Human History in Ethiopia and the Horn PDF

UNIT TWO PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN Sub-topics - Introduction 2.1. Human Evolution 2.2. Neolithic Revolution 2.3. The Peopling of the Region 2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes 2.3.2. Settlement Patterns 2.3.3. Economic Formations 2.4. Religion and Rel...

UNIT TWO PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN Sub-topics - Introduction 2.1. Human Evolution 2.2. Neolithic Revolution 2.3. The Peopling of the Region 2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes 2.3.2. Settlement Patterns 2.3.3. Economic Formations 2.4. Religion and Religious Processes 2.4.1. Indigenous Religion 2.4.2. Judaism 2.4.3. Christianity 2.4.4. Islam  Introduction ❑ Ethiopia and the Horn Region is referred to as the cradle of humankind. ❑ It is also a region where early civilizations including food production, making tools and religious practices were initiated. ❑ These developments contributed to the social evolutions, economic formations, and socio-cultural and political settings. ❑ The region is home to diverse peoples, cultures and economic activities.  2.1. Human Evolution Kingdom - Animal Human evolution accounts only a fraction of history of Phylum - the globe that had been formed through gradual Chordates natural process since about (circa) 4. 5 billion years B. Class – P. Mammals The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1 billion Order – years B. P. Primates ▪ Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds and other small beings emerged at c. 800 million years B. P. Family – Hominids ▪ Primates branched of placental mammal stream as Genus – Homo of 200-170 million years B. P. ▪ Then some primates developed into: Species – ▪Pongidae (such as gorilla, chimpanzee, Homo orangutan, gibbon etc. Sapiens ▪Hominidae (human ancestors)  Archeological evidences suggest that East African Rift Valley is the cradle of humanity. Evidences related to both biological and cultural evolution have been discovered in - the Lower Omo and - Middle Awash River valleys  Some Archaeological Discoveries Fossil Name Age (mil. Place of Remarks Y.B.P. ) Discovery Chororapithecus 10 Anchar (West Discovered in Hararghe) 2007 Ardipithicus ramidus 5.8 - 5.2 Middle Awash kadabba Ardipithicus ramidus 4. 2 Aramis in Discovered in Afar 1994 Australopithecines 3.6 Middle 3 yrs. old Awash child’s fossil, Discovered in 2000 Australopithecus afarensis, 3.3 Dikika, Mille, 2000 Afar Selam Australopithecus afarnesis 3.18 Hadar in Afar Discovered in (Lucy/Dinknesh) 1974 Australopithecus Around Lake Turkana anamensis Bouri, Middle  Lucy (Dinknesh) - 40% complete body parts - 30kg weight - 1.07m. height - a pelvis looks like bipedal female - BY: Donald Johanson and Tom Gray Nov., 1974  Genus Homo The development of the human brain was the main feature of the next stage of human evolution, ▪Produced the genus Homo, believed to have emerged 2-2.5 million years B.P. Different evidences of the genus homo have been recovered in different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. Genus Homo: Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homosapiens Homo erectus seems to have originated in Africa and then spread out to the rest of the world.  Some archaeological discoveries of Genus Homo Genus Homo Age Place Remarks (B.P.) Homo habilis 1.9 mil. Lower Omo partial skull (skillful use of hands) Homo erectus 1. 6 mil. Melka Kunture, 900-1100 cc brain size. (walking upright) Konso Gardula & Gadeb Archaic Homosapiens 400, 000 Middle Awash brain size of 1300-1400cc (named Bodo) Homo sapiens sapiens 100, 000 Porc Epic near Dire In 2004, Kibish fossils were Dawa & re-dated to 195, 000 B. P. Kibish around (the oldest date in the Lower Omo (in 1967) world for modern Homo sapiens) Homo sapiens idaltu 160, 000 Middle Awash 1997  Cultural Evolution Cultural evolution is related to technological changes that brought socio-economic transformation on human life. It can be conventionally grouped into: 1. Stone Age 2. Bronze Age 3. Iron Age Stone tools had been the first technologies to be developed by human beings.  By taking their features, ways and period of production, stone tools can be grouped into: ▪ Mode I: (Olduwan, which was named based on the first report made at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania) ▪ Mode II: (Acheulean, named after the first report at St. Acheul, France) ▪ Mode III: (Sangoon)  Characteristics Mode I stone tools are mainly characterized by crude and mono-facial styles, and were produced by the direct percussion. Mode II stone tools were produced by indirect percussion, by using hand-ax or hammer, and mainly characterized by bifacial, pointed and convex features. Mode III stone tools are characterized by flexible and fine form of production by the use of obsidian.  Examples of the above types of stone tools have been found in Ethiopia and the Horn. ▪ Olduwan tools made and used by Homo habilis were discovered near Gona (dated 2.52 million years B.P. in 1992) and at Shungura in Afar. Homo erectus: 1/ produced Acheulean tools dated back to 1.7 million years B.P 2/ invented fire and 3/ started burial practice. ▪ Acheulian tools (over a million years old) were found at Kella, Middle Awash in 1963. ▪ Homo sapiens produced Sangoon tools that trace back up to 300,000 years B. P. Gademotta site has been dated back to 200, 000 B. P. ▪ Other sites such as Gorgora, Ki’one and Yabello in Ethiopia and Midhidhishi and Gudgud in Somalia have offered information about Stone Age communities.  The period of usage of stone tools is divided into sub-periods. 1. The Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) ▪ 3.4 million to 11, 000 years B. P. ▪ human being sheltered in caves, developed language, and used stone , bone, wood, furs, and skin materials to prepare food and clothing. ▪ there was sex-age labor division (males as hunters of fauna, and children and females as gatherers of flora) 2. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age /11, 000-10,000 B. P.) was transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic  2.2. Neolithic Revolution During the Neolithic period human beings transformed from mobile to sedentary way of life. ▪ This was a radical shift involving changes from hunting and gathering to the domestication of plants and animals. How did it begin? Climatic change and increased hunter-gatherers’ population resulted in the declining number of animals and availability of plants. Gatherers were aware of growing cycle of most grass types They began to grow those, which were most common and yielded seeds that are more edible. The big animals were reduced by hunting while smaller animals that were easy to domesticate were easily domesticated.  The process of domestication took place independently in the various parts of the world. ▪ In Ethiopia and the Horn chiefly in the more elevated and wetter-parts, people cultivated plants including Teff (Eragrotis teff), dagussa (Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia abyssinica), enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc. What are the most important discoveries about Neolithic revolution in Ethiopia?  Discoveries The discovery of polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones, beads, stone figures and animal remains in sites like Emba-Fakeda around Adigrat in Tigray as well as Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea shows the existence of Neolithic material culture. The Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has provided us agricultural stone tools. Remains associated with domesticated cattle, chickpeas and vegetables have been excavated from Lalibela Cave on the southeastern shore of Lake Tana. ✓ Stone tools used for cutting grass and grass like plants as well as rock paintings of domesticated animals have been found at Laga Oda rock shelter near Charchar. ✓ Evidence for domesticated cattle also comes from around Lake Basaqa near Matahara. ✓ Playa Napata and Kado in the Sudan, Cyrenaica in Libya and Futajalon in West Africa were among known places of domestication of animals like Nidamawa and Zebu (Bos indicus) cattle  2.3. The Peopling of the Region 2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes Ethiopia and the Horn in general is marked by ethnic and linguistic diversity. There are about 90 languages with 200 dialects in Ethiopia and the Horn. Under this apparent diversity, there is some degree of unity. Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into two major language super families. These are: - Afro-Asiatic and - Nilo-Saharan. A. Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into the following families: 1. Cushitic: linguists divided this language family into four branches: Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea bordering the Sudan. Central: Awign, Hamtanga, Bilen… Eastern: this includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Ale, Arbore, Gidicho, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Oromo, Sidama, Somali etc. Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania 2. Semitic: is divided into two: North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese border); Tigre (spoken in Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland Eritrea and Tigray). South: is further divided into two ✓ Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay ✓ Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage... 3. Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Dawuro, Gamo, Gofa, Hamer, Male, Wolayta, Yem… etc. B. Nilo-Saharan: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz,, Komo, Kunama, Majang, Mi'en, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom, Suri and Uduk. Language classification did not remain static. Factors like population movements, warfare, trade, religious and territorial expansion, urbanization etc. have resulted in intense linguistic processes that forced languages to be affected. In this process, some languages died out or have been in danger of extinction while others thrived off the social phenomenon that is evidently observed.  2.3.2. Settlement Patterns A settlement pattern, the distribution of peoples across the landscape, is the results of long historical processes in northeast Africa. - In some areas, settlement was dense and in other areas sparse. - Some people inhabited extensive highlands and others the lowlands. Environmental, socio-economic, and political processes significantly shaped and reshaped the spatial distribution of peoples in the region.  Similarly, theIn due course, the Cushites have evolved to be the largest linguistic group in Ethiopia and the Horn and have also spread over wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania. Semitic peoples spread over large area and eventually settled the northern, north central, northeastern, south central and eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. ✓Except the Shinasha, and the South Mao the majority of Omotic peoples have inhabited southwestern Ethiopia along the Omo River basin. ✓ In the west, the Nilotes are largely settled along the Ethiopia- Sudanese border  2.3.3. Economic Formations: The domestication of plants and animals gave humanity two interdependent modes of life: agriculture and pastoralism. ✓ While there may be pure pastoralists, it is very rare to think of a farmer without a head of cattle or two. ✓ Likewise, in Ethiopia and the Horn, these two forms of livelihood have coexisted and quite often interrelated. ✓ Yet, topographic features and climatic conditions largely influenced economic activities in Ethiopia and the Horn. A predominantly pastoral economy has characterized the eastern lowland region since early periods.  Pastoral economy namely the production of camel, goat, and cattle has been the most common economic practice among the Afar, Saho and Somali as well as Karayu and Borana Oromo. The plateaus have sustained plough agriculture for thousands of years supporting sizable populations. Majority of the populations were engaged in mixed farming. Sedentary agriculture had been started and advanced at least since 10, 000 years B. P. by the Cushites, Semites and Omotic groups.  The major economic activity of the Omotic has been mixed farming and trade in northern Omo while southern Omo have predominantly practiced pastoralism and fishing. Many of the Omotic groups have also been famous in metallurgy, weaving and other crafts. The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo Rivers have been shifting cultivators where sorghum has been a staple food. Among majority Nilotic communities, cattle have high economic and social values.  2.4. Religion and Religious Processes 2.4.1. Indigenous Religion ▪ This includes a variety of religious beliefs and practices, which are native to the region ▪ A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is belief in one Supreme Being, but special powers are attributed to natural phenomena, which are considered sacred. ▪ Spiritual functionaries officiate over rituals, propitiate divinities, and are held in a lot of respect as intermediaries between the society and spirits. Some Examples of Indigenous Religion 1. Waqeffanna of the Oromo is based on the existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa. ✓ Waqa's power is manifested through the spirits called Ayyana. The major spirits include: ✓ Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit), ✓ Atete (women or human and animal fertility spirit), ✓ Awayi/Tiyyana (sanctity spirit), ✓ Balas (victory spirit), ✓ Chato/Dora (wild animals defender), ✓ Gijare/ Nabi (father and mother’s sprit), ✓ Jaricha (peace spirit), ✓ Qasa (anti-disease spirit) etc. There is thanks giving festival called Irrecha 2. Fandanano (sing. Fandancho): among the Hadiya the Supreme Being is known as Waa, whose eyes are represented by elincho (sun) and agana (moon). Spirits like: Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female’s guard) 3. The Kambata have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God and religious officials known as Magnancho. 4. The Gedeo called the Supreme Being, Mageno and had thanks giving ceremony called Deraro. 5. The Konso religion centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh. 6. The Gojjam Agaw used to call the Supreme Being Diban (Sky God). 7. Among the Gurage, there have been Waq/Goita (Supreme Being), Bozha (thunder deity) and Damwamwit (health goddess). 8. The Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God). 9. The Konta’s spirit-cult was called Docho. 10. The Wolayta called God Tosa and spirit Ayyana including: Tawa-Awa /Moytiliya (father’s spirit), Sawuna (justice spirit), Wombo (rain spirit), Micho (goat spirit), Nago (sheep spirit), Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit), Gomashera (war spirit) etc. 11. The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven) ****The indigenous religion elements prescribe praying for the prevention of: ✓ drought, ✓ flooding, ✓ erosion, ✓ disease and ✓ starvation within the community and their surrounding environment. An interesting feature of indigenous religion is the way its practices and beliefs are fused with Christianity and Islam. This phenomenon of mixing of religions is known as syncretism.  2.4.2. Judaism Judaism is considered as the expression of the covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah (God) established with the ancient Jewish (Hebrew). Sources indicate that Judaism has been followed in Ethiopia and the Horn since early times. Different accounts about the Bete-Israel: 1 Many of the Bete-Israel accounts of their own origins stress that they stem from the very ancient migration of some portion of the Tribe of Dan to Ethiopia, led it is said by sons of Moses, perhaps even at the time of the Exodus (1400-1200 B.C.).  Alternative timelines include: 1. perhaps the later crises in Judea, e.g., split of the northern Kingdom of Israel from the southern Kingdom of Judah after the death of King Solomon or Babylonian Exile. 2. Other Bete-Israel take as their basis the account of return to Ethiopia of Menilek I 3. Another group of Jews is said to have been arrived in Ethiopia led by Azonos and Phinhas in 6th century A.D. 4. Still others are said to have been Jewish immigrants intermarried with the Agaws. 5.Scholars such as Taddesse Tamrat and Kay Shelmay argue that the Bete- Israel are remnants of Old Testament followers of Orthodox Christianity rather than Jews who migrated from abroad.  2.4.3. Christianity Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D. Instrumental in conversion of king Ezana (r. 320-360) were Syrian brothers, Aedesius and Frementius (Fremnatos). When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373) appointed him as the first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC). Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt continued until 1959, when Abune Baslios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch.  Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society in later part of fifth century, during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) by the Nine Saints: Name Origin Church/Monast Location of the ery Church Abuna Aregawwi (Abba Za Rome Debre Damo Eastern Tigray Mika’el) Abuna Isaq (Abba Gerima) Rome Debre Gerima Medera (East of Adwa ) Abba Pentelwon Rome Debre Asbo (North East of Pentelwon Aksum) Abba Afse Ladocia Debre Afse Yeha (Northeast of Aksum) Abba Alef Qa’esare’a Debre Biheza (Northeast of Haleluya Aksum) Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre Gubba West of Medera Abba Liqanos Constantinople Debre Qonasel North of Aksum Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania Southeast of Adwa Abba Yima’ata Qosa’iti Debre Ger’alta Yima’ata ✓ The nine saints translated Bible and other religious books into Geez. ✓ Then expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period (1150- 1270) and chiefly gained fresh momentum during the early Medieval Period (1270-1527), when many churches and monasteries were constructed. These include: Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in Eritrea Debra-Hayiq in Wollo, Debre-Dima and Debre-Werq in Gojjam Debra-Libanos in Shewa Birbir Mariam in Gamo and Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar. From mid-sixteenth to the early seventeenth centuries, Jesuits tried to convert EOC to Catholic. ✓ Yet, this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of the Jesuits. ✓ However, the Jesuits intervention triggered religious controversies within EOC European Missionaries ✓ As of 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion was one of the dominant themes of treaties concluded between European diplomats and Ethiopian authorities. These include: The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder), Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin order founder), Cardinal Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie.  Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary Society of London (CMSL) and Wesleyan Methodist Society led Protestant missionaries and their major leaders were Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf. - They translated spiritual books into vernaculars. - Village schools were established as centers of preaching the faith. - They also provided medical facilities.  2.4.4. Islam When Prophet Mohammed had preached Islam in Mecca since 610 AD, he faced opposition from the Quraysh rulers. The Prophet sent some of them to Aksum. The first group of refugees was led by Jafar Abu Talib. In his advice, the Prophet said of Ethiopia, "…a king under whom none are persecuted. It is a land of righteousness, where God will give relief from what you are suffering." ✓ Subsequently, Islam spread to the Horn of Africa. ✓ Islam was well established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on the Red Sea by the beginning of eighth century. ✓ In the early tenth century, the Muslim community on the islands developed a sultanate ✓ In due course, Muslims settled other places on the Red Sea coast. ✓ It was from these coastal areas that Islam gradually spread among the predominantly pastoral communities of the interior, largely through the agency of preachers and merchants. The port of Zeila served as an important gateway for the introduction of Islam mainly into the present day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe. Islam firmly established itself in the coastal areas by the eighth and ninth centuries.  It should be noted that Sheikh Hussein of Bale played very important role in the expansion of Islam into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. Another Islamic center in this region is Sof Umar cave. Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the 8th c. through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava and Merca. Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu Minirate c.1269. The mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers have been the depositories of cultures, traditions and literature of local Muslims. Thank You!