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Chapter 5 IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies LEARNING OBJECTIVES Define IT infrastructure and describe its c...

Chapter 5 IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies LEARNING OBJECTIVES Define IT infrastructure and describe its components. Identify and describe the stages and technology drivers of IT infrastructure evolution. Assess contemporary computer hardware platform trends. Assess contemporary software platform trends. Evaluate the challenges of managing IT infrastructure and solutions. 5.2  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies IT Infrastructure IT infrastructure: – Set of physical devices and software required to operate enterprise – Set of firm-wide services including: Computing platforms providing computing services Telecommunications services Data services Application software services Physical facilities services IT management, education, and other services – “Service platform” perspective More accurate view of value of investments 5.3  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies CONNECTION BETWEEN THE FIRM, IT INFRASTRUCTURE, AND BUSINESS CAPABILITIES The services a firm is capable of providing to its customers, suppliers, and employees are a direct function of its IT infrastructure. Ideally, this infrastructure should support the firm’s business and information systems strategy New information technologies have a powerful impact on business and IT strategies, as well as the services that can be provided to customers. FIGURE 5-1 5.4  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies IT Infrastructure Evolution of IT infrastructure – General-purpose mainframe and minicomputer era: 1959 to present 1958: IBM first mainframes introduced 1965: less expensive DEC minicomputers introduced – Personal computer era: 1981 to present 1981: Introduction of IBM PC Proliferation in 80s, 90s resulted in growth of personal software – Client/server era: 1983 to present Desktop clients networked to servers, with processing work split between clients and servers Network may be two-tiered or multitiered (N-tiered) Various types of servers (network, application, Web) 5.5  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies IT Infrastructure Evolution of IT infrastructure (cont.) – Enterprise computing era: 1992 to present Move toward integrating disparate networks, applications using Internet standards and enterprise applications – Cloud and mobile computing: 2000 to present Cloud computing: computing power and software applications supplied over the Internet or other network – Fastest growing form of computing 5.6  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies A MULTITIERED CLIENT/SERVER NETWORK (N-TIER) FIGURE 5-3 In a multitiered client/server network, client requests for service are handled by different levels of servers. 5.7  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies IT Infrastructure Technology drivers of infrastructure evolution – Moore’s law and microprocessing power Computing power doubles every 18 months Nanotechnology: – Shrinks size of transistors to size comparable to size of a virus – Law of Mass Digital Storage The amount of data being stored each year doubles 5.8  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies IT Infrastructure Technology drivers of infrastructure evolution (cont.) – Metcalfe’s Law and network economics Value or power of a network grows exponentially as a function of the number of network members As network members increase, more people want to use it (demand for network access increases) 5.9  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies IT Infrastructure Technology drivers of infrastructure evolution (cont.) – Standards and network effects Technology standards: – Specifications that establish the compatibility of products and the ability to communicate in a network – Unleash powerful economies of scale and result in price declines as manufacturers focus on the products built to a single standard 5.10  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Infrastructure Components IT Infrastructure has seven main components 1. Computer hardware platforms 2. Operating system platforms 3. Enterprise software applications 4. Data and storage 5. Networking/telecommunications platforms 6. Internet platforms 7. Consulting system integration services 5.11  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies THE IT INFRASTRUCTURE ECOSYSTEM There are seven major components that must be coordinated to provide the firm with a coherent IT infrastructure. Listed here are major technologies and suppliers for each component. FIGURE 5-9 5.12  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Infrastructure Components Computer hardware platforms – Client machines Desktop PCs, mobile devices—PDAs, laptops – Servers Blade servers: ultrathin computers stored in racks – Mainframes: IBM mainframe equivalent to thousands of blade servers – Top chip producers: AMD, Intel, IBM – Top firms: IBM, HP, Dell, Sun Microsystems 5.13  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Infrastructure Components Operating system platforms – Operating systems Server level: 65% run Unix or Linux; 35% run Windows Client level: – 90% run Microsoft Windows (XP, 2000, CE, etc.) – Mobile/multitouch (Android, iOS) – Cloud computing (Google’s Chrome OS) Enterprise software applications – Enterprise application providers: SAP and Oracle – Middleware providers: BEA Software that acts as a bridge between an operating system or database and applications, especially on a network 5.14  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Infrastructure Components Data and storage – Database software: IBM (DB2), Oracle, Microsoft (SQL Server), Sybase (Adaptive Server Enterprise), MySQL – Physical data storage: EMC Corp (large-scale systems), Seagate, Maxtor, Western Digital – Storage area networks (SANs): Connect multiple storage devices on dedicated network 5.15  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Infrastructure Components Networking/Telecommunications platforms – Telecommunication services Telecommunications, cable, telephone company charges for voice lines and Internet access AT&T, Verizon – Network operating systems: Windows Server, Linux, Unix – Network hardware providers: Cisco, Alcatel-Lucent, Nortel, Juniper Networks 5.16  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Infrastructure Components Internet platforms – Hardware, software, services to support company Web sites, (including Web-hosting services) intranets, extranets – Internet hardware server market: IBM, Dell, Sun (Oracle), HP – Web development tools/suites: Microsoft (Visual Basic.NET, Visual C#) Oracle-Sun (Java), Adobe, Real Networks 5.17  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Infrastructure Components Consulting and system integration services – Even large firms do not have resources for full range of support for new, complex infrastructure – Software integration: ensuring new infrastructure works with legacy systems – Legacy systems: older TPS created for mainframes that would be too costly to replace or redesign – Accenture, IBM Global Services, EDS, Infosys, Wipro 5.18  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Contemporary Hardware Platform Trends The mobile digital platform – Cell phones, smartphones (iPhone, Android, and Blackberry) Data transmission, Web surfing, e-mail, and Instant Messaging duties – Netbooks: Small lightweight notebooks optimized for wireless communication and core tasks – Tablets (iPad) – Networked e-readers (Kindle and Nook) 5.19  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Contemporary Hardware Platform Trends BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) – Allowing employees to use personal mobile devices in workplace – But, along with bringing their own devices, employees are bringing a new set of problems to the doorstep of their organization’s IT department Consumerization of IT – New information technology emerges in consumer markets first and spreads to business organizations – Forces businesses and IT departments to rethink how IT equipment and services are acquired and managed 5.20  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Contemporary Hardware Platform Trends Grid computing – Connects geographically remote computers into a single network to combine processing power and create virtual supercomputer – Provides cost savings, speed, agility Virtualization – Allows single physical resource to act as multiple resources (i.e., run multiple instances of OS) – Reduces hardware and power expenditures – Facilitates hardware centralization 5.21  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Contemporary Hardware Platform Trends Virtualization (cont.) The benefits businesses enjoy from using virtualization: Increase equipment utilization rates Conserve data center space and energy usage Require fewer computers and servers Combine legacy applications with newer applications Facilitate centralization and consolidation of hardware administration 5.22  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Contemporary Hardware Platform Trends Cloud computing – On-demand (utility) computing services obtained over network – Cloud computing is defined by five characteristics: On-demand self-service: Users can access computing capabilities whenever and wherever they are. Global network access: No special devices are necessary for accessing data or services. Location independent resource pooling: Users don’t need to be concerned about where the data are stored. Rapid elasticity: Computing resources expand and contract as necessary to serve users. Measured service: Users pay only for the computing capabilities actually used. 5.23  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Contemporary Hardware Platform Trends Cloud computing (cont.) Almost any type of computing device can access data and applications from these clouds through three types of services: Infrastructure as a service (IaaS): Allows customers to process and store data, and use networking and other resources available from the cloud. Platform as a service (PaaS): The service provider offers infrastructure and programming tools to customers so they can develop and test applications. Software as a service (SaaS): The vendor provides software programs on a subscription fee basis. 5.24  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Contemporary Hardware Platform Trends Cloud computing (cont.) Three kinds of clouds are available: Public cloud: Owned and operated by external service providers; accessed through the Internet; available to anyone; generally used for non-sensitive data. Private cloud: Proprietary system owned and operated by a specific company; based on virtualization; available only to users inside the company; generally used for sensitive financial and personal data. Hybrid cloud: Generally used by large corporations that store the most essential core activities on their own infrastructure and use the cloud for less-critical systems or additional processing capabilities. Benefits: Allows companies to minimize IT investments Drawbacks: Concerns of security, reliability 5.25  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Contemporary Hardware Platform Trends Green computing – Practices and technologies for manufacturing, using, disposing of computing and networking hardware – Reduces the impact on the environment High performance, power-saving processors – Multi-core processors Autonomic computing – Industry-wide effort to develop systems that can configure, heal themselves when broken, and protect themselves from outside intruders – Similar to self-updating antivirus software; Apple and Microsoft both use automatic updates 5.26  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Contemporary Software Platform Trends Open-Source software: – Produced by community of programmers – Free and modifiable by user – Examples: Apache web server, Mozilla Firefox browser, OpenOffice Linux – Open-source OS – Used in mobile devices, local area networks, Web servers, high-performance computing 5.27  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Contemporary Software Platform Trends Software for the Web – Java: Object-oriented programming language Operating system, processor-independent – HTML/HTML5 Web page description language Specifies how text, graphics are placed on Web page HTML5 is latest evolution – Includes animation and video processing functionality previously provided by third party add-ons such as Flash 5.28  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Contemporary Software Platform Trends Web Services – Software components that exchange information using Web standards and languages – XML: Extensible Markup Language More powerful and flexible than HTML Tagging allows computers to process data automatically 5.29  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Contemporary Software Platform Trends SOA: Service-oriented architecture – Set of self-contained services that communicate with each other to create a working software application – Software developers reuse these services in other combinations to assemble other applications as needed Example: an “invoice service” to serve whole firm for calculating and sending printed invoices – Example: Dollar Rent A Car Uses Web services to link online booking system with Southwest Airlines’ Web site 5.30  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies HOW DOLLAR RENT A CAR USES WEB SERVICES Dollar Rent A Car uses Web services to provide a standard intermediate layer of software to “talk” to other companies’ information systems. Dollar Rent A Car can use this set of Web services to link to other companies’ information systems without having to build a separate link to each firm’s systems. FIGURE 5-11 5.31  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Contemporary Software Platform Trends Software outsourcing and cloud services – Three external sources for software: Software packages and enterprise software Software outsourcing – Contracting outside firms to develop software Cloud-based software services – Software as a service (SaaS) – Accessed with Web browser over Internet – Service Level Agreements (SLAs): formal agreement with service providers 5.32  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Contemporary Software Platform Trends Software outsourcing and cloud services (cont.) – Mashups Combinations of two or more online applications, such as combining mapping software (Google Maps) with store locator of shopping site – Apps Small pieces of software that run on the Internet, on your computer, or on your cell phone – iPhone, Android Generally delivered over the Internet 5.33  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Issues Dealing with platform and infrastructure change – As firms shrink or grow, IT needs to be flexible and scalable – Scalability: Ability to expand to serve larger number of users – For mobile computing and cloud computing New policies and procedures for managing these new platforms Contractual agreements with firms running clouds and distributing software required 5.34  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Issues Management and Governance – Who controls IT infrastructure? – How should IT department be organized? Centralized – Central IT department makes decisions Decentralized – Business unit IT departments make own decisions 5.35  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 5: IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies Issues Making wise infrastructure investments – Amount to spend on IT is complex question Rent vs. buy, cloud computing Outsourcing – Total cost of ownership (TCO) model Analyzes direct and indirect costs Hardware, software account for only about 20% of TCO Other costs: Installation, training, support, maintenance, infrastructure, downtime, space, and energy – TCO can be reduced Use of cloud services, greater centralization and standardization of hardware and software resources 5.36  Chapter 6 Foundations of Business Intelligence: Databases and Information Management  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence Learning Objectives Describe how the problems of managing data resources in a traditional file environment are solved by a database system. Describe the capabilities and value of a database system. Apply important database design principles. Evaluate tools and technologies for accessing information from databases to improve business performance and decision making. Assess the role of information policy, data administration, and data quality assurance in the of firm’s data resources. 6.2  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence Organizing Data in a Traditional File Environment File organization concepts – Database: Group of related files – File: Group of records of same type – Record: Group of related fields Describes an entity (person, place, thing on which we store information) – Field: Group of characters as word(s) or number Attribute: Each characteristic, or quality, describing entity – Example: Attributes DATE or GRADE belong to entity COURSE 6.3  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence THE DATA HIERARCHY A computer system organizes data in a hierarchy that starts with the bit, which represents either a 0 or a 1. Bits can be grouped to form a byte to represent one character, number, or symbol. Bytes can be grouped to form a field, and related fields can be grouped to form a record. Related records can be collected to form a file, and related files can be organized into a database. FIGURE 6-1 6.4  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence Organizing Data in a Traditional File Environment Problems with the traditional file environment (files maintained separately by different departments) – Data redundancy: Presence of duplicate data in multiple files – Data inconsistency: Same attribute has different values – Program-data dependence: When changes in program requires changes to data accessed by program – Lack of flexibility – Poor security – Lack of data sharing and availability 6.5  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence TRADITIONAL FILE PROCESSING The use of a traditional approach to file processing encourages each functional area in a corporation to develop specialized applications. Each application requires a unique data file that is likely to be a subset of the master file. These subsets of the master file lead to data redundancy and inconsistency, processing inflexibility, and wasted storage resources. FIGURE 6-2 6.6  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence The Database Approach to Data Management Database – Serves many applications by centralizing data and controlling redundant data Database Management System (DBMS) – Interfaces between applications and physical data files – Separates logical and physical views of data – Solves problems of traditional file environment Controls redundancy Eliminates inconsistency Uncouples programs and data Enables organization to central manage data and data security 6.7  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence HUMAN RESOURCES DATABASE WITH MULTIPLE VIEWS A single human resources database provides many different views of data, depending on the information requirements of the user. Illustrated here are two possible views, one of interest to a benefits specialist and one of interest to a member of the company’s payroll department. FIGURE 6-3 6.8  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence The Database Approach to Data Management Relational DBMS – Represent data as two-dimensional tables – Each table contains data on entity and attributes Table: grid of columns and rows – Rows (tuples): Records for different entities – Fields (columns): Represents attribute for entity – Key field: Field used to uniquely identify each record – Primary key: Field in table used for key fields – Foreign key: Primary key used in second table as look-up field to identify records from original table 6.9  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence Relational Database Tables A relational database organizes data in the form of two- dimensional tables. Illustrated here are tables for the entities SUPPLIER and PART showing how they represent each entity and its attributes. Supplier Number is a primary key for the SUPPLIER table and a foreign key for the PART table. FIGURE 6-4 6.10  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence The Database Approach to Data Management Operations of a Relational DBMS – Three basic operations used to develop useful sets of data SELECT: Creates subset of data of all records that meet stated criteria JOIN: Combines relational tables to provide user with more information than available in individual tables PROJECT: Creates subset of columns in table, creating tables with only the information specified 6.11  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence THE THREE BASIC OPERATIONS OF A RELATIONAL DBMS The select, join, and project operations enable data from two different tables to be FIGURE 6-5 combined and only selected attributes to be displayed. 6.12  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence EXAMPLE OF AN SQL QUERY FIGURE 6-7 Illustrated here are the SQL statements for a query to select suppliers for parts 137 or 150. They produce a list with the same results as Figure 6-5. 6.13  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence The Database Approach to Data Management Entity-relationship diagram (ERD) – Used by database designers to document the data model – Illustrates relationships between entities – Caution: If a business doesn't get data model right, system wont be able to serve business well 6.14  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence AN ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAM FIGURE 6-11 This diagram shows the relationships between the entities SUPPLIER, PART, LINE_ITEM, and ORDER that might be used to model the database in Figure 6-10. 6.15  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence Using Databases to Improve Business Performance and Decision Making Big data Massive sets of unstructured/semi-structured data from Web traffic, social media, sensors, and so on Petabytes (1015), exabytes (1018) of data Volumes too great for typical DBMS Can reveal more patterns and anomalies 6.16  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence Using Databases to Improve Business Performance and Decision Making Business intelligence infrastructure – Today includes an array of tools for separate systems, and big data Contemporary tools: – Data warehouses – Data marts – Hadoop – In-memory computing – Analytical platforms 6.17  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence Using Databases to Improve Business Performance and Decision Making Data warehouse: – Stores current and historical data from many core operational transaction systems – Consolidates and standardizes information for use across enterprise, but data cannot be altered – Provides analysis and reporting tools Data marts: – Subset of data warehouse – Summarized or focused portion of data for use by specific population of users – Typically focuses on single subject or line of business 6.18  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence Using Databases to Improve Business Performance and Decision Making Hadoop – Enables distributed parallel processing of big data across inexpensive computers – Key services Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS): data storage MapReduce: breaks data into clusters for work Hbase: NoSQL database – Used by Facebook, Yahoo, NextBio 6.19  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence COMPONENTS OF A DATA WAREHOUSE A contemporary business intelligence infrastructure features capabilities and tools to manage and analyze large quantities and different types of data from multiple sources. Easy-to-use query and reporting tools for casual business users and more sophisticated analytical toolsets for power users are included. FIGURE 6-12 6.20  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence Using Databases to Improve Business Performance and Decision Making In-memory computing – Used in big data analysis – Use computers main memory (RAM) for data storage to avoid delays in retrieving data from disk storage – Can reduce hours/days of processing to seconds – Requires optimized hardware (parallel processing) Analytic platforms – High-speed platforms using both relational and non- relational tools optimized for large datasets 6.21  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence Using Databases to Improve Business Performance and Decision Making Analytical tools: Relationships, Patterns, Trends – Tools for consolidating, analyzing, and providing access to vast amounts of data to help users make better business decisions Multidimensional data analysis or online analytical processing (OLAP) Data Mining Text Mining Web Mining 6.22  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence Using Databases to Improve Business Performance and Decision Making Online analytical processing (OLAP) – Supports multidimensional data analysis Viewing data using multiple dimensions Each aspect of information (product, pricing, cost, region, time period) is different dimension Example: How many washers sold in East in June compared with other regions? – OLAP enables rapid, online answers to ad hoc queries 6.23  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence Using Databases to Improve Business Performance and Decision Making Data Mining: – Finds hidden patterns, relationships in datasets Example: customer buying patterns – Infers rules to predict future behavior – Types of information obtainable from data mining: Associations: Determine occurrences linked to a single event Sequences: Determine events that are linked over time Classification: Discover characteristics of customers and make predictions about their behavior Clustering: Discover groups within data Forecasting: Use existing values to forecast what other values will be 6.24  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence Using Databases to Improve Business Performance and Decision Making Text Mining – Extracts key elements from large unstructured data sets Stored e-mails Call center transcripts Legal cases Patent descriptions Service reports, and so on – Sentiment analysis software Mines e-mails, blogs, social media to detect opinions 6.25  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence Using Databases to Improve Business Performance and Decision Making Web Mining – Discovery and analysis of useful patterns and information from Web – Understand customer behavior – Evaluate effectiveness of Web site, and so on – Web content mining Mines content of Web pages – Web structure mining Analyzes links to and from Web page – Web usage mining Mines user interaction data recorded by Web server 6.26  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence Using Databases to Improve Business Performance and Decision Making Databases and the Web – Many companies use Web to make some internal databases available to customers or partners – Typical configuration includes: Web server Application server/middleware/Common Gateway Interface (CGI) scripts Database server (hosting DBMS) – Advantages of using Web for database access: Ease of use of browser software Web interface requires few or no changes to database Inexpensive to add Web interface to system 6.27  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence Managing Data Resources Establishing an information policy – Firm’s rules, procedures, roles for sharing, managing, standardizing data – Data administration Establishes policies and procedures to manage data – Data governance Deals with policies and processes for managing availability, usability, integrity, and security of data, especially regarding government regulations – Database administration Creating and maintaining database 6.28  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence Managing Data Resources Ensuring data quality – More than 25% of critical data in Fortune 1000 company databases are inaccurate or incomplete – Redundant data – Inconsistent data – Faulty input – Before new database in place, need to: Identify and correct faulty data Establish better routines for editing data once database in operation 6.29  Foundations of Information Systems Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence Managing Data Resources Data quality audit: – Structured survey of the accuracy and level of completeness of the data in an information system Survey samples from data files, or Survey end users for perceptions of quality Data cleansing – Software to detect and correct data that are incorrect, incomplete, improperly formatted, or redundant – Enforces consistency among different sets of data from separate information systems 6.30