History of Ethiopia and the Horn Unit Two Note PDF

SHORT NOTE BY ETEIL TUTORIAL HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN UNIT TWO  UNIT TWO Peoples and Cultures In Ethiopia and the Horn The Region Ethiopia and the Horn is referred to as the cradle of humankind. It is also a region where early civilizations including food production...

SHORT NOTE BY ETEIL TUTORIAL HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN UNIT TWO  UNIT TWO Peoples and Cultures In Ethiopia and the Horn The Region Ethiopia and the Horn is referred to as the cradle of humankind. It is also a region where early civilizations including food production, making tools and religion took place.  2.1 HUMAN EVOLUTION Human evolution accounts 4.5 billion years before present (B. P.) The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1 billion years B. P. The bule green algae , small plants , fishes , birds and other small beings emerged at 800 million years B. P. Primates branched of placental mammal stream as of 200-170 million years B. P. some primates developed into Pongidae (such as gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan , gibbon etc) while others evolved into Hominidae (human ancestors). Archeological evidences suggest that East African Rift Valley is a cradle of humanity. Evidences related to both biological and cultural evolution have been discovered in the Lower Omo and Middle Awash River valleys both by Ethiopian and foreign scholars.  Fossils A fossil named Chororapithecus dated 10 million B. P. It was discovered in Anchar (in West Hararghe) in 2007. Ardipithicus ramiduskadabba (dated 5.8 - 5.2 million years B.P) was discovered in Middle Awash. Ardipithicus ramidus (dated 4. 2 million B.P.) was discovered at Aramis in Afar in 1994. Australopithecines were discovered at Belohdelie (dated back 3.6 million years B. P) in Middle Awash. A three years old child’s fossil termed as Australopithecusafarensis (Selam) dated to 3.3 million years B.P was also discovered at Afar in 2000. Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh , dated 3.18 million years B. P ) with 40% complete body parts, weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters and pelvis looks like bipedal female was discovered at Hadar in Afar in 1974 A. D.  Development of human being The development of the human brain was to be the main feature of the next stage of human evolution, which produced the genus Homo believed to have emerged 2 - 2.5 million years B.P Homo habilis - which is derived from Latin terms "Homo" (human being) and "Habilis" (skillful use of hands), dated 1.9 million years B. P and found in the Lower Omo. Homo erectus - Walking upright, dated 1. 6 million years B. P was discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso , Gardula and Gadeb with 900-1100 cc brain size. It seems to have originated in Africa and then spread out to the rest of the world. Archaic Homo sapiens knowledgeable human being, dated 400, 000 years B.P named Bodo with brain size of 1300-1400cc was discovered in Middle Awash. Homo sapiens sapiens ( dated 100,000 B.P ) were discovered at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa, and Kibish around Lower Omo ( in 1967 ).  CULTURAL EVOLUTION Cultural evolution is related to technological changes that brought socio - economic transformation on human life. This grouped in to stone age , Bronze age , Iron age Stone tools had been the first technologies to be developed by human beings Stone tools grouped in to three Mode I - called olduwan , named based on the first report made at Olduvai Gorge Janzania. Characterized by crude and Mono facial style and produced by the direct Percussion. Mode II - called Acheulean , named after the first report at st. Acheul , France Characterized by bifacial , ponited and convex features and produced by indirect percussion by using hand - ax or hammer. Mode III - called Sangoon , characterized by flexible and finest form of production by the use of obsidian Example - Fossilized animal bones which is 3.4 million years old found with stone tool at Dikika in 2010. Artifact suggest that olduwan tools made and used by Homo habilis dated 2.25 million years B.p Homo erectus produced Acheulean tools dated back to 1.7 million years B.p Homo sapiens produce Sangoon tools that trace back to 300,000 years B.p Godemtoa site in central Ethiopia Rift Valley has been dated back to 200,000 years B.p.  Sub - Period of stone age The period usage of stone tools divide in sub periods 1. Paleolithic ( old stone age ) - from 3.4 million up to 11,000 years A period human being developed language with shelter in cave using stone , bone , wood , furs and skin Materials to prepare Food and clothing. There are six age labour division with able bodied males as hunter of fauna and children ,females as gatherers of flora. 2. Mesolithic ( Middle stone age ) - from 11,000 up to 10,000 years It was a Transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic. 3. Neolithic ( New stone age ) - from 10,000 up to 6,000 years  2.2 NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION During the Neolithic period human beings transformed from mobile to sedentary way of life. This was a radical shift involving changes from hunting and gathering to the domestication of plants and animals. The process of domestication took place independently in the various parts of the world. In Ethiopia and the Horn chiefly in the more elevated and wetter-parts, people cultivated plants including Teff (Eragrotis teff), dagussa (Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia abyssinica), enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc. The domestication of enset plant (Enseteedule) reduced shifting cultivation (continuous clearing of new plots), slowing down soil exhaustion. 2.3.1 LANGUAGES AND LINGUISTIC PROCESS Ethiopia and the Horn in general is marked by ethnic and linguistic diversity. There are about 90 languages with 200 dialects in Ethiopia and the Horn , there is some degree of unity Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into two major language super families. These are Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Sahara A. Afro-Asiatic : this super family is sub-divided into Three families. 1. Cushitic - divided in to Northern , Central , Eastern , Southern 2. Semitic - divide in to Northern , Southern (Transverse and Outer) 3. Omotic B. Nilo saharan  AFRO ASIATIC AND NILO SAHARAN 1. Cushitic :- divide in to Four A. Northern - represented by beja , Spoken in North West Eritra B. Central - Agew includs Awign , kunfel , Qimant and Bilen C. Eastern - Afar , Burji , Gedeo , Hadiya , Halaba , kambata , Konso , Oromo , Sidamo , Somali , Tambaro D. Southern - represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania 2. Semitic - divided in Two A. Northern - Geez , Rashaida ( in Eritrea - Sudanese border ) , Tigre ( Eritrea low land ) , Tigrigna ( high land Eritrea and Tigray ) B. Southern - divide in to Two Transverse - Amharic , Argoba , Harari and Zay Outer - Gafat (extinct) , Gurage and Mesmes ( endangered ) Omotic - Anfilo , Boro , Banna , shinasha , Dawuro , Dorze , Gamo , Gofa , Hamer , keficho , karo , sheko , wolayta , yem e.t.c Ometo includes wolayta and Gamo while main Gonga is keficho B. Nilo Saharan - Anywa , Berta , Gumuz , komo , kunama , mursi , Nara , opo , Shabo e.t.c Language Classification didn't remain static , because it have different Factros like population Movements , trade , religious and territorial expansion , Urbanization. 2.3.2 SETTLEMENT PATTERNS Settlement pattern is the results of long historical processes in northeast Africa. Based on historical linguistic and history of inter-peoples relations, studies indicate that environmental, socio-economic, and political processes significantly shaped and reshaped the spatial distribution of peoples in the region. Since early times,the Cushitic and Semitic peoples had inhabited the area between the Red Sea in the east and Blue Nile in the west from where they dispersed to different directions. In due course, the Cushites have evolved to be the largest linguistic group in Ethiopia and the Horn and have also spread over wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania. Similarly, the Semitic peoples spread over large area and eventually settled the northern, north central, northeastern, south central and eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. The Semites are the second majority people next to the Cushites.  2.3.3 Economic Formations Domestication of plants and animals gave humanity two independent modes of life : Agriculture and Pastoralism A predominantly pastoral economy has characterized the eastern lowland region since early periods. Pastoral economy namely the production of camel, goat, and cattle has been the most common economic practice among the Afar, Saho and Somali as well as Karayu and Borana Oromo. Majority of the populations were engaged in mixed farming. It is here that sedentary agriculture had been started and advanced at least since 10, 000 years B. P. by the Cushites , Semites and Omotic group. South omo have predominantly practiced pastoralism and fishing , many omotic groups have also been famous in metallurgy , weaving and crafts western lowland region, the dominant economic formations were pastoralism, shifting agriculture, fishing , apiculture and hunting The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo Rivers have been shifting cultivators where sorghum has been a staple food. Among Nilotic communities , cattle have high economic and social values Sorghum , Millet , Cotton and others are largely Cultivated in low lands along ethio sudanese border.  2.4.1 Indigenous Religion This includes a variety of religious beliefs and practices, which are native to the region and have been followed by the local people since ancient times. A distinctive mark of indindigenos religion is belief in one Supreme Being , but special powers are attributed to natural phenomena, which are considered sacred.  Oromos Indigenous religion Waqeffanna of the Oromo is based on the existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa. Waqa's power is manifested through thespirits called Ayyana. There is also a belief that the dead exist in the form of a ghost called Ekera In the autumn and spring seasons every year at the edge of ever-flowing river and top of mountain respectively, there is thanks giving festival called Irrecha. Revered experts known as Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female) have maintained link between the Ayyana and the belivers. Qallu ritual house is called Galma located on hilltopbor in the grove of large trees. Abba Muda had turban surrirufa of tri-colors: black at top , red at center and white at bottom representing those in pre - active life, active (luba) and those in post-active life respectively.  Hadiya The supreme being is known as Waa Who is believed to exist before everything (hundam issancho) or create world (qoccancho) and whose eyes are represented by elincho (sun) and agana (moon) One of Hadiya's clans, Worqimene, is believed to have the power to send rain in drought. This indigenous religion was largly followed by inhabitants of Boshana , misha e.t.c  Kambata The supreme being called Gedeo Religious officials called Magnancho and had thanks giving ceremony called Deraro. So’ala clan was considered as the top in religious duties as it was in charge of Shashokam (the most vital deity). Religious functions were performed through couriers in each village called Magos.  Wolayta The Wolayta called God Tosa. Annual worship spirits was performed at a sacred place called Mitta usually at the end of May and beginning of June to offer sacrifice of the first fruits called Teramo or Pageta. People gathered around the tree called Dongowa If they made error in respecting custom , they would anoint their bodies with a leaf called Aydameta ( ground red pepper )  Keficho Supreme being as Yero and the spirit as Eqo A person who hosts Eqo is known as Alamo or eke nayo. Father of all spirits is Dochi or Dehe tateno The Harvest spirit is called kollo and sacrifice to it is dejo. Earth and area spirits are known as showe koll and Dube baro respectively.  Boro shinasha Belive in super natural power called Iqa , which create everything and presides over the universe The indigenous religion elements prescribe praying for the prevention of drought, flooding, erosion, disease and starvation within the community and their surrounding environment. Among various prayer rituals, the first is Gure Shuka for preservation of their locality through slaughtering animals by calling the name of God being at the tip of the mountains. The second is Shode De’na , praying and slaughtering when unexpected disease happens. The third is Marrowa Shuka slaughtering for children to grow without disease and to prevent children from evil spirits attack; for rehabilitation of wealth; to promote harmonious way of life and productivities in the family. The rituals are led by recognized elders, whose pray and bless are trusted to reach God among the three clans: Enoro, Endiwo and Dowa.  Nuer Believe in kuoth Nhial ( God in Heaven ) Believe in the coming of God through rain, lightning and thunder and rainbow is necklace of God. Sun , moon and other entities are also manifestation or sign of God. Believe that when a person dies , flesh is committed to earth while breath or life goes back to kouth or soul that signifies human personality remain alive as a shadow or a reflection and departs together with ox sacrificed to place of ghosts. The indigenous religions are fused with Christianity and Islam. This phenomenon of Mixing of religions is known as Syncretism.  Judaism Is considered as the expression of the covenant that Yahweh / Jehovah ( God ) Established with the ancient Jewish(Hebrew) It began to be clearly noticed in the 4th century Judaism has been followed in ethiopia and the horn by peoples since early times. Another group of Jews said to have been arrived to ethiopia by Azonos and phinhas in 6th century , still other said Jewish immigrants intermarried with the Agaws. Whatever the case , the jews apper to have been isolated from mainstream jewish for at least a Millennium. Jewish developed and lived for centuries in northern and northwestern ethiopia.  2.4.3 Christianity Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D. During the reign of King Ezana who dropped pre- Christian gods like Ares (sea god) and Midir (earth god), and embraced Christianity. Instrumental in conversion of the king were Syrian brothers, Aedesius and Frementius (Fremnatos). When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited Alexandria , Patriarch Atnatewos appointed him as the first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC). Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt continued until 1959 , when Abune Baslios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch. Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society in later part of fifth century by Nine saints The saints also translated Bible and other religious books into Geez. The expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period and chiefly gained fresh momentum during the early Medieval Period , when many churches and monasteries were constructed. These include Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela , Debra-Libanos in Shewa, Birbir Mariam in Gamo and Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar.  Islam When Prophet Mohammed started the teaching of Islam in Mecca in 610 A.D he faced opposition from the Quraysh rulers. The Prophet sent some of his early followers including his daughter Rukiya and her husband Uthman as well as the Prophet's future wives Umm Habiba and Umm Salma to Aksum. The first group of refuges was led by Jafar Abu Talib The Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham ( Ahmed al-Nejash in Arabic sources) accept the refuges. Leaders of the Quraysh asked Armah to repatriate the refugees, but the king did not comply. Armah is said to have replied, "If you were to offer me a mountain of gold I would not give up these people who have taken refuge with me.” Islam spread to the Horn of Africa not through Jihad, but through peaceful ways including trade. The Dahlak routeplayed a minor role in introduction of Islam in to the interior as Christianity was strongly entrenched as a state religion in Aksum and later states of northern Ethiopia and open proselytization of Islam was prohibited. The port of Zeila on western coast of Gulf of Aden served as an important gateway for the introduction of Islam mainly in to the present day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe. Sheikh Hussein of Bale, a Muslim saint of medieval period, played very important role in the expansion of Islam into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. Islam was introduced into Somali territories in 8th century A. D. through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu , Brava and Merca. END OF UNIT TWO THANKS FOR USING THIS NOTE SHORT NOTE SET BY ETIEL TUTORIALS