvium is light 1. Upper Gangetic Plain. in colour and poor in calcareous matter. ¾ This region has Ganga Yamuna Delta plains: Its an extension of Khadar plains. Doab, Rohilkhand plain-Ramganga, Avadh plains-drained by ghagra ˆ Here uplands are called Chars and marshy and Gomati river. land as Bils. 1. Middle Ganga Plain. Regional Division of Northern Plains 2. Lower Ganga Plain: Rajasthan Plains: These regions to the west of ¾ It is formed by subduction of Aravalis include Marusthali and Rajasthan Bagar. Rajmahal Garo gap and subsequent There are multiple brackish lakes in this area infilling by rivers. Monotonous that were once under marine submergence but surface is broken by Bils, Swamps, dried up with the ascent of the Himalayan phase. Marshes, Levees. Despite having numerous inland drainage Brahmaputra Plains: Due to low gradient, systems, Luni is the only one that reaches the numerous riverine Islands are formed Region is ocean. Luni starts out lovely and gets salty as it surrounded by high mountains on all sides. 15 Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta of the Thar Desert and this has sparked The world’s largest delta is located here. extensive urbanisation and industrialization. In the delta region, the Ganga river splits into ˆ Cultural tourism: Hindus hold many sacred sites along the banks of rivers like the Ganga multiple waterways. Here, the ground slopes by and the Yamuna in high regard. The Mahavira only 2 cm per mile. The area is below mean sea and Buddha religions as well as the Bhakti level in two-thirds of it. [Highly susceptible to and Sufi movements thrived in this region. changes in sea level] Estuaries, mud flats, mangrove swamps, Indian Peninsular Plateau sandbanks, islands and forelands are abundant on the seaward face of the delta. Indian Peninsular Plateau (Deccan Tidal woods cover a substantial portion Plateau) of the coastal delta. Due to the Sundri tree’s A plateau is a high expanse of land with a flat dominance in this area, these are known as the top. In the absence of a neighbouring plateau, Sunderbans. plateaus frequently exist alone. A plateau is a flat, high landform that rises abruptly above its Significance of the Plain surroundings on at least one side, according to ˆ Half of all Indians live on this one-fourth of National Geographic. the nation’s land. Features of the Peninsular Plateau ˆ Flat terrain, perennial rivers that move ˆ Roughly triangular in shape, with the slowly, fertile alluvial soils and a good climate southern boundary of the vast plain of North encourage intensive agricultural activities. India serving as its foundation. The triangular ˆ Punjab, Haryana and the western portion plateau’s highest point is at Kanniyakumari. of Uttar Pradesh are now known as the ˆ It has a total size of around 16 lakh square “granary of India” because to the significant kilometres (India as a whole is 32 lakh sq usage of irrigation (Prairies are called the km). granaries of the world). ˆ The plateau rises between 600 and 900 ˆ A dense network of highways and trains metres above sea level on average (varies connects the whole plain, with the exception from region to region). 16 ˆ The majority of peninsular rivers run from ˆ Sandstone, shales and limestones from the west to east, which suggests that it is the Vindhayan era make up its composition. general slope. ˆ The Banas River and its tributaries, the ˆ The rift that forms in the Narmada-Tapti Berach and Khari rivers, rise in the Aravali River, which runs from east to west, is an Range and flow northwest into the Chambal exception. river. The plateau top resembles a rolling ˆ One of the oldest landforms on the planet is plain due to these rives’ erosional activity. the Peninsular Plateau. Central Highland ˆ It is a very stable block made primarily of ˆ Madhya Bharat Pathar and Madhya Bharat gneisses and schists from the Archaean era. Plateau are other names for this area. ˆ Since its formation, it has been a shield that ˆ The Marwar or Mewar Upland is to the east has remained stable and undergone few of it. structural modifications. ˆ The Chambal river’s basin, which flows ˆ The Peninsular block has been on land for through a rift valley, makes up the majority many hundred million years and has only of the plateau. occasionally been submerged by the water. ˆ Its principal tributaries include the Banas, The Peninsular Plateau is made up of a which flows through the Mewar plateau, the number of smaller plateaus, hill ranges, river Parwan, which flows from Madhya Pradesh basins and valleys. and the Kali Sindh, which originates in Rana Marwar Plateau or Mewar Plateau Pratap Sagar. ˆ It is located in eastern Rajasthan. Marwar ˆ Sandstone makes up the rounded hills of plateau is to the east of Aravalis and Marwar the plateau’s rolling terrain. Here are dense plain is to the west. forests. ˆ It dips down eastward and has an average ˆ The Chambal River’s ravines, often known as elevation of 250–500 m above sea level. its badlands, are to the north. 17 Bundelkhand Upland ˆ This plateau contains two drainage systems: ˆ Yamuna River to the north, Malwa Plateau to one that empties into the Arabian Sea (the the south, Madhya Bharat Pathar to the west Narmada, Tapi and Mahi) and the other that and Vindhyan Scarplands to the east and empties into the Bay of Bengal (Chambal and south-east. Betwa, joining the Yamuna). ˆ The Chambal and many of its right bank ˆ It is the ancient highland of the “Bundelkhand tributaries, including the Kali, the Sindh and gneiss,” which is composed of granite and the Parbati, drain it in the north. The higher gneiss and is dissected (separated by a courses of the Sindh, Ken and Betwa are also number of deep valleys). included. ˆ Consists of five districts in Uttar Pradesh and ˆ It is made of a sizable lava flow and coated four in Madhya Pradesh. with dark soils. ˆ This region dips down from the Vindhyan ˆ The general slope is towards the north Scarp toward the Yamuna River, with an [decreases from 600 m in the south to less average elevation of 300-600 m above sea than 500 m in the north] level. ˆ This is a rolling plateau dissected by rivers. ˆ A series of granite and sandstone hillocks, In the north, the plateau is marked by the Chambal ravines. or small hills, serve as the area’s identifying features. Baghelkhand ˆ It has an undulating (wave-like surface) ˆ The Baghelkhand is located north of the due to the erosive action of the rivers that Maikal Range. flow through this area, making farming ˆ Made of granite in the east and limestone impossible. and sandstone in the west. ˆ Streams like Betwa, Dhasan and Ken flow ˆ The Son river forms its northern border. through the plateau. ˆ The Son drainage system in the north and the Mahanadi river system in the south are Malwa Plateau separated by water in the middle of the ˆ The Aravali Range in the west, Madhya plateau. Bharat Pathar to the north and Bundelkhand ˆ The area is uneven, with an overall elevation to the east encircle the Malwa Plateau, which range of 150 to 1,200 metres. is essentially shaped like a triangle based on ˆ The trough-axis is not far from the locations the Vindhyan Hills. of the Bhanrer and Kaimur. 18 ˆ The general horizontality of the strata Meghalaya Plateau demonstrates that there haven’t been any ˆ Beyond the Rajmahal hills, to the east, the significant disturbances in this region. peninsular plateau stretches to Meghalaya or the Shillong plateau. Chotanagpur Plateau ˆ This plateau is separated from the main ˆ The northern projection of the Indian block by the Garo-Rajmahal Gap. Peninsula is represented by the Chotanagpur ˆ Down-faulting created this gap (normal plateau. fault: a block of earth slides downwards). ˆ Mostly in Jharkhand, the northernmost Later, sediments left behind by the Ganga region of Chhatisgarh and West Bengal’s and Brahmaputa filled it. Purulia district. ˆ Archaean quartzites, shales and schists ˆ North-west of the plateau, the Son river feeds formed the plateau. into the Ganga. ˆ The plateau dips southward toward the ˆ The plateau is 700 metres above sea level on Surma and Meghna rivers and northward average. toward the Brahmaputra valley. ˆ The majority of the rocks on this plateau are ˆ Its western border roughly corresponds from Gondwana. with the border with Bangladesh. ˆ The plateau has a radial drainage pattern ˆ The Khasi-Jaintia Hills (1,500 m), the Mikir because it is drained by various rivers and Hills (900 m) and the Garo Hills (900 m) streams that flow in different directions. are the names of the western, middle and Discharge Pattern. eastern portions of the plateau, respectively (700 m). ˆ Numerous drainage basins have formed along rivers such the Damodar, Subarnrekaha, ˆ Shillong (1,961 metres) is the highest point of the plateau. North, South and Barkar. ˆ In a rift valley running from west to east Deccan Plateau across the centre of this area is the Damodar ˆ About five lakh square kilometres make up river. its area. ˆ The Hazaribagh plateau, which is located ˆ The Satpura and Vindhya in the north-west, north of the Damodar river, has an average the Mahadev and Maikal in the north, the elevation of 600 metres above mean sea Western Ghats in the west and the Eastern level. Isolated hills dot this plateau. Due to Ghats in the east define its triangle shape. extensive erosion, it resembles a peneplain. ˆ It has a 600 m average elevation. ˆ South of the Damodar Valley, on the Ranchi ˆ The elevation varies from 500 m in the north Plateau, the elevation is roughly 600 metres to 1000 m in the south. above mean sea level. Where Ranchi (661 m) ˆ The flow of its principal rivers serves as a is located, the terrain is mostly rolling. good indicator of its general slope, which runs from west to east. ˆ Monadnocks, an isolated hill or ridge of erosion-resistant rock towering above a ˆ This plateau has been separated into several peneplain, encroach on it in some locations. smaller plateaus by rivers. Conical hills include, for instance, Ayers Rock Maharashtra Plateau in Australia. ˆ It makes up the Deccan Plateau’s northern ˆ The Rajmahal Hills, which define the portion. Chotanagpur Plateau’s northeastern border, ˆ The majority of the Deccan Traps are located are primarily made of basalt and are covered in this area, which is largely underlain by in basaltic lava flows. basaltic rocks with volcanic origins. 19 ˆ Weathering has given the land the Hill Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau appearance of a rolling plain. ˆ In the peninsular region, relict-type hills ˆ The horizontal lava sheets have produced predominate (residual hills). characteristic Deccan Trap topography ˆ They are the remains of hills and horsts that (step-like topography). were formed millions of years ago (horst: ˆ Godavari, Bhima and Krishna’s wide and uplifted block; graben: subsided block). shallow valleys are bounded on opposing ˆ These hill ranges and various river valleys sides by flat-topped, steep-sided hills and divide the Peninsular region’s plateaus from one another. mountains. ˆ Regur, a black cotton soil, blankets the entire Aravali Range area. ˆ They are arranged from northeast to southwest. Karnataka Plateau ˆ They travel roughly 800 kilometres between ˆ The Mysore plateau is another name for the Delhi and Gujarat’s Palanpur. Karnataka Plateau. ˆ They are the oldest mountain range in India ˆ Resides south of the plateau of Maharashtra. and one of the world’s oldest (very old) ˆ An average elevation of 600–900 metres fold mountains. Mountains in folds and gives the area the appearance of an mountains in blocks. undulating plateau. ˆ Its summits were feeding glaciers after its ˆ The Western Ghats run parallel to or across formation in the Archaean Era (more than the general trend of the hills. 100 million years ago) and several of them were likely higher than the Himalayas of ˆ The tallest peak, Mulangiri in the Baba today. Budan Hills of the Chikmaglur district, is ˆ They are now remnants of the world’s oldest 1913 metres high. mountain, which was formed as a result of ˆ Malnad and Maidan are the names of the two folding, after suffering severe weathering sections that make up the plateau. and erosion for millions of years. ˆ Kannada for “the Malnad” is “high country.” ˆ They proceed up to Hariddwar, which is Deep valleys covered with thick trees cut hidden by the Ganga Plains’ alluvium. through it. ˆ The range is noticeable in Rajasthan (a ˆ On the other hand, the Maidan is made up of continuous range that climbs to 900 m south a rolling plain and small granite hills. of Ajmer), but it is less noticeable in Haryana ˆ In the south, where the Western Ghats and and Delhi (characterized by a chain of Eastern Ghats meet, the plateau narrows and detached and discontinuous ridges beyond Ajmer). combines with the Niligiri. ˆ Some geographers claim that one branch of Telangana plateau the Aravalis continues through the Gulf of ˆ Archaean gneisses make up much of the Khambhat to the Lakshadweep Archipelago Telangana plateau. and the other branch into the states of ˆ It has a 500–600 m elevation on average. Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. ˆ With only a few hills rising beyond 1,000 ˆ In comparison to its northern twin, the metres, its average elevation is only 400– southern section is higher. 600 metres. ˆ Three river systems—the Godavari, the ˆ The range climbs to about 1,000 m at the Krishna and the Penneru—drain the area. south-westernmost point. The valley of the ˆ Ghats and the Peneplains separate the entire Banas here divides Mt. Abu (1,158 m), a plateau (a vast featureless, undulating plain minor mountainous block, from the main which the last stage of deposition process). range. 20 Guru Sikhar (1,722 m), the highest peak, is Satpura Range situated in Mt. Abu. ˆ Seven mountains make up the Satpura Range (the words “Sat” and “pura” both mean Vindhyan Range mountains). ˆ It spans a distance of more than 1,200 ˆ It flows nearly parallel to these rivers in an kilometres from Jobat in Gujarat to Sasaram east-west direction, south of the Vindhyas in Bihar, running almost parallel to the and between the Narmada and the Tapi. Narmada Valley. ˆ It extends for around 900 kilometres. ˆ The Vindhyan Range ranges in elevation ˆ The Satpuras have been folded and upheaved from 300 to 650 metres. in various places. They are referred to as ˆ The Vindhayan Range is mostly made up “horst,” or structural uplift. of old sedimentary rocks with horizontal ˆ The highest peak is Dhupgarh (1,350 m) on bedding. The Bharner and Kaimur hills are a the Mahadev Hills, close to Pachmarhi. continuation of the Vindhyas to the east. ˆ The peak of Amarkantak (1,127 m) is also ˆ Between the Ganga and the south Indian river important peak. systems, this range serves as a watershed. Western Ghats (or The Sahyadris) ˆ Within 30 kilometres of the Narmada, the ˆ Run 1,600 km from the Tapi valley (21°N rivers Chambal, Betwa and Ken have their latitude) to just north of Kanniyakumari sources. (11°N latitude). 21 ˆ The Western Ghats are a group of flat-topped, Eastern Ghats terraced hills with steep sides that front the ˆ Starting at the Mahanadi in Odisha and Arabian Sea. ending at the Vagai in Tamil Nadu, it is a ˆ This is a result of the lavas’ horizontal chain of severely shattered and fragmented bedding, which, after weathering, gave this hills. Between the Krishna and the Godavari, mountain chain’s relief a distinctive “landing they nearly vanish. stair look.” ˆ They lack both structural coherence and ˆ From the Western Coastal Plain, the Western physiographic continuity. As a result, these Ghats rise abruptly as a sheer wall to an hill groups are typically regarded as separate average elevation of 1,000 m. units. ˆ However, when viewed from the Deccan ˆ The Eastern Ghats only exhibit real tableland, they barely resemble mountains mountain character in the northern portion, due to the gentle slope of their eastern flank. between the Mahanadi and the Godavari. The Madugula Konda and Maliya ranges are ˆ The Nilgiris, Anamalai and other regions included in this section. south of Malabar have quite distinct ˆ The Maliya range’s peaks and ridges range landscapes because of their different in elevation from 900 to 1,200 metres, with geological structures. Mahendra Giri (1,501 m) being the highest The Northern Section summit. Important peaks include Kalasubai (1,646 ˆ Higher heights in the Madugula Konda m), which is close to Igatpuri, Salher (1,567 range vary from 1,100 m to 1,400 m, with m), which is located about 90 km north numerous summits topping 1,600 m. of Nashik, Mahabaleshwar (1,438 m) and ˆ The Eastern Ghats lose their steep nature Harishchandragarh (1,424 m). between the Godavari and Krishna rivers The Konkan Plains in the west and the and are populated by Gondwana formations Deccan Plateau in the east can be reached by road (KG Basin is here). and rail through the crucial passes of Thal ghat ˆ The Nallamalai Range, often known as the and Bhor ghat. Naxalite hideaway in Andhra Pradesh’s Cuddapah and Kurnool districts, is where The Middle Sahyadri: The Vavul Mala (2,339 m), the Eastern Ghats resurface as a roughly the Kudremukh (1,892 m) and Pashpagiri (1,714 continuous hill range with an elevation m) are important peaks. ranging from 600 to 850 metres. The Nilgiri Hills which join the Sahyadris ˆ Palkodna range is the name of this range’s near the trijunction of Karnataka, Kerala and southern section. TN, rise abruptly to over 2,000m. They mark the ˆ Only the Javadi Highlands and the Shevroy- junction of the Western Ghats with Eastern Ghats. Kalrayan Hills, two unique landforms of Doda Betta (2,637 m) and Makurti (2,554 m) are 1,000 m elevation, are found in the southern important peaks of this area. hills and plateaus, which reach very low altitudes. Southern Section Anai Mudi (2,695 m) is the highest peak in the ˆ At the state’s boundary with Tamil Nadu, whole of southern India. Three ranges radiate Karnataka’s Biligiri Rangan Hills rise to a in different directions from Anai Mudi. These height of 1,279 metres. ranges are the Anaimalai (1800-2000 m) to the Significance of the Peninsular Plateau north, the Palani (900-1,200 m) to the north- ˆ There are enormous amounts of minerals east and the Cardamom Hills or the Ealaimalai like gold, mica, bauxite, copper, manganese to the south. and iron. 22 ˆ The Peninsular Plateau contains 98% of East coast of india India’s Gondwana coal resources. ˆ Lies between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay ˆ Large reserves of slate, shale, sandstones, of Bengal. marbles, etc. are also present. ˆ It stretches all the way to Kanniyakumari ˆ Fertile black lava soil covers a sizable portion from the Ganga delta. of the north-west plateau, making it ideal for ˆ It is distinguished by the deltas of rivers cultivating cotton. including the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna ˆ Plantation crops including tea, coffee, rubber, and Cauvery. etc. are suited for cultivation in a few hilly ˆ The Pulicat lake and Chilka lake are areas of south India. significant geographical features on the east ˆ Rice can be grown in a few of the plateau’s coast. low-lying sections. Regional Names of The East Coast of ˆ The plateau’s highlands are covered in a diversity of forest types that produce a wide India range of forest products. ˆ In Orissa (Odisha) it is known as Utkal coast. ˆ The rivers originating in the Western Ghats ˆ From the southern limit of the Utkal plain, offer great opportunity for developing stretch the Andhra coast. hydroelectricity and providing irrigation ˆ In the south of the Andhra plain is the Tamil facilities to the agricultural crops. Nadu coast. ˆ The plateau is also known for its hill resorts ˆ The Tamil Nadu coast and parts of Andhra such as Udagamangalam (Ooty), Panchmarhi, coast together are known as Coramandal Kodaikanal, Mahabaleshwar, Khandala, Coast or Payan Ghat Matheron, Mount Abu, etc. West Coast of India Western and Eastern Coastal Plains of ˆ The west coast strip stretches from India Cape Comorin in the south to the Gulf of The Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep Cambay (Gulf of Khambhat) in the north islands are included in the 7516.6 km long (Kanniyakumari). Indian coastline, which also includes 6100 km of ˆ It is separated into I the Konkan coast (ii) mainland coastline. the Karnataka coast (iii) and (iv) the Kerala coast (starting from north to south). The faulting of the Gondwana land during the Cretaceous epoch is what gave India its straight ˆ It is composed of alluvium that was and regular coastline. transported there by little streams coming from the Western Ghats. 13 states and Union Territories are located ˆ Coves (a very small bay), creeks (a short, along India’s coastline. The eastern coastal plains sheltered waterway such as an inlet in a are situated along the Bay of Bengal, whereas the shoreline or channel in a marsh) and a western coastal plains are along the Arabian Sea. few estuaries are scattered throughout. Underwater Landforms. ˆ The two largest estuaries are those of the Narmada and the Tapi. ˆ The Vembanad Lake is the largest of the lakes, lagoons and backwaters on the Kerala coast (Malabar Coast). Coastlines 1. Coastline of Emergence. 2. Coastline of Submergence. 23 Coastlines of Emergence and Submergence ˆ Similar to how the Himalayas were created, Either an uplift in the land or a decline in sea the Andaman and Nicobar Islands were level creates the coastline of emergence. The created by the collision of the Indian Plate converse situation applies to the coastline of with the Burma Minor Plate, a piece of the submergence. Eurasian Plate. The characteristic features of emergence ˆ The Arakan Yoma range in Myanmar (also include bars, spits, lagoons, salt marshes, beaches, known as Andaman and Nicobar Islands) sea cliffs and arches. Underwater Landforms. extends southerly from Purvanchal Hills. The Tamil Nadu coast on India’s east coast, in ˆ Coral islands make up the Lakshadweep particular, seems to be a coast of emergence. Islands. They are a component of the Reunion On the other hand, India’s west coast is Hotspot Volcanism. simultaneously emerging and submerging. Andaman and Nicobar Islands Faulting has caused the northern portion of ˆ The Andaman and Nicobar islands have an the coast to be submerged and the Kerala coast area of around 590 km2, spanning latitudes in the south is an example of an emerging coast. of 6° 45′ to 13° 45′ N and 92° 10′ to 94° 15′ E. Significance of the Coastal Plains ˆ North, Middle and South are the three main ˆ The fertile soils that cover a significant islands that make up the Andaman Islands. portion of India’s coastal plains are used to ˆ Little Andaman and South Andaman are grow a variety of crops. The primary crop in separated by the Duncan passage. these regions is rice. ˆ Ten Degree Channel divides the Nicobar ˆ Along the seaside, coconut trees are group in the south from the Great Andaman abundant. group of islands in the north [Prelims 2014]. ˆ There are both large and small ports ˆ The Andaman Nicobar Islands’ capital, Port throughout the entire length of the coast, Blair, is located in South Andaman. which facilitate trade. ˆ The Great Nicobar is the biggest of the Nicobar ˆ There are alleged to be significant amounts islands. It is Indonesia’s southernmost of mineral oil in the sedimentary strata of island and is extremely near to Sumatra. The these plains (KG Basin). farthest north is the Car Nicobar. ˆ Large amounts of MONAZITE, which is ˆ There are no active volcanoes in mainland utilised in nuclear power, are found in the India; instead, the volcanic islands of the sands along the Keralan coast. Barren and Narcondam are located to the ˆ The majority of coastal residents make their north of Port Blair. living through fishing. ˆ Gujarat’s low-lying regions are renowned for their salt production. ˆ The backwaters of Kerala are popular travel locations. Goa has excellent beaches. Indian Islands: Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep Islands & New Moore Island Indian Islands ˆ The Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago (A chain of islands with a shared origin) in the Bay of Bengal and the Lakshadweep islands in the Arabian Sea are India’s two largest island groups. 24 ˆ Coral reefs encircle a few of the islands. A ˆ The Lakshadweep Islands are the biggest large number of them are covered in dense and most developed. forests. Mountains can be found on most ˆ The 4.53 sq km-sized island of Minicoy. islands. ˆ The majority of the islands are low-lying ˆ The highest peak is Saddle peak (737 m) in and climb no higher than five metres above North Andaman. sea level (Extremely Vulnerable to sea level change). Lakshadweep Islands ˆ Their geography is flat and there are no relief ˆ Three different types of islands can be found features like hills, streams, valleys, etc. in the Arabian Sea. ˆ Isles of Amindivi (consisting of six main New Moore Island islands of Amini, Keltan, Chetlat, Kadmat, A small, deserted offshore sandbar landform Bitra and Perumul Par). known as a “marine landform” is located in the ˆ Two of the Laccadive Islands are Minicoy Bay of Bengal, close to the Ganges-Brahmaputra Island and the five major islands of Androth, Delta region’s coast. Kalpeni, Kavaratti, Pitti and Suheli Par. After the 1970 Bhola cyclone, it first appeared ˆ Currently, these islands are referred to as in the Bay of Bengal. It repeatedly appears and Lakshadweep as a whole. then vanishes. ˆ There are 25 little islands that make up the Both India and Bangladesh asserted Lakshadweep group. sovereignty over the island despite the fact that ˆ About 200–500 kilometres south-west of the it was uninhabited and lacked any permanent Kerala coast, they are dispersed extensively. settlements or installations due to the possibility ˆ The Amendivi Islands are the farthest north that it contained oil and natural gas. and Minicoy Island is the farthest south. The bigger argument over the Radcliffe ˆ All are tiny “Atoll” islands that were formed Award technique of determining the marital from coral and are encircled by surrounding border between the two countries included the reefs. issue of sovereignty as well. vvvv 25  DRAINAGE 4 SYSTEMS OF INDIA Indian River System draining into the inland basins and The majority of rivers empty their water into salt lakes. In the Rann of Kutch, the the Bay of Bengal. Some rivers cross the western only river that flows through the portion of the nation before joining the Arabian salt desert is the Luni. Sea. Inland drainage is present in the Thar (d) Drainage Systems Based on Orientation to Desert, the northern Aravalli range and some the sea areas of Ladakh. One of the three primary basins  The Bay of Bengal drainage (Rivers serves as the source of all major rivers in India: that drain into the Bay of Bengal)(East ˆ The Himalaya and the Karakoram range. flowing rivers) ˆ The Chota Nagpur plateau and Vindhya and  Arabian sea drainage (Rivers that drain Satpura range. into the Arabian sea)(West flowing ˆ The Western Ghats. rivers). Classification of Drainage Systems of  The rivers Narmada (India’s holiest river) and Tapti flow almost parallel India (a) Drainage Systems Based on the Size of the to each other but empty themselves in Catchment Area: opposite directions (West flowing).  Division: Size of catchment area in sq Drainage basin: The drainage basin acts as a km. funnel by collecting all the water within the area  Major river: 20,000. covered by the basin and channeling it to a single point.  Medium river: 20,000 – 2,000.  Minor river: 2,000 and below. Drainage Divide: Adjacent drainage basins are separated from one another by a drainage (b) Drainage Systems Based on Origin: divide. Drainage divide is usually a ridge or a  The Himalayan Rivers: Perennial rivers: high platform. Indus, the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and their tributaries. Drainage patterns: based on the shape and formation of river patters, there are different  The Peninsular Rivers: Non-Perennial drainage patterns. rivers: Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauvery, the Narmada and Discordant drainage patterns: If a drainage the Tapi and their tributaries. pattern does not match the topology (surface relief features) and geology (geological features (c) Drainage Systems Based on the Type of based on both endogenetic and exogenetic Drainage movements) of the region, it is referred to as  The river systems of India can be discordant. classified into four groups viz. Simply put, the river follows its original ¾ Himalayan rivers, Deccan rivers course regardless of topographic changes in a and Coastal rivers that drain into discordant drainage pattern. the sea. ¾ Rivers of the inland drainage basin There are two basic categories of discordant (endorheic basin). Streams like drainage patterns: antecedent and superimposed. the Sambhar in western Rajasthan Antecedent Drainage or Inconsequent are mainly seasonal in character, Drainage: The term “antecedent drainage” 26 refers to a type of drainage when a river slope Examples: Indus, Godavari, Mahanadi, and its surroundings are uplifted in part and Cauvery, Krishna. the river continues to follow its original slope, ˆ Trellis Drainage Pattern: In this type sawing through the uplifted land like a saw of pattern the short subsequent streams [vertical erosion or vertical down cutting] and meet the main stream at right angles and creating deep gorges. Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra differential erosion through soft rocks paves and other Himalayan rivers that are older than the way for tributaries. the Himalayas themselves. Examples: The old folded mountains of the Superimposed or Epigenetic or Superinduced Singhbhum (Chotanagpur Plateau) Drainage: A river flowing over a softer rock ˆ Angular Drainage Pattern: The tributaries stratum eventually encounters the harder basal join the main stream at acute angles. rocks but keeps moving down the original slope, This pattern is common in Himalayan foothill appearing to have no connection to the harder regions. rock bed. The term “superimposed drainage” ˆ Rectangular Drainage Pattern: The refers to this sort of drainage. main stream bends at right angles and the The degree of rock hardness and softness, tributaries join at right angles creating as well as the distribution of faults and fractures, rectangular patterns. have a significant impact on the drainage patterns Example: Colorado river (USA), streams (dendritic, trellis, etc.). found is the Vindhyan Mountains of India. Damodar, the Subarnarekha, the Chambal, ˆ Radial Drainage Pattern: the tributaries the Banas and the rivers flowing at the Rewa from a summit follow the slope downwards Plateau, rivers of eastern USA and southern and drain down in all directions. France. Examples: Streams of Saurashtra region, Concordant Drainage Patterns: In a concordant Central French Plateau, Mt. Kilimanjaro. drainage pattern, the path of the river is ˆ Parallel Drainage Pattern: The tributaries highly dependent on the slope of the river and seem to be running parallel to each other in topography. a uniformly sloping region. Example: Rivers of lesser Himalayas and Classified into many types: the small and swift rivers originating in the ˆ Consequent Rivers: The rivers which follow Western Ghats that flow into Arabian Sea. the general direction of slope are known as ˆ Centripetal Drainage Pattern: in a low- the consequent rivers. Most of the rivers of lying basin the streams converge from all peninsular India are consequent rivers. sides. ˆ For example, rivers like Godavari, Krishna Examples: streams of Ladakh, Tibet and the and Cauvery. Baghmati and its tributaries in Nepal. ˆ Subsequent Rivers: A tributary stream that is eroded along an underlying belt of non- Himalayan River Systems resistant rock after the main drainage pattern The Himalayan River systems are made up of the (Consequent River) has been established is Ganga, the Brahmaputra and the Indus. known as a subsequent river. The Himalayan Rivers existed before the The Chambal, Sind, Ken, Betwa, Tons and Son Himalayas were formed, that is, before the Indian meet the Yamuna and the Ganga at right angles. Plate and Eurasian Plate collided. They were They are the subsequent drainage of the Ganga draining into the Tethys Sea, or “Antecedent drainage system. Drainage.” These rivers originated in what is now ˆ Dendritic: This is an irregular tree branch Tibet. shaped pattern. Drainage which is branching The deep gorges of the Indus, Satluj, or ramifying (branch out or cause to branch Brahmaputra and other rivers amply demonstrate out) thereby giving the appearance of a tree. that they predate the Himalayas. 27 Indus River altitude of roughly 2,700 m, the Shyok joins ˆ It originates in Tibet near Lake Manasarovar it close to Skardu. in the Glaciers of Kailash Range and runs ˆ Other Indus tributaries in the Himalaya northwest till it reaches the Nanga Parbhat include the Gilgit, Gartang, Dras, Shiger and Range. Hunza. ˆ It measures roughly 2,900 kilometres in ˆ It begins its rugged adventure near Attock, length. Its drainage area is approximately which is located north of the Nanga Parbat 1,165,000 square kilometres, of which more and travels over the Himalayas through a over half are in Pakistan’s semiarid plains. gorge that is 5181 metres deep. Right here, Near the border with China, the Dhar River it makes a quick turn to the south (syntaxial connects to it. bend). ˆ The Indus River enters the Kabul River from ˆ It flows between the Ladakh and Zaskar Afghanistan close to Attock. The Salt Range Ranges after entering J&K. It passes through is then traversed when it flows through the areas of Gilgit, Baltistan and Ladakh. the Potwar plateau (South Eastern edge of ˆ At Leh, the Zaskar River connects to it. At an Potwar Plateau). 28 Major Tributaries of Indus River ˆ In Pakistani Punjab, it empties into the Jhelum River: A spring near Verinag in the Chenab just above Rangpur. southernmost region of the Kashmir Valley Beas River: At a height of 4,062 m above sea serves as the Jhelum’s source. level, on the southern extremity of the Pir Panjal ˆ Enters Wular Lake from the north (north- Range, close to the source of the Ravi, the Beas western part of Kashmir Valley). It shifts its has its beginnings near the Rohtang Pass. direction southward from Wular Lake. In the ˆ It travels through the Dhaola Dhar mountain hills above Baramulla, the river flows into a range before turning south-west and merging gorge. with the Satluj river in Harike in Punjab. ˆ In the Pir Panjal Range below Baramula, the ˆ It is a relatively short river, only 460 km long river carves a sharply sloped, tight valley. and entirely located within Indian territory. ˆ The river turns sharply in a southerly direction towards Muzaffarabad. Satluj River: Within 80 km of the Indus’s source, the Satluj originates at a height of 4,570 m from ˆ Then, for 170 km, it forms the border between the Manasarovar-Rakas Lakes in western Tibet. Pakistan and India before emerging at the Potwar Plateau in the vicinity of Mirpur. ˆ It follows the Indus’ north-westerly course ˆ It debouches into the plains close to the all the way to the Shipki La, which marks city of Jhelum after running through the the border between Tibet and Himachal Salt Range’s spurs (emerging from a small, Pradesh. enclosed area into a large, open one). ˆ It cuts a gorge near Naina Devi Dhar, where Chenab River: The Zaskar Range’s Lahul-Spiti the renowned Bhakra dam has been built, region is where the Chenab originates, close to before crossing the Punjab plain. the Bara Lacha Pass. ˆ It bends west near Rupnagar (Ropar), enters ˆ At a height of 4,900 metres, Chandra and the plain and meets the Beas at Harike. Bhaga, two little streams on opposing sides ˆ It constitutes the border between India and of the pass, serve as the headwaters. Pakistan for roughly 120 km, from close to ˆ The Pangi valley is traversed by the Ferozepur to Fazilka. confluence of the Chandrabhaga and Pir ˆ It gets the combined drainage of the Jhelum, Panjal streams in a north-westerly direction. Chenab and Ravi rivers as it continues on its ˆ It shaves a deep gorge close to Kistwar. trip. Just a few kilometres above Mithankot, ˆ Near Akhnur in Jammu and Kashmir, it it merges into the Indus. enters the plain. ˆ By way of the Punjabi plains in Pakistan, it Ganga River System travels from here to Panchnad, where it joins ˆ In Uttar Kashi District of Uttarakhand, at a the Satluj after receiving water from the height of 7,010 metres, the Ganga originates Jhelum and Ravi rivers. as Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glacier. Ravi River: The Kullu Hills near the Rohtang ˆ Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda River converge Pass in Himachal Pradesh are where the Ravi in Devaprayag. originates. ˆ The river is known as Ganga from Devapryag. ˆ Between the Pir Panjal and the Dhaola Dhar mountains, it drains. ˆ The Ganges was listed as the fifth-most ˆ It turns south-west after crossing Chamba polluted river in the world in 2007. and carves a deep valley in the Dhaola Dhar ˆ Several fish and amphibian species, as well mountain. as the critically endangered Ganges river ˆ Near Madhopur, it reaches the Punjab Plains dolphin, are threatened by pollution (Blind before moving on to Pakistan below Amritsar. Dolphin) 29 The Five Prayags Nandaprayag, the place of confluence of Devaprayag, the place of confluence of Nandakini river and Alaknanda river. Bhagirathi riv