Introduction to Western Philosophy PDF

INTRODUCTION TO WESTERN PHILOSOPHY lesson one - hwp Philosophy - Greek roots: Philo (love) Sophia (wisdom) : love of wisdom - The knowledge of things in general by their ultimate causes, so far as natural reason can attain such knowledge - Philo...

INTRODUCTION TO WESTERN PHILOSOPHY lesson one - hwp Philosophy - Greek roots: Philo (love) Sophia (wisdom) : love of wisdom - The knowledge of things in general by their ultimate causes, so far as natural reason can attain such knowledge - Philosophy is the MOTHER of all disciplines - Phusis: investigation regarding the nature of things in general Branches of Philosophy ETHICS Concerned with the study of morality AESTHETICS Beauty and art LOGIC The art of reasoning METAPHYSICS Nature of reality and existence EPISTEMOLOGY Truth and knowledge THEODICY God and the problem of evil AESTHETICS - Concerned with beauty and art - Some questions in aesthetics: What is art? Can art be political? LOGIC - Concerned with the art of correct thinking - Helps in arriving at clear, correct, valid, and consistent answers to questions - Some topics in logic: argument validity, argument soundness, fallacies METAPHYSICS - Concerned with the nature of reality and existence - The study of reality or what is real - Some questions in metaphysics: Are we free? Does God Exist? Epistemology - Concerned with the nature of truth and knowledge  - Answers the question, how do we know? - It encompasses the nature of concepts, the construction of concepts, the validity of the senses, logical reasoning, as well as thoughts, ideas, memories, emotions, and all things mental. - The study of knowledge and what we know Ethics - Concerned with the study of morality - Answers the question, what do I do? - Study of right and wrong in human endeavors Theodicy - Attempts to answer the fundamental question in relation to God and the problem of evil - According to Gottfried Leibniz, theodicy is an attempt to justify God’s existence in light of the apparent imperfections of the world. Western Philosophy - It began in Ionia (particularly in Miletus) in the sixth century BC - Has enormous historical importance in the development of what is today called “the West” and “modernity” - Four notable periods: ancient, medieval, modern, post-modern Period Years Focus Ancient (Cosmocentric) 600 BCE to 600 AD Creation / Universe Medieval (Theocentric) 600 AD to 1600 God Modern (Antropocentric) 1600 to 1900 Man Post Modern 1900 - Present Decentralization (Global Philo) East and West  THE PRE-SOCRATICS lesson two - hwp Pre-Scientific World - World before philosophy - Before philosophical and scientific inquiry, poetry was held to be the sole standard of truth. - Stories about gods and goddesses predominate the belief in the reality. - Mythological understanding of the reality - Homer: famous blind poet in Ionia - Convinced that fate and destiny rule and reign the world - Hesiod: Depicts reality as moral order First Generation Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes Second Generation Heraclitus, Pythagoras, Parmenides, Zeno Third Generation Empedocles, Anaxagoras, The Atomists IONIAN PHILOSOPHERS - They are concerned with the “urstoff/arkhe,” or the element that is the beginning of things - They arrive at their conclusions through speculative reasoning (use of pure thought) - Through abstract materialism, they understand the unity of material reality. - They are materialists because they try to explain the origin of all things out of some material element. Thales (624 to 546 BC) - The progenitor of philosophy (first philosopher) - He is considered as the father of philosophy since he signifies the point of transition from myth to science and philosophy. - First to find the Unity in Difference. - Believes that the primary stuff or the ustroff of the universe is water and it is a divine object (because of moist) - “All things are full of God” Anaximander (547 BC) - An associate of Thales, according to Theophrastus  - The first one to create a map of the black sea - Believes that the primary element is the apeiron because it is something that is indeterminate and boundless Anaximenes (585 to 528 BC) - A student of Anaximander - Believes that the urstoff is air - Argues that the arkhe should not be indeterminate - Introduces the notion of condensation and rarefaction THE PYTHAGOREAN SOCIETY - They are the members of a religious society of community, which Pythagoras founded. - According to them, all things are, and we can express many things numerically. - To the Pythagorean, not only was the earth spherical, but it was not the center of the universe. Heraclitus (540 - 484 BC) - He shifts his attention to the “problem of change” - “All things are in a state of flux” - “You cannot step twice into the same river, for fresh waters are ever flowing in upon you” - Believes that the reality is consists of unity in diversity, difference in unity - His philosophy aligns more with the idea of the concrete universal: the one is reality, and the one is always many. - Introduced the concept of fire, Logos, and God - According to him, the essence of all things is fire ELEATICS PHILOSOPHERS Parmenides (515 - 450 BC) - Being, the One, is, and that Becoming, change, is an illusion - We can denote that his philosophy is monistic materialism - Believes that there is only one reality and one principle that explains this reality - Father of Idealism - According to him, reality exists, and it is determinate, finite. Zeno (495 to 430 BC) - Paradoxes - Disciple of Parmenidess - Master of arguments related to reductio ad absurdum (reduction to absurdity) or reductio ad impossible (reduction to the impossible) arguments. - Denied the existence of the void of empty space - Arguments concerning motion: For example, Even though Achilles is super near to the tortoise, he can’t overtake it. Because if nasa point A na siya, the tortoise will be at point B already. In order for him to overtake the tortoise, he would have to transverse an infinite distance with an infinite number of points Empedocles (490 to 430 BC) - Believes the beings cannot arise or pass away. - The matter is without beginning and without end: indestructible - Urstoff: air, water, earth, and fire (it cannot be destroyed) - The connection of the four elements is the concept of love and attraction - The separation of the four elements is called the strife or hate Anaxagoras (500 to 428 BC) - There are no indivisible particles; all kinds were mingled together in the beginning. - “In everything, there is a portion of everything” - Introduced the idea of nous or mind - Nous is present in all things, and it is the primitive element - It has the power over all things that have life both greater and smaller - It is infinite and self-ruled and is mixed with nothing but is alone, itself by itself. - Thinnest of all things but purer than other material things. THE ATOMISTS - Its founder was said to be Leusippus. However, many scholars believe that he did not really exist. - Most of their philosophy is from Democritus - Believes that there are an infinite number of indivisible units called atoms - Atoms are too small to be perceived by the senses but differ in size and shape. - They attempt to give a complete explanation of the world in terms of mechanical materialism  THE PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY - Centers around the problem of the One and the many - The goal is to know the arkhe or urstoff - Early Greek philosophers are called cosmologists because they enquire about the nature of the cosmos - They want to know what is something that is constant - They arrive at their conclusions through speculative reasons  THE SOCRATIC PERIOD lesson two - hwp Sophism - Deals with the man and the civilization - They use the empirico-inductive method - Making a conclusion based on repeated observations and experiences. - Practical - Aimed at teaching, and they accept payments Protagoras (481 BC) - He was entrusted with the task of drawing up a constitution for the Panhellenic colony of Thurii in 444 BC - According to Diogenes Lafirtius, Protagoras was accused of blasphemy because of his book on the gods, but he escaped from the city before trial and was drowned on the crossing to Sicily - “Man is the measure of all things, of those that are that they are, of those that are not that they are not” - Pioneer in the study and science of grammar Prodicus of Ceos - Came from the island of Ceos in the Aegean - He wrote a treatise on synonyms - Argued that death is desirable to escape the evils of life. Fear of death is irrational Gorgias (483 to 375 BC) - In the year 427 he came to Athens as an ambassador of Leontini in order to ask for help against Syracuse - He was then led to skepticism by the dialect Zeno and published a book entitled On Not being - Philosophical nihilism - Nothing exists. - Even if something exists, it cannot be known. - Even if it can be known, it cannot be communicated - Rhetorical art is the mastery of the art of persuasion - The art of justifiable deception: emphasis is on the effectiveness of persuasion rather than the truthfulness of the content. Thrasymachus - Known as the Sophist, who argues that might makes right or justice serves the interest of the stronger and not the weaker - Reducing morality to power Socrates (470 to 399 BC) - The last days of Socrates can be found in the four dialogues of Plato: Euthypro, Apology, Crito, and Phaedo - Anaxagoras' ideas influenced Socrates, especially his emphasis on a rational order in nature. - “All I know is I know nothing” - Integrated the inductive arguments and universal definitions - Universal definitions are fixed concepts. The definitions stand fast and remain the same. - “The unexamined life is not worth living” - According to him knowledge and virtue are one. He who knows what is right will also do what is right - Inductive arguments are in the form of dialect  PLATO lesson four- hwp Plato’s life - Born at Athens (or Aegina) most probably in the year 428/7 BC - Father: Ariston Mother: Perictione - Have been originally called Aristocles He was present at the trial of Socrates and he urged him to increase his fine from one to thirty minae. After the death of Socrated, Plato withdrew to Megara and lived with Euclid but also soon returned to Athens. The death of socrates made him question the justice system. The Academy - Founded the Academy near the sanctuary of the hero Academus - First Europen university - Plato believe that the best training for public life is the pursuit of science for its own sake Plato’s Works I. Socratic Period Apology Socrates’ defense at his trial Crito Socrates as a good citizen Euthyphron Socrates awaits for his trial for impiety Laches On courage. No Result Ion Against the poets and rhapsodists Protagoras Virtue is knowledge and can be taught Charmides On temperance. No result Lysis On Friendship. Republic Journey  II. Transition Period Gorgias The practical politician Meno Teachability of virtue Euthydemus Againts logical fallacies Hippias I On the beautiful Hippias II Is it better to do wrong voluntarily or involuntarily Cratylus Theory of language Menexenus A parody on rhetoric III. Period of Maturity Symposium All earthly beauty is but as shadow of true beauty to which the soul aspires Phaedo Ideas and immortality Republic The state Phaedrus Nature of love IV. Worl of Old Age Theatetus Knowledge is not sense-perception or true judgement Parmenides Defense of ideal theory against criticism Sophists Theory of ideas against considered Politicus The true ruler is the knower Philebus Relation of pleasure to good Timaeus Natural science Critias Ideal agrarian state contrasted Law and Epinomis Plato makes concessions to real life  Aristotle lesson five - hwp Life of Aristotle - Was born in 384/3 BC at Stageira in Thrace - The son of Nicomachus, physician of the Macedonian king - At 17 years old he went to Athens to study and become a member of the academy - Got invited to Pella by Philip of Macedon to undertake the education of his son Alexander - When he returned to Athens he founded his own school. Aristotle and Plato - Plato’s metaphysics and religious teaching had a lasting influence for Aristotle - They both are convinced that the universe is the object of science Metaphysics - Science of first principles or first causes - Wisdom par excellence - The lover of wisdom is he who desires knowledge about the ultimate cause and nature of reality and desires that knowledge for its own sake - Wisdom is the first principle and causes of things - Aristotle argues that if there is an unchangeable substance, then metaphysics studies unchangeable substance - Metaphysics is concerned with being Being - It is the substance that is composed of matter and form - Every substance has its essence and existence Every substance has it telos or the end, purpose or function, When a substance has this three, it achieves its own good. The Unmoved Mover - God - There must be a first mover which causes change without itself being changed, without having potentiality. - The first mover is pure act, immaterial and has materiality involves the possibility of being acten upon and changed. Aristotle’s Ethics - Teleological - Happiness is the end of life Virtue - Virtue leads to Eudamonia - Intellectual virtues: conducive to certain kinds of knowledge - Moral virtue: involves activities that leads to well-being - Mean state, does not exhibit excess - Practical wisdom: ability to see what is right to do in the circumstances The Concept of Justice - Universal justice: equivalent to obedience to law. Social aspect - Particular justice: - Distributive: the state divides goods among its citizens - Remedial Justice: proceeds according to arithmetical proportion Friends as Self-love - In friendship a man is loving himself - Books eight and nine - A man’s relationship to his friends are the same as his relation to himself, since the friend is a second self - Friendship of utility: lowest level of friendship - They do not love their friends for what they are, they only take advantage of them - Friendship of pleasure: When the motive of the friendship is gone, the friendship is destroyed - Friendships of the good: perfect friendship Aristotle believed that reason (or rationality) distinguishes humans from other animals. He saw reason as the highest human faculty, enabling us to contemplate truths, make decisions based on knowledge, and pursue virtue. For Aristotle, living a good life, or eudaimonia, involves using reason to develop virtues such as courage, justice, and wisdom. Reason helps us understand the world, make ethical choices, and fulfill our potential as rational beings