History PDF Student Textbook Grade 9

CONTENTS Page UNIT ONE: EARLY HUMAN BEINGS, THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION AND EMERGENCE OF STATE Introduction............................................................................

CONTENTS Page UNIT ONE: EARLY HUMAN BEINGS, THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION AND EMERGENCE OF STATE Introduction........................................................................................ 1 1.1. Meaning of Prehistory and History.................................................... 1 1.2. Early Human Beings and the Neolithic Revolution............................ 6 1.3. Emergence of States........................................................................ 12 1.4. Peoples and Languages of Ethiopia and Africa................................ 15 UNIT TWO: ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL WORLD CIVILIZATIONS 2.1. General Survey of Ancient World Civilizations................................. 28 2.2. The Rise and spread of Christianity.................................................... 38 2.3. The Aksumite State............................................................................ 40 2.4. The Rise and Expansion of Islam...................................................... 46 UNIT THREE: STATES IN THE ETHIOPIAN REGION AND THE HORN OF AFRICA UP TO 1529 3.1. The Zagwe Kingdom....................................................................... 58 3.2. The Christian Highland Kingdom under Yekuno Amlak and his Successors................................................... 62 3.3. Peoples and States in the Ethiopian Region and the Horn of Africa up to 1529.................................................... 66 3.4. The Dominance of the Christian Highland Kingdom over the Ethiopian Region and the Horn of Africa............................ 72 UNIT FOUR: MEDIEVAL EUROPE AND DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY CAPITALISM 4.1. Medieval Europe............................................................................. 78 4.2. Developments of Early Capitalism................................................... 88 UNIT FIVE: INTER-STATE CONFLICTS IN THE HORN OF AFRICA AND THE OROMO POPULATION MOVEMENT 5.1. Relations between the Muslim Sultanates and the Christian Highland Kingdom up to 1529........................................................ 99 5.2. Dominance of the Sultanate of Adal in the Ethiopian Region and the Horn of Africa...............................................................103 5.3. Oromo Population Movement and Expansion........................................105 UNIT SIX: THE CHRISTIAN KINGDOM AND PEOPLES AND STATES IN THE REST OF THE ETHIOPIAN REGION (1543-1855) 6.1. Catholicism and the Christian Kingdom......................................... 117 6.2. The Gondar Period..........................................................................119 6.3. The Zemene Mesafit (The Era of Warlords)....................................123 6.4. Peoples and States in the Southern, Western, Central and Eastern Ethiopia Region...........................................................127 6.5. European Explorers in the Ethiopian Region in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century.......................................................137 UNIT SEVEN: PEOPLES AND STATES IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA AND THE TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE UP TO 1800 7.1. Mamluk Egypt................................................................................143 7.2. Kongo..............................................................................................151 7.3. The Khoi-Khoi.................................................................................152 7.4. The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.......................................................154 UNIT EIGHT: INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM AND THE WESTERN WORLD 8.1. Consolidation of Capitalism in Modern Europe...............................160 8.2. The English Revolution...................................................................162 8.3. The Enlightenment..........................................................................165 8.4. The American War of Independence..............................................168 8.5. The French Revolution....................................................................171  HISTORY STUDENT TEXTBOOK GRADE 9 Revised by: Wondu Teklemadhin Oljira Tujuba Edited by: Berhanu Lemeso Reviewed by: Temesgen Gudina Mega Publishing Enterprise Addis Ababa, 2005  Ministry of Education, 2005 First Published, 1999 Revised Edition, 2005  UNIT ONE EARLY HUMAN BEINGS, THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION AND EMERGENCE OF STATE Introduction This unit deals with the objectives and methods of the study of history. It also tries to outline the process of human evolution and identify the major achievements of the Neolithic Revolution. The historical origin and development of states is also explained in the unit. Finally, it deals with the linguistic classifications of the various nations and nationalities of Ethiopia and the peoples of Africa. Objectives After learning this unit, you will be able to:  explain the objective and methods of studying history;  describe the process of human evolution;  analyze state formation  analyze the interrelations of the nations, nationalities, and peoples of Ethiopia. 1.1 Meaning of Prehistory and History Terms to know Archeology Chronology Inscriptions Pre-history Century Fossils Oral Traditions  History is a branch of social science that deals with what human beings did in the past. It studies changes in the development of societies. It also studies the political, economic, social and cultural life of past societies. History helps us to know about the past, to understand the present and to foresee the future developments. It also helps us to have a broad understanding of national and international issues including democratic principles and nationalism. History can also help us to develop the necessary skill for collecting and analyzing informations to reach at conclusions. Prehistory is the study of distant past. It is the study of events before human society developed the art of writing. Archaeology is the science in which archaeologists dig out material objects and fossils of the past. It helps us in the study of prehistory. Fossils are the remains of dead plants, human beings and animals. The study of fossils and other material remains of the past helps us to reconstruct what happened before writing started. Unlike prehistory, however, the subject of history mainly deals with the past beginning from the time when writing and recording started. Figure 1.1 Artefacts and fossils General Sources of History History is supported by evidences which are obtained from several sources. The general sources of history are divided into two i.e primary and secondary sources. Primary sources are original materials that have direct relations to the events they describe. These are original written materials, such as accounts of direct witness or observation of an event. Monuments, tools, ornaments and coins are also primary sources. Primary sources are more reliable than secondary sources. Secondary sources do not have direct relations to the events they describe. Examples of secondary sources are history books, oral traditions, novels and plays. History can only be written on the basis of information collected from the above two types of general sources. Historians are expected to carefully use them in writing the history of a given society such as that of the Ethiopian region. Exercise Questions  Which of the following sources is more reliable? a. monuments b. novels c. oral traditions  The remains of dead plants, animals and human beings are: a. archeology b. fossils c. secondary sources General Sources of Ethiopian History The most important primary sources of Ethiopian history, are fossils, ruins of buildings, inscriptions, chronicles and documents such as letters and codes of laws. The old inscriptions and documents about Ethiopia were written in Sabean, Geez, Amharic, Arabic, Greek and other European languages. The major part of secondary sources for the study of Ethiopian history are history books, novels, plays and oral traditions. Oral traditions are informations transmitted by word of mouth from generation to generation. It is also one of the main sources for the study of Ethiopian history. Activities 1.1  Identify the primary and the secondary sources: chronicles, plays, coins, novels, oral traditions, fossils, letters, history books Dating in History  Find out on what basis the national Ethiopian Calendar was devised. (Group Work)  Name the different calendars that you know.  What is the Hejira? Events occur in time. But their duration in time could be short or long. If so, how could we express the duration of events in time? We express the duration of events in time by using certain units. These units are called decade, century, and millennium. A period of ten years is called a decade, that of the hundred years, century, and one thousand years millennium. In writing history, past events are organized according to their sequence in time. The sequence of events in time is called chronology. Calendars help us to put events in a time chronology. There are different kinds of calendars. But two of them are widely used all over the world. These are the Gregorian and Islamic calendars. According to the Gregorian calendar, time is counted forward and backwards from the time of the birth of Jesus Christ. In this case, the time before the birth of Christ is referred to as BC (Before Christ), whereas the time after the birth of Christ is expressed in A.D. (a Latin term, "Anno Domini’’), meaning "in the year of the Lord. The Islamic Calendar follows the event called the Hejira to count time forwards and backwards. The Hejira was the flight of the prophet Mohammed from Mecca to Medina in 622 AD. Hence, B.H, stands to the years before the Hejira and A.H, refers to the years after the Hejira. Apart from the above two ways, we can also refer to the time in the past in terms of B.P (Before present). B.P is mostly used to refer to very distant times in the past. Note: The years from 600 AD to 699 is in the 7th century. Therefore, Hejira is in the 7th century A.D according to the Gregorian calendar. Similarly, 1805 is in the 19th century. Activities 1.2  The Gregorian uses the time of the a. birth of Jesus Christ c. birth of Moses b. death of Jesus Christ d. death of Abraham  The year 1855 is found in the a. 18th century c. 20th century b. 19th century d. 17th century The Writing of History The world’s oldest written history comes from China. Archeologists have discovered records of Chinese history written before 1000 BC. Western historical writing began in ancient Greece. The first Greek historian, Herodotus (484-425 BC) was known as the "Father of History''. His most famous successor, Thucydides (th u sid'  d e z') wrote critically and accurately. Most Historians use certain basic methods in writing history. First, they select an issue or a topic from the past period. Next, they read different source materials. Then they interpret the information obtained from these sources. Finally, they write the history in a simple, readable, attractive and objectively. 1.2 Early Human Beings and the Neolithic Revolution Terms to know Australopithecines Creationist Genus Homo Stone age Bipedal Domestication Hominids Civilization Evolution Species The Evolution of Human Beings There are two different theories about the origin of human beings: the creationist theory and scientific theory. According to the creationist view, human beings were created by God. The scientific theory explains that human beings developed from lower beings through a slow and natural process of changes. This is called the theory of evolution. The theory of evolution was described by the English scientist, Charles Darwin (1809 - 1882). He developed the theory in the middle of the 19th century. Eventually the theory was widely accepted by the scientific communities. Hominids Human beings belong to the species called Homo sapiens. These species belong to the hominid family. Hominids were the ancestors of human beings. They appeared about 25-40 million years ago. One group of hominids was called Australopithecines (Southern ape). They were the earliest human species that appeared in Africa around 6 million years ago. The oldest of Australopithecines is Sahelan tchadnsis. Fossils of this species were discovered in northern Chad, in 2001. It is estimated to be between 7 and 6 million years old. Fossils of Australopithecus ramidus, aged 4.4 million years were discovered in the Afar region, in Ethiopia in 1994. The fossil remains of Australopithecus afarensis, known as Lucy, was found at Hadar, in the Afar region in 1974. It is estimated to be 3.18 million years old. Lucy's fossils are the most complete so far found. Remains of Australopithecus africanus, aged 2.5 million years, were discovered at Taung, South Africa in 1924. Australopithecines had small brains and large faces and jaws. Australopithecus afarensis was bipedal (walked on two feet with up right position) and appears to have been the ancestor of human beings from among the Australopithecines. Genus Homo and the Appearance of Modern Human Being Three different species belong to genus Homo. They are Homo habilis, Homo erectus and Homo sapiens.  Homo habilis (handy human beings) is considered to be the oldest human being. This species had lived in Africa about 2 million years ago. Fossils of Homo habilis were found at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, at lake Turkana in Kenya and in the Omo valley in Ethiopia. Homo erectus (up right walking human being) appeared about 1 million years ago in Ethiopia. Fossils of this species were found in the Omo Basin, Melka-Kunture, Konso - Gardula and Middle Awash in Ethiopia and also in Java (now Indonesia) as well as near Peking in China Homo sapiens (wise human being) was very similar to modern human being. It appeared first in Africa at about 100,000 years ago. Fossils of this species were found in the Awash and Omo valleys and in the areas near Dire Dawa. Modern Human beings appeared about 40,000 years ago. They are different in many ways from their ancestors. They have large brains, are bipedal and walk erect. They think and excute complicated ideas. They use language, develop culture, invent tools and use them effectively. They transmit knowledge from generation to generation. Activities 1.3  Which species appeared first? a. sapiens b. erectus c. habilis d. none  Which one is not a characteristic of modern human beings? Australopithecus africanus Transvaal Museum, Pretoria Homo habilis Homo habilis Homo sapiens (early) (O David L. Brill) National Museum of Kenya, Narobi (O David L. Brill) National Museum of Kenya, Narobi Paleontological Museum, University (O David L. Brill) of Thessaloniki (O David L. Brill) Figure 1.2 Austrolopithecus Austrolopithecus Austrolopithecus Homo habilis Homo erectus Homo sapiens Homo sapiens afarensis afarensis robustus (Neanderthal) sapiens The evolution human beings took place gradually over millions of years. The illustrations above are an artists impression of how some of the major species of pre Figure 1.3 human and early human ancestors may have looked The East African Rift Valley seems to have been the home of human evolution. Rich archeological evidences were found in the Awash and Omo valleys in Ethiopia, in the Kenyan part of the Rift Valley and the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. Hominids and Homo sapiens first appeared in Africa and then later moved out into Asia Europe and the Americas. Hominid Archeological sites outside Africa are those of Mesopotamia, Palestine, France, Germany, India and Peru. The Neolithic Revolution and the Emergence of Communities and Societies The life of human beings in general is divided into two major periods. The first was the period of hunting and gathering. This was a long period when human beings got their food by hunting wild animals and gathering wild fruits. The second was the period of civilization which emerged as a result of the beginning of farming, human settlement, social division of labour and urbanization. Indeed, civilization is the sum total of human achievements in economic, political, social and cultural spheres of life. The Stone Age  What does Stone Age mean?  Which one was the longest of the three Stone Ages? In the transition from the period of hunting and gathering to the period of civilization, human beings passed through several stages of development. These stages include the time when tools were made of stone. This long period of time was called the stone age. The stone age is further divided into three periods. These are the Paleolithic Age, the Mesolithic Age and the Neolithic Age. The Paleolithic and Mesolithic Ages The Paleolithic age was the longest of the above ages. It lasted until about 11,000 years ago (around 9,000 BC). During this period, early human beings began to use language. They made the first crude stone tools known as hand- axes and discovered fire. People lived in caves. The Mesolithic age was a transitional period between Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages. It lasted from 9000 BC. to 8000 BC. Activities 1.4  Why were the tools of early human beings made from stone and not from some other material? The Neolithic Revolution and Its Achievements The Neolithic Age started from about 8,000 BC and lasted until about 4,000 BC. A great revolution took place during this age. It is known as the Neolithic Revolution. The prerequisites for civilization were laid during the Neolithic Revolution. During this period, human beings domesticated plants and animals. Farming was introduced and human beings began to produce food. This was followed by a sedentary way of life. As a result of sedentary life, communities and societies were formed. Stone houses were built. Religious houses and granaries were constructed. New and better tools like the hoe, the yoke, the wheel appeared and the use of animals helped human beings to produce more food. The production of surplus food led to population increase and Competitions among communities over crop and grazing fields led to conflicts. The production of surplus food also led to specialization in different crafts. Some began making clay pots and baskets. Others wove clothes, carved religious idols, produced spears and began shaping gold, copper and bronze. In short, the Neolithic Revolution made human beings food producers and community dwellers. Places and Archaeological Sites of the Neolithic Revolution It is believed that the domestication of plants and animals took place in parts of Ethiopia about 6000 years ago. Among the domesticated plants were teff, dagussa, nug and enset. Important archeological sites for the domestication of plants and animals are found near Aksum, in Tigrai and around Lalibela. There are also similar archological sites near Chercher in Hararghe and near Metehara in Shewa. The major archeological sites for the domestication of plants and animals in the rest of the world are found in Palestine and Mesopotamia in the Near East, the Nile valley in Egypt, in parts of Tropical Africa, the Yangtze Kiang valley in China, the Indus valley in India and parts of the Americas. Activities 1.5  Which period comes last? a. Paleolithic c. Mesolithic b. Neolithic d. Middle Stone Age  Which of the following age is an age in which humanbeings began the use of language? a. the Paleolithic Age c. the Neolithic Age 1.3 Emergence of States Terms to know inscription Theocratic temples Tribute Theory of the Emergence of States Human societies did exist in some form of organization before the emergence of state. However, the state was different from all earlier human organizations in that it had (i) definite territorial area, (ii) large group of people, and (iii) a government that can use force to make people obey. There are different theories about the emergence of states. One of these theories is related to religion. Human beings introduced the concept of religion when they were living in caves. As religion developed, priests appeared in early societies. They began to play central roles in spiritual and administrative spheres of life. Priests were performing fertility prayers and healing sick people. They also supervised the construction of irrigation canals, predicted the rise and fall of water levels and devised calendars. They collected tributes from farmers in the name of temples where gods and goddesses were kept. As early society was divided economically into higher and lower classes, priests occupied key position in the emerging state. Early states were known as theocratic states. They were basically ruled by priests. Soon afterwards, however, village chiefs gradually replaced priests with the emergence of markets. These chiefs had the power of collecting tributes and keeping the security of villages and the markets around them. This development marked the appearance of states. Activities 1.6  What is the difference between state and government?  Could you guess any other way through which early slates emerged? Emergence of States in the Ethiopian Region and the Horn of Africa  What kind of tributes could have been given to the early chiefs by the members of their communities? The beginning of agriculture was one of the factors for the emergence of complex communities. The division of these communities into economic classes led to the formation of early states throughout the Ethiopian region. The growth of internal and external trade speeded up the formation and development of these states. Each state in this region had direct relationship with its immediate neighbours. They were involved in external trade. As internal trade routes led their ways across different areas, keeping the security of merchants and collecting taxes became the duties of traditional warriors and war leaders. These warriors were the future rulers of the traditional societies. They had the power to control important resources in their respective areas. They started to monopolize clay soil for making pottery, salt pans and hot water springs both for human and animal feeding as well as healing animal diseases. Early states which controlled these natural resources and local trade routes could easily accumulate wealth. The whole duty seems and have been taken over by rulers of these states, their trade agents, or their administrative bodies. External trade also linked some of these states with other civilized parts of the world like Egypt and Arabia. Activities 1.7  How could the emergence of markets and trade routes help for the rise and development of early states?  Explain the major duties of the leaders of early states? First Historically Known States in the Ethiopian Regions and the Horn of Africa Punt Punt was one of the ancient states of the Horn of Africa which existed in the third millenium B.C. Historical evidence about the existence of this state was found in the Egyptian sources. According to this evidence, the territory south of Egypt was known to the ancient Egyptians as the land of punt. However, the exact location of punt and its territorial limit is not known. Many scholars suggest that the present-day Ethiopia, Somalia and Eritrea were part of the punt state. Ancient Egyptians maintained trade relations with the land of punt. The trade was conducted by land and sea routes. Damat Damat existed just before the rise of Aksum. Its center was little to the south of the town of Aksum. Information about this state comes from local archeological sources. Some of Damat's rulers used the South Arabian political and religious title called Mukarib. This indicates that Damat had established external relations with South Arabia. This can be understood from local inscriptions left by one of its rulers around fifth century B.C. Damat used the port of Adulis on the Red Sea coast. Activities 1.8  Draw a map of the Horn of Africa and indicate where the early states of Punt and Damat might have been located? 1.4 Peoples and Languages of Ethiopia and Africa Nations and Nationalities of Ethiopia Terms to know Clan Linguist Native Super family Contiguous Nations Oppress Tribe Extinction Nationalities Poverty Activities 1.9  How does the Federal Constitution of Ethiopia of 1995 define nation and nationality under Article 39, Number 5 ?  List down the major classifications of the nations and the nationalities of Ethiopia on the basis of language.  Ethiopia is the land of diverse nations and nationalities. What are nations and nationalities? In pre – class human society, human beings were organized into clans and tribes. This was the case in the distant past. Clan is a small group of individuals closely related by blood. Members of a clan married outside the group. The members of a clan also descended from a common ancestor, and have a common family name. Among the characteristics of clan the most important were: first, the absence of private property and classes; second, the practice of primitive collectivism, or collective labour and consumption; third, common ownership of the basic means of production; and finally equality of members in communal affairs. Clans were the basic socio – economic units of primitive society. Another pre-class mode of human organization was the tribe. Tribe is made up of individuals related by blood but divided into clans. The members of a tribe intermarried among themselves. A tribe with highly developed clan structure had also tribal government in the form of tribal councils, and military and civilian chieftains. The transition of pre-class society into class society led to the emergence of nationalities. Nationalities and nations are modes of human organization that belong to class societies. Nationalities appeared immediately before nations, and emerged within the first class societies. Nation is a group of people who live in the contiguous territory that can be identified, speak a common language, share the same culture or customs, have a common psychological make- up and identity, and economically united. On the other hand, nationality is a group of people who have the above characteristics except for the fact that they are found at a relatively lower level of economic development. At present, both nations and nationalities are found in Ethiopia. For a list of some of the nations and nationalities of Ethiopia, see the following chart. Chart 1.1 Nations and Nationalities in Regional States of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Benishagul Southern Nations Regions Tigrai Afar Amhara Oromia Somali Harari Gambella Gumuz Nationalities and Peoples Erob Afar Agaw Oromo Somali Berta Alaba Afar Anuak Kaffacho Kunama Argobba Amhara Gumuz Bana Argobba Majengir Kambata Tigrai Argobba Komo Basketo Harari Nuer Konso Oromo Ma’o Burji Korre Oromo Nations and Nationalities Shinasha Bula Sidama Dasanech Konta Dawro Malle Dime Mursi Dizi Nao Doko Shekacho Gamo Walayta Gidole(Darashe) Yem Goffa Gurage Hadya Hamer Activities 1.10   Discuss in group why most of the time Ethiopia is referred to as the country of the museum of peoples.  What is a dead language? Give an example.  Locate the approximate home of the Cushitic, Semitic, Omotic and Nilo-Saharan people of Ethiopia on a map. Linguists divide languages into super families and families. In line with this the nations and nationalities of Ethiopia speak languages that belong to two super- families. These are the Afro- Asiatic and the Nilo-Saharan super-families. Speakers of the Afro-Asiatic super-family are further divided into Cushitic, Omotic and Semitic language families. The speakers of the Nilo-Saharan super- family are also divided into Chari – Nile and Koman speaking families. I. Afro-Asiatic Super - Family A. Cushitic: Ethiopia is predominantly inhabited by Cushitic language speakers who are the majority in the country. The major speakers of this family include: Afar, Agaw, Alaba, Burji, Darashe, Gedeo, Hadya, Kambata, Konso, Oromo, Sidama and Somali. B. Semitic: the speakers of this family include: Amhara, Argobba, Gurage, Harari, Tigrai, Silte, Gafat and Zay. The Geez language also belongs to this family. C. Omotic: its speakers include mainly peoples living in the Southern Nation, Nationalities and Peoples regional state. Most of them live in and around the Omo river basin. The Shinasha and Anfillo, who are living far  away from the Omo basin in Gojjam (currently in Benishangul-Gumuz region) and Wallaga respectively are exceptional. The main speakers of this family include: Gamo, Goffa, Gimira, Kaffa, Cho, Konta, Dawro, Walayta, Yem, Dorze and Maji. Beside the major groups there are also other speakers of Omotic language whose numbers are very small like the Bana, Basketo. Dizi, Gidicho, Hamer, Geleb, Kachamo, Karo, Koyra, Male, Nao, Oyda, and Zayse. II. Nilo - Saharan Super - Family A. Chari-Nile: this family includes langages of the people of Anuak Nuer, Mi'en, Majengir, Berta, Kunama, Mursi, Surma and Tirma. B. Koman: includes the peoples of Gumuz, Koma, Sese, Ma'o, and Komo. In Ethiopia the speakers of the Nilo-Saharan super-family are mainly living on the Ethio-Sudanese border But some of these peoples are living in the Abay gorge and along the banks of the tributaries of Abay in Wallaga. The following chart gives a more detailed list of speakers of Ethiopian languages. Chart 1.2. Some Languages of Ethiopia Under Different Families and Super - Families Nilo-Saharan Afro-Asiatic Super - Family Super - Family Cushitic Omotic Chari-Nile Koman Amhara Afar Bana Anuak Gumuz Argobba Agaw Basketo Berta Koma Gurage Alaba Bench Kunama Langa Harari Arbore Dime Kwegu Northern Mao (Kere) Tigrai Bayso Dizi Mi’en Sese  Silte Burji Gamo Majengir Komo Zay Busa Geleb Murle Geez Darashe (Gidole) Gidicho Mursi Dasanech Gofaf Nuer Erob Hamer Surma Gawada Kachamo Tirma Gedeo Kaffacho Zilmamu Hadya Karo Kambata Konta Konso Koyra Oromo Dawro Sidama Male Somali Southern Mao Tsemai (Anfillo) Nao Oyda She Shekacho Walayta Yem Zayse Out of the great number of the languages of Ethiopia, few have already disappeared, and some are close to death. This is because of the decreasing number of their speakers. Gafat is an example of a language that has disappeared. For a short list of some Ethiopian languages in danger of extinction at present, see the following chart. Chart 1.3. Some Languages of Ethiopia in Danger of Extinction Cushitic Omotic Semitic Nilo-Saharan Amuru Ganza Argobba Gabato Bayso Hozo Geez Kwama Birale Kachama Zay Kwegu Girara Karo Opuuo Kunfal Nayi Shabo Southern Mao (Anfillo)  Therefore, we can say that Ethiopia is a multi-national state. The nations and nationalities of the country speak variety of languages and practice diverse cultures. They have lived side by side, interacting with each other. They have had many common experiences including the class oppression they have suffered. But very recently conditions have began to change and the national oppression has started to fade away. In particular, the democratic changes which are introduced to Ethiopia after 1991 have ensured the equality of the nations and nationalities of the country. This and other democratic rights are guaranteed by the Ethiopian Federal Constitution of 1995. However, most of the peoples of Ethiopia are living in a deep poverty. What are the causes of this poverty and how could the people of Ethiopia alleviate the poverty they are immersed in? Peoples and Languages of the Horn of Africa Do you know the countries which constituted the Horn of Africa? The Horn of Africa is located in East Africa. The region consists of Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia. Diverse peoples live in this region. The people of this region have been interacting for long period of time and are related to each other in many ways. The peoples of the Horn of Africa also speak languages that belong to the two super-families spoken in Ethiopia. It is believed that a small minority of Bantu speaking peoples live in Southern Somalia. The Bantu language belongs to the Niger-Congo super-family. Outside Ethiopia, the speakers of the Nilo- Saharan super-family are found in Eritrea, where we have the Kunama people. In this case we can say that Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia are virtually the home of the speakers of the Afro-Asiatic super-family. Of the three families of this super- family, only two of them are spoken in these countries. They are the Semitic and Cushitic families. Accordingly, the Tigrigna and Tigre speakers of Eritrea belong to the Semitic family. The Beja, Bilen, Saho, Afar and Somali peoples of the region belong to the Cushitic family of languages. Peoples and Languages of Africa Activity 1.11  Are all languages spoken in Africa today native to the continent? Discuss in group. Africa is a vast continent inhabited by peoples who speak variety of languages. Linguists tell us that over 1000 different languages are currently spoken over the continent. These languages are interrelated to each other. Linguists describe the degree of the relationships among these languages by using some root words. Languages belonging to the same group share certain basic vocabulary or words. Based on this they classify the peoples of Africa into the speakers of four super-families of languages known as Afro-Asiatic, Nilo- Saharan, Niger-Congo and Khoisan. Out of these, the speakers of Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan super-families are found in the northern, north-eastern and central Africa, in the Sahara desert and the upper Nile valley, and in the Horn of Africa. The rest of the continent is dominated by languages of the Niger-Congo super-family. The languages of the smaller Khoisan super-family are spoken in a few areas of southern Africa. Based on rough estimates the Niger-Congo super- family has the largest number of speakers, between 300 to 400 million. Afro- Asiatic has between 200 to 300 million speakers. This is followed by Nilo- Saharan, and finally by the Khoisan, which has between 200,000 to 300,000 speakers. Thus, the population of Africa is the sum total of the speakers of these four super families.  In fact, all languages spoken in Africa are not native to the continent. For instance, many people in northern Africa speak the Arabic language. This language was brought to Africa by the Muslim Arabs between the seventh and eleventh centuries. Later on, the European colonial powers brought their languages to their respective colonies of Africa. Figure 1.4 Distribution of speakers of the four language super - families of Africa I. Niger- Congo Super-Family It has seven main subgroups spoken in West Africa, Central African Republic, Eastern and Southern Africa. The subgroups are: Benue- Congo (including Bantu), West-Atlantic, Mande, Voltaic, Kwa, Adamawa East and Kordofanian. II. Afro-Asiatic Super -Family The speakers of this super-family are living in northern Africa, the Sahara, the Horn of Africa and around Lake Chad. Afro-Asiatic is divided into six sub- groups: Ancient Egyptian, Chadic, Berber, Cushitic, Semitic and Omotic. The latter three are spoken in the Horn. III. Nilo- Saharan Super-Family It is divided into six subgroups: Chari-Nile, Songhay, Saharan, Meban, Koman and Fur. Chari-Nile and Koman are spoken in parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. IV. Khoisan Super-Family It has two subgroups: the Khoikhoi and the San. They live in and around the Kalahari desert of northern South Africa, South western Botswana and Namibia. Chart 4. Super-Families and Families of African Languages Afro-Asiatic Super-Family Ancient Berber Chadic Cushitic Semitic Omotic Egyptian Spoken in Ethiopia and the Horn Spoken in northern and central Africa Nilo-Saharan Super-Family Chari – Nile Koman Saharan Maban Fur Songhay Spoken in Ethiopia and the Horn  Niger Congo Super-Family Benue-Congo West Atlantic Mande Voltaic Kwa Adamawa East Kordofanian Khoisan Super-Family Khoikhoi San Summary The peoples of Ethiopia are made up of nations and nationalities that have been interconnected and interacting in their historical past. The Ethiopian peoples and state are the results of the historical development of these interconnections and interrelations. The histories of all the peoples of the Horn of Africa have also been closely connected with those of the nations and nationalities of Ethiopia. So were those of the rest of Africa to a limited extent. The peoples of Africa in general speak languages that belong to four super- families. These are the Afro-Asiatic, the Khoisan, the Niger-Congo and the Nilo- Saharan super-families. Peoples of the Horn of Africa are speakers of languages that belong to the Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan super-families. The same is true for the nations and nationalities of Ethiopia. Indeed, the peoples of the rest of the Horn of Africa speak mostly languages spoken in Ethiopia. In Ethiopia, the largest number of speakers are those of the Afro- Asiatic super family. The Afro- Asiatic super- family speakers are further divided into speakers of Cushitic, Omotic and Semitic language families. The Nilo-Saharan super-family speakers are sub- divided into speakers of Chari-Nile and Koman language families. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1 I. Choose the best answer 1. An extinct Semitic language of Ethiopia is a) Geez b) Gafat c) Zay d) Argobba 2. Most of the Ethiopian peoples speak languages which belong to __________ family. a) Semitic b) Omotic c) Cushitic d) Koman 3. Identify language that does not belong to Omotic family a) Dorze b) Konso c) Walayta d) Gamo II. Give short answers 4. What do we mean by nation and nationality? 5. Describe the major speakers of the Cushitic family of languages in Ethiopia. 6. Give examples of Ethiopian languages in danger of extinction. 7. What are the major linguistic classification of the peoples of Africa? 8. What are the guarantees for the protection of the rights of the nations and the nationalities of Ethiopia?  UNIT TWO ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL WORLD CIVILIZATIONS Introduction In the previous chapter we have tried to look at how human beings passed the stage of primitive life and began an organized way of life. It is this achievement that we call civilization. This stage of human development was not achieved uniformly all over the world at the same time. Civilizations developed in different parts of the world at different times. In this unit, we will see some of these civilizations. Objectives After learning this unit, you will be able to:  point out the major achievements of most of the ancient civilizations of the world;  Analyze the conditions leading to the rise and spread of Christianity;  give a brief account of the major progresses attained through the Aksumite civilization;  differentiate the nature of Aksumite relations with the outside world and list the major factors for the fall of the Aksumite civilization,  Analyze the historical conditions that led to the origin of Islam and the rise of Muslim Arab Empire, and also identify the features of Muslim civilization. 2.1 General Survey of Ancient World Civilizations  Terms to know Buddhism Hieroglyphics Papyrus Pyramids Consuls Hinduism Pharaohs Senate Cuneiform Logographic Phoenicians Shona Hellens Mwenemutapa Polis Sumerians Zoroastrianism This section will briefly look at major political, economic, social and cultural achievements of ancient world civilizations in Africa, Asia, America and Europe. I. Africa Egypt The civilization of ancient Egypt began at about 3000 BC. It flourished in the Nile Valley of northeast Africa. The majority of ancient Egyptians were poor farmers. They lived in small mud huts. Their main crops were wheat, barely, onion, flax and vegetables produced in the Nile Valley. They were also keepers of cattle, goats and other domestic animals. The rulers of Ancient Egypt were known as Pharaohs. Their servants, scribes and tax collectors used to supervise peasant labour and production. Peasants undertook irrigational activities. They also engaged in the construction of palaces huge temples and tombs. Thousands of peasants were involved in the construction of large tombs, for the Pharaohs. These tombs are known as pyramids.  Activities 2.1  What are pyramids?  Why did the Ancient Egyptians construct pyramids? Ancient Egyptians believe in life after death. The process of preserving the body is called mummification. Mammification later developed into skilled art. Ancient Egyptians developed the art of writing known as hieroglyphics. It was a pictorial form of writing and one of the oldest of its kind. Hieroglyphics were at first carved on the walls and pillars of palaces and temples. Gradually, however, Egyptians introduced papyrus. Papyrus was a paper like substance. The early Egyptian writings were about religion, such as the "Book of the Dead.'' Activities 2.2  What are hieroglyphics?  What is papyrus? Ancient Egyptians also advanced Mathematics and medicine. The Great Pyramids and Sphinx are examples of Egyptian architecture. Their art and architecture reflected their religions. Ancient Egyptians had cultural and commercial relations with the Ethiopian region. Kush Kush was a kingdom along the Nile River in what is now northeastern Sudan. It existed as early as 2000 BC. and lasted until 350 AD. The kingdom exported slaves, cattle, gold and ivory.  Egypt conquered Kush in the 1500's BC and the Kushities adopted elements of Egyptian art, language and religion. The Kushites conquered Egypt about the eight century BC They ruled it until about 670 BC., when Assyrians from Asia invaded Egypt. The Assyrians destroyed Napata, the capital of Kush. The Kushities moved their capital south to Meroe. This kingdom flourished again. The Kushities found iron ore, made iron tools and weapons. Free from Egyptian influence, they developed their own art and architecture, used their own language, invented a system of writing and worshiped their own gods. At about 350 AD. the Aksumite king, Ezana, invaded and destroyed Meroe. Activities 2.3  Explain about the origin of Kush. Carthage Carthage, one of the greatest cities of ancient times, stood on a peninsula in North Africa, near the present city of Tunis. Carthage was founded by Phoenician seamen as a trade and shipping outpost at about 814 BC. Carthage grew quickly because of its location and excellent harbors. The city was well protected by a wall stretched across the peninsula. Carthage was probably the first city state to grow into large empire. Much of western North Africa, southern Spain, Sardinia, Corsica and the western half of Sicily came under Carthage rule. The people of Carthage were more interested in trade than in conquest. When the Romans wanted to take Sicily, Carthage fought and lost three wars called the Punic wars with Rome. It was destroyed during the wars from 149-146 BC and its territory became part of the Roman Empire.  Activities 2.4  Who were the founders of Carthage?  What were the sources of the wealth of Carthage? Zimbabwe People have lived in the region for thousands of years. The Shona people began their rule about 1000 AD. They built a city called Zimbabwe, or Great Zimbabwe. The word Zimbabwe is a shona word means "house of stone''. The ruins of the city lie near Masuingo. During the 1400's a branch of the Shona, called the Karanga, established the Mwenemutapa Empire. This empire included most of what is now Zimbabwe. The Karanga traded ivory, gold and copper for porcelain from China and cloth and beads from India and Indonesia. The Rozwi, a southern Karanga group, rebelled in the late 1400's and founded the Changamire Empire. This empire became stronger than Mwenemutapa Empire, and the Rozwi took over the city of Zimbabwe. The Rozwi built the city's largest structures. The Changamire Empire was in turn defeated by the Nguni people and the city was abandoned since 1450 AD. II. Asia Mesopotamia Mesopotamia included the area that is now eastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and most part of Iraq. The heart of the region was the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The name Mesopotamia comes from a Greek word meanings ''between rivers.''  Villages had been established in southern Mesopotamia by about 5000 BC. Sometimes before 3500 BC, new settlers arrived in this region. The area they settled became known as Sumer. The Sumerians began to build the first cities in the world. They also invented the world's first system of writing called Cuneiform. They developed mathematics, astronomy, medicine and metal works. Activities 2.5  What was the cuneiform? Persia Persia was a land that included parts of what are now Iran and Afghanistan. The Persians called the region the ''Land of the Aryans'' from which the name Iran comes. The Persians called their language Aryan. The early Persians were nomads who came to the area about 900 BC. They created an empire that lasted for over 200 years. They made important contributions in government, law, and religion. The Persians developed an efficient ''pony express'' relay system of postal service. In the 500s BC Persia became the center of a vast empire which extended from North Africa and southeastern Europe in the west to India in the east and from the gulf of Oman in the south to the Caucasus Mountains in the north. The Persians developed a cuneiform system of writings. Their religion was known as Zoroastrianism founded by a prophet called Zoroaster (or Zarathustra). Activities 2.6  For how long did the persian Empire Survive? India About 2500 BC. a civilization began in the Indus valley in what is now Pakistan and western India. Ruins of the ancient cities of Harappa and Mohenjo- Daro tell much about this civilization. Drainage systems ran from the houses into brick-lined sewers. The people lived in brick homes several stories high. The cities has large public baths and well-planned streets that formed city blocks. The people had systems of counting, measuring, weighing and writing. They dug ditches and canals around the cities to irrigate their farms. The Indus people traded with one another and also with other civilizations like Mesopotamia. Indus artisans used copper and bronze to make tools, mirrors, pots, and pans and also crafted silver and gold ornaments. A religion called Hindu was developed from the beliefs of the early Indo- Aryans. Later, another religion known as Buddhism emerged from Hinduism as a reform movement. Different explanations are given for the decline and disappearance of the Indus valley civilization. One explanation is that an invasion by the Aryans from the north destroyed the Indus valley cities. It is also believed that the drying up of the Hakra River and changes in the course of the Indus River disrupted agricultural and economic system of the area. Activities 2.7  Name and locate where Indian civilization was started?  Mention two major religions of India? China Ancient Chinese civilization reached the highest stage about 3000 B.C in the valley of Hwang Ho. The earliest Chinese states were the Shang and the Chon. The Sang kingdom was centered in the Hwang Ho valley. It became a highly developed society during the 1700's B.C. Its achievements included the creation of bronze vessels, the development of war chariots and the establishment of a system of writing. About 1122 BC the Chone dynasty overthrew the Shang and established their own rule. It ruled China until 256 BC. The greatest of the Chinese philosophers was Confucius (551-479 BC). His teachings are called Confucianism. Confucianism teaches the importance of a well-ordered society in which parents rule their children, men rule women and the educated rule the common people. The great wall of China was constructed by the ancient Chinese to keep out invaders from central Asia. It extends about 7,400 kilometers across northern China. The Chinese developed their own system of writing called logographic which means the use of pictorial symbols to represent words of Chinese language. Activities 2.8  Name the major centre of Chinese civilization and locate it on the map of China.  Discuss the most important achievements of Chinese civilization. III. America Maya The Maya were native American people who developed a magnificent civilization in western hemisphere before the coming of the Europeans. This civilization was at its peak from about 250 to 900 AD. The Maya produced remarkable architecture, painting, pottery, and sculpture. They made great advancement in astronomy and mathematics and developed an accurate yearly calendar. They developed an advanced form of writing. The Maya worshiped many gods and goddesses. The Maya built tall pyramids of limestone with small temples on top. Today, descendants of the Maya live in Mexico and central America. The Spanish had conquered the Southern part of the area in the 16th century. Spanish domination of the entire Maya region was completed in the late 17th century. Inca The Inca were a south American native people. They ruled one of the largest and richest empires in the Americas. The Inca empire began to expand about 1438. It included parts of the present-day Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolvia, Chile and Argentina. Its capital was Cusco, in southern Peru. The Inca were skilled in engineering and in crafts. They built a network of roads. Inca craft workers made fine articles from gold, silver and other materials. The Inca also wove fine cotton and woolen cloth. The Inca empire was conquered by Spanish forces after 1532. Aztec The Aztecs were another native American people who ruled a powerful empire in Mexico during the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. The center of this civilization was the valley of Mexico. The Aztec empire included many cities and towns. The largest city was the capital, Tenochtitlan, which stood on the site of present day Mexico-city. Agriculture formed the basis of the Aztec economy. Corn was the most important crop. The Aztecs worshiped hundreds of gods and goddesses. They used a form of writing called pictographic writings. Their empire was destroyed by the Spaniards in 1521. Activities 2.9  When did the Spanish destroy Mayan culture?  Tell where each of the following lived: Maya, Inca and Aztecs.  What arts did the Aztecs practice? Europe Greece Ancient Greece was the birth place of western civilization about 2,500 years ago. The magnificent achievements of the ancient Greeks in government, science, philosophy and the arts still influence our lives. Greek civilization developed chiefly in small city-states called Polis. A city- state consisted of a city or town and the surrounding villages and farmland. The best known city-states were Athens and Sparta. The city-states never became united into a nation. However, they all had a common language, religion and culture. The Greeks called themselves Hellens and their land Hellas. Ancient Greeks made great achievements in philosophy architecture , pottery and sculpture. They also developed drama and originated western philosophy. "Democracy'', ''Psychology'' "Olympic'' and "Marathon'' all have Greek origin. Activities 2.10  What is Polis?  What do you know further about Greece? Rome Different peoples inhabited ancient Italy. One of these peoples were called the Latins. They settled on the hills above the River Tiber in central Italy around 753 B.C. The city and empire of Rome was originated at this same place. The first Romans were farmers and shepherds. Ancient Rome had great influence on the development of western civilization. The language of the ancient Romans, Latin, became the basis of French, Italian, Spanish and other languages. Roman law had became the foundation for the legal systems of most countries in western Europe and Latin America. Roman roads, bridges and aqueducts served as models for engineers. Ancient Romans built public baths and amphitheaters (outdoor arenas). The most famous amphitheater in the city of Rome was the Coliseum. Roman sculptors and painters borrowed from Greek art and native Italian tradition. Literature of ancient Rome was greatly influenced by Greek poetry and drama. A series of kings ruled ancient Rome at the beginning. The Roman Republic was established is 509 BC after Roman nobles overthrew the king. Two elected officials called Consuls headed the government of the republic. A consul served for only a year. The Senate was the most powerful government body of the Roman Republic and senators served for life. The Roman Republic lasted nearly 500 years, until 27 BC. The Roman Empire was established after the republic was destroyed by 20 years of civil war. The empire lasted until Rome fell in 476 AD. Activities 2.11  Identify the difference between the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. 2.2 The Rise And Spread if Christianity  Terms to Know Apostle Clergy Gospel New testament Baptism Gentiles Holy communion Old testament Patriarchate Christianity emerged in palestine in the first century A.D. It is a religion based on the teaching of Jesus. Jesus was born in Bethlehem, in Judea part of palestine, which was at that time under the Roman Empire. The followers of Jesus believed that he was the Son of God sent to mankind as the saviour, or christ (hence the name Jesus Christ). The teachings of Jesus included a belief in a single God, brotherly love and eternal salvation in heaven. The teachings of Jesus become the basis of a new religion, Christianity. At the beginning the Roman government considered Christianity a branch of Jewish religion and treated it as such. But later on, the government of Rome recognized the Christians as a threat against unity and reform and undertook to eliminate them. This was because the loyalty of Christians to "Jesus as Lord" was irreconcilable with the worship of the Roman emperor as "Lord", which was a common practice at the time. For about 300 years Christian were presecuted by the Roman government. The persecution was most severe during the Roman Emperors Nero (54 - 68AD) and Diocletian (245 - 313 AD). The grounds for hostility to the Christians were not always the same, and often opposition and persecution were localized. The Christians were denied Roman citizenship, they were confiscated their properties. They also suffered torture and death.  Many people were attracted by the ideals of Christianity such as "equality of men before God" which appealed specially to the poor and oppressed. The Christian missionaries travelled and preached through the Roman Empire. The early Churcmen displayed courage, Sincerity and ability in their deeds. People were impressed by many early Christians, Who rather than renounce their faith, suffered persecution and died as martyrs. Thus, Christianity continued to grow stronger and gain converts. In 4th century A.D, Emperor Constantine (r. 324-337 A.D) ordered religious toleration in what was called the Edict of Milan. Thus, the Christians gained freedom from persecution. Later Emperor Constantine was converted and Christianity got a privileged place in Society. In 392 A.D. the Emperor Theodosius (r. 379-395 AD) proclaimed Christianity the official state religion. The religion thus gained wide spread acceptance through the Empire. During the middle Ages (500-1500 A.D) Christianity replaced the Roman Empire as a unifing force in Western Europe. Supreme in religious matters, the Roman Catholic Church also undertook many unreligious functions that were beyond the weak feudal governments. During the early christian era, Rome and Constantinople competed for religious power. The Pope, or Bishop of constantiniople asserted authority over Church affairs in the East. They also had conflicting views on Church language and rituals. These disagreements finally created split in the Christian Church. In 1054 the Church split in to two distinct parts the Roman Catholic Church at Rome and Greek Orthodox Church at Constantinople. The Greek Orthodox Church later split into a number of Easter Orthodox churches. The Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Churches retain separate identities to this day. In 1517, a movement called the Reformation began and Western Christianity was divided into the Roman Catholic Church and Protestantism.  Activities 2.12  What are the three major groups of Christianity?  What is "monotheism''? 2.3 The Aksumite State Terms to know Baptize Expel Kaaba Prosperous Royal Bishop Exermption Lucrative Rebellion Ruin Consecrate Gateway Monopolise Rivalry Sultanate Exemption Hijira Prophet Revenue Umma Activities 2.13  What informations could be extracted from Aksumite coins? Stalae? Discuss.  How was Christianity introduced to Aksum?  Discuss the Church-state relationship in Ethiopia. How long it lasted? The state of Aksum was not the first state in Ethiopia. There were pre- Aksumite states like Punt and Damat and several other ancient sites in northern part of Ethiopia. Scholars assume that well organized communities had occupied sites like Yeha, Coloe, Matara, Hawelti and Melazo. The exact time when Aksum emerged as a center of state is not certain because of the lack of sources. But based on some evidences, scholars assume the origin of this state in the middle of the second century BC. This assumption was mainly based on the document known as the Periplus of Erithrean Sea, which was written around 50 AD. This document is a manual or handbook used by merchants who frequently come to the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean. Its author is not known. This document gives a detailed account of the Aksumite state and the ports on the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden coasts. According to this document Adulis was the port of the city of Aksum. It also states that the king of Aksum was called Zoscales, and could communicate with Greek. At the beginning, it seems that the Aksumite state was dominated by land owners, who derived much of their income from agriculture. But later on the Aksumite economy became highly dependent on the income from the Red Sea trade, which it monopolized. On the Red Sea coast there was an ancient port of Adulis, through which several foreign merchants came to Aksum. This port rendered shipping services, for which the merchants have to pay. From this port, very important trade route also stretched into the interior of Aksum. So, the Aksumite state controlled both the internal and external trade and became very much prosperous. Particularly, when Aksum tookover the control of the port of Adulis, its prosperity became complete. The local and international trade contributed very much to the development of important towns including Aksum itself. Aksumite kings further promoted the trade by issuing coins of gold, silver and bronze, which bear their images. It seems that they were using these coins for an international trade. This trade brought an immense wealth and prosperity to Aksum. With this income the Aksumite kings built magnificent stalea, palaces and Churches, which are the signs of the advanced technology of Aksumite civilization. EZANAS PAGAN AV I EZANAS CHRISTIAN AV I EZANA CHRISTIAN AV I Figure 2.1 Aksumite coins  In order to protect these lucrative trade and trade routes from rivals, the Aksumite rulers built a strong military force using the income from the Red Sea trade. Moreover, they began to expand their territories in different directions by the use of this army. In its heydays Aksum's territorial extent came to include the whole region between the Red Sea coast in the east, the highland region overlooking the Blue Nile (Abbay) river in the west, the northern tip of Eritrea in the north, and northern Shawa in the south. Even some sources indicate that the Aksumite influences extended beyond these areas. A book entitled The Christian Topography, written by a Greek traveller called Cosmas Indicopleustes, stated that the Aksumite merchants visited lands to the south of Abbay to buy gold for the ruling class. There were also intense rivalry and clashes between Aksum and the Kingdom of Meroe in the Sudan. Some historical evidences indicate that Aksum had controlled territories in parts of South Arabia probably in a desire for controlling the Red Sea trade on both sides. This was between the third and sixth centuries of the Christian era, when Aksumite rulers had strong military power.  Aksum established closer diplomatic and commercial relations with the Eastern Roman Empire and other states in the Middle East, Near East and other countries on the Indian Ocean coast. So, Aksum was already exposed to the Greco-Roman world even during its pre-Christian days. In the middle of the four century, during the reign of king Ezana Christianity was introduced to Aksum. This further reinforced the exposure of Aksum to outside world. This event was a far reaching development in the history of Aksum. The introduction of Christianity to Aksum was not a well-planned missionary activity. Rather it was an incident, effected because of the diplomatic and commercial relations between the two countries. The Aksumite king, Ezana, (r.320 - 350 AD) was the first to accept Christianity. Fremnatos (later Bishop Abba Salama) converted Ezana and his close friends around 330 AD. Since then Christianity became the state religion in Aksum. As a result, Christianity secured the royal support which later on helped its rapid expansion. However, Christianity was first confined to the court of Ezana in Aksum. After over a century following the coming of some monks known as the Nine Saints towards the end of the fifth century AD the religion began to spread among the broad masses. These monks were very active in religious involvement. They preached the religion among the ordinary society of the interior of Aksum. They built Churches and monasteries. They translated the Bible and other religious books into Geez. From this time onwards Geez began to serve as the language of Church in Ethiopia. One very important development which followed the introduction of Christianity to Ethiopia was the long lasting relationship between Ethiopia and Egypt. Right from the beginning, the Ethiopian Church became dependent on the Alexandrean Church of Egypt for its bishop. Fremnatos was baptized as a bishop by the Patriarch of Egypt and sent for Ethiopia. This tradition of consecrating the bishops and sending them for Ethiopia continued until 1958. Until that year the bishops, heads of the Church, were always Egyptians. The Decline and Fall of Aksum Activities 2.14  What was the major external factor for the downfall of Aksum?  Discuss the internal factors that contributed to the decline of Aksum.  Collect pictures showing the legacies of Aksumite civilization and discuss them in class. As mentioned in the preceding section, the prosperity and growth of Aksum was directly related to its control of the Red Sea trade. Similarly, the Aksumite state and civilization began to decline when its Red Sea trade faced serious competition from South Arabians. Rebellion against king Caleb, (r.500 - 535 AD) broke out. Caleb had once controlled South Arabia in 525 AD. But the South Arabians finally expelled Aksumite governors and soldiers from their region between 580 and 590 AD. Thus Aksum lost its control of the other side of the Red Sea trade. The rise of Islam in the seventh century AD and other subsequent creation of a vast Muslim empire led to intense rivalry between Aksum and the Muslim Arabs over the Red Sea trade. The port of Adulis was destroyed by the Arabs in the early eighth century AD. The loss of revenues from the port and the Red Sea trade, resulted in the military weakness of Aksum. With out strong military power Aksum could not check external invasions and internal rebellions from the Beja and other peoples. These external and internal pressures led to the gradual shift of the political center of the Aksumite state to the south. Finally, the Aksumite power declined and its kings totally lost their power to a new dynasty known as the Zagwe in the mid twelfth century AD. Legacies of Aksumite Civilization Unlike many other centers of civilizations like Yeha, Mattara and Adulis, Aksum continued to exist as the biggest centre of a highly developed civilization for several centuries. This can be attested from the ruins of:  Aksumite temples  ornaments  pottery  iron tools  bricks  coins and tombs.  obelisks, Ship building technology was also well known in the port town of Adulis. The construction of obelisks and temples and the use of writing in Greek, Sabean and Geez languages indicated the development of craft and literature. Those ruins have become among the known centres of tourism in Ethiopia today. 2.4 The Rise and Expansion of Islam Terms to Know Caliph Nomadic Persecute Sultanates Worship Idols Pilgrimage Polytheist Titular The rise of Islam in the early seventh century AD. radically transformed the political, religious and social structures of the Middle East countries. As you remember, the Middle East has been the site of great empires and powerful civilizations from ancient times. In the seventh century AD. a new force, the Arabs, arose in the Arabian peninsula and spread their religion and influenced rapidly the Middle East and other parts of the world. Activities 2.15  Who are the Arabs?  Where is the birth place of Islam?  What is jihad?  Locate the Middle East and South Arabia on a map.  What effected the expansion of Islam to different parts of the world? Basic Features of Islam and Its Achievements The Arabs are a Semitic-speaking peoples who led a nomadic life in the Arabian peninsula. Pre-Islamic Arabia was politically disunited, and as the result of the harsh environment the Arabs were organized into clans to support each other. The clan organization helped to protect law and order in the society. The clan was represented by a titular head, the shiekh, who was mostly chosen from one of the leading families by a council of elders.  Following the domestication of camel, the Arabs began to take part in the caravan trade. Later on the Arabs became major carriers of trade between the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea. The early Arabs were polytheists, worshipping many different gods. In this traditional religion, their gods were mainly symbolized by a sacred stone. Such was the socio-political and economic conditions of the Arabs before the rise of Islam in the early seventh century AD. Figure 2.3 Map of Arabia The founding prophet of Islam, Mohammed, (570 - 632 A.D) was born from a Quaraysh tribe around 570 AD in Mecca, Arabia. As a young man he was married to a widow of rich merchant Kedijja. Around 610 AD, he began preaching a new religion, Islam.  In the Arabic language, the word Islam means "Surrender" or "Submission"- submission to the will of God. A follower of Islam is called a Muslim, which in Arabic means "one who surrenders to God". The Arabic name for God is Allah. Islam's central teaching is that there is only one God and Mohammed is his messanger or prophet. The religion also teachs that all Muslims are equal before God and thus all Muslims belong to one community the Umma. Muslims holy book is known as the Quran. Mohamed began experiencing Islam at the age of 40. He started preaching the new religion, initially to a small group of relatives and friends, and then to the general public. In his teachings Mohammed attacked the idolatory. This inturn affected the income of Meccan Qurayshs which they used to draw from the idols. Thus, Mohammedi teachings met with severe and hostile oppositions from the Qurayish people. As more people accepted his call, his enemies became more aggressive against him. In the year 622 AD. Mohamed immigrated to yathrib, and the name of the city was changed to Medina, meaning city of the prophet. The flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina is known as Hejira (Arabic term means flight or immigration). This date was designated by later Muslims as the beginning of the Muslim Calendar. At Medina Mohammed taught his faith and had many followers. He also organized an Islamic society. In AD 630 Mohammed captured Mecca with his large force. He destroyed the idols but retained the black stone, the Kaaba which had great respect through out Arabia. After taking over Mecca, Mohammed could teach and preach freely. For the first Muslims, Mohammed was not only a religious teacher and leader but also a law giver, chief judge, commander of the army and head of state. Mohammed died in 632 AD. After his death four leaders were elected from the Quraysh tribe turn by turn as his successors (Caliphs). These were Abu Bakr (632-34), Umar (634 - 44), Othman (644 - 56) and Ali (656 - 61). These Caliphs united Arabia and spread Islam far. They sent their forces to the east and west and created a huge Islamic Empire. Mohammed had made use of the Arabic tribal custom of making raids against one's enemies, and Mohammed's successors turned to the same custom to expand the movement. This activity was called a jihad, (Islamic Holy war). Once the Arabs had become united, they began to direct the jihad against the neighboring peoples. In 636 AD the Arab army defeated the Byzantine army and after some years took control of Syria. To the east, the Arabs defeated a Persian force and then went on to conquer the entire Persian empire by 650 AD. In the meantime, they crossed to Africa and by 642 Egypt and other countries of northern Africa had been added to the new Arab Empire. At the beginning of the eighth century, the Arab armies moved across north Africa. They conquered the Berbers and converted them to Islam. At the same time the Arab forces crossed the straight of Gibraltar and occupied southern Spain. Later on, in 732, they advanced to southern France where they were defeated at the battle of Tours. Their attempt to over ran the capital of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople, was unsuccessful and this saved that empire and Christian Europe. Figure 2.4 The Muslim Empire  Within one hundred years after the death of Prophet Mohammed, a vast Muslim Arab empire was created. The Arabs became a master of this large empire which included all of the Arabian peninsula, North Africa, Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Turkistan (central Asia), the Caucasus in Russia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, East Indies, southeastern Europe, India, parts of China and the Philippines. This large scale expansion was achieved under four successive Muslim dynasties: the Caliphates, Ummayads, Abba sid and the Ottomans. In the meantime, the Muslim world came up with its own civilization. The basic feature of Muslim Arab civilization is not purely Arabian in all aspects. Expansion had brought not only great wealth and new ethnic groups into the fold of Islam, but also contact with other civilizations. So, the new Muslim Arab Empire was influenced by the cultures of the Byzantine and Persian empires. In the eighth and ninth centuries, many Greek, Syrian and Persian scientific and philosophic works were translated into Arabic. They were read and studied by Muslim scholars. Islamic scholars also made considerable advances of their own. They contributed to logic and sciences of nature such as mathematics, chemistry, medicine, astronomy, metaphysics, ethics and politics. The art and science of designing buildings or architecture were gradually developed in the Muslim World. Muslim craftsmen constructed many of the older big monuments including the magnificent Mosques and palaces of Mecca, Medina, Damascus, Baghdad, Cairo, and in other parts of the Muslim world. During the expansion of Islam trade generally flourished. Extensive trade activities were conducted, not only with the Islamic world, but also with China, the Byzantine Empire, India and Southeast Asia. Trade was carried out both by ship and by camel caravans. The flourishing of trade led to the creation of prosperous cities in the Muslim Arab Empire. Damascus, Baghdad and Cairo were formed this way. These cities became centres of administrative, cultural and economic activity for their regions. After the rise and dramatic expansion of Islam, Arabic became an international language spoken over the vast Muslim Arab Empire.  Figure 2.5 Mecca and the Kaaba Figure 2.6 The Mosque of Damascus Islam and the Horn of Africa Activities 2.16  Show on a map: a. The Red Sea c. The Gulf of Aden b. The Dahlak Islands d.The Indian Ocean  Draw the map of the Horn of Africa and show the distribution of the major religions in the region.  Locate the ports of Adulis, Zeila, Merca, and Moqadishu.  How was Islam introduced to the Horn of Africa? As stated above, Islam spread to different parts of the world when the Muslim Arab armies launched a war of conquest called jihad (Holy War). In the Horn of Africa, however, its introduction was in a peaceful way. The Arabs did not launch the jihad against the countries of the Horn. This was mainly because of the favour that the Aksumite kingdom had done for the early Muslim refugees. As discussed earlier, when Mohammed began teaching Islam in Mecca, he came into series of conflicts with the Quraysh tribe. When the persecution against his followers became serious, Mohammed sent a small group of his followers including the prophets daughter Rukiya to the kingdom of Aksum in 615 AD. The warm reception and good attitudes of the king of Aksum towards the Muslim refuges moved Mohammed not to conduct jihad against the Ethiopian region. After the returning back of all the Muslim immigrants back to Arabia safely around 628 AD the Prophet continued to maintain closer links with the kingdom of Aksum. As a result Mohammed exempted the kingdom of Aksum from jihad in the future.  Islam was introduced to the Horn through peaceful means following the trade routes. Muslim clerics and merchants served as the missionaries of Islam in the Horn of Africa. Islam was introduced to the region through three main gateways. These were the Red Sea in the north, the Gulf of Aden in the east and the Indian Ocean in the southeast. As you remember, the Muslim Arabs destroyed the ancient port of Adulis in 702 AD and occupied the Dahlak Islands. By then Islam had already firmly established in the Islands. Later on, in the tenth century, the Muslim sultanate of Dahlak was established. About the same time, Muslim communities began to settle on the Red Sea coastal regions. They converted much of the pastoral peoples living in the lowlands of the Red Sea coast to Islam. But Islam did not succeed in penetrating the interior of northern Ethiopia from the lowlands. This was mainly because Christianity was well-established on the highland regions since the mid fourth century AD. Consequently, Islam was confined to lowland regions in northern Ethiopia. The other direction through which Islam entered and gradually spread into the Ethiopian interior was the port of Zeila, on the coast of the Gulf of Aden. Particularly, after the destruction of Adulis, the importance of the Zeila port began to increase. Several Muslim Arab merchants began to come to the Horn through this port. A very important trade route, called Zeila trade route linked this port with the rich interior of the Horn. So, the Muslim Arab merchants used this route to spread the religion of Islam to the interior. In this direction Islam successfully spread into eastern Shewa, Wallo, and the Harar regions of central and eastern Ethiopia. Later on, from the same direction, Islam spread to Bale, Arsi and Hadya regions of southcentral Ethiopia. The third gateway of Islam to the Horn was the Indian Ocean coast from where it penetrated into the Somali region. Islam reached the Somali communities through the coastal towns of Moqadishu, Brava and Merca. Arabs and non-Arab Muslim merchant started to settle in these towns since the tenth century AD. The introduction of Islam to the Horn of Africa was followed by the rise of series of Muslim sultanates or states. Generally, Islam and trade led to the emergence of several Muslim sultanates along the trade routes deep into the interior. The Muslim sultanate of Dahlak have been already mentioned. In the late ninth century AD the Muslim sultanate of Shawa was formed on the eastern foothills of the Shawan plateau. Towards the mid thirteenth century, another Muslim sultanate called Ifat emerged a little bit to the south of Shawa. Later on several other Muslim states came into being to the south and east Ifat. These Muslim states were Dawaro (in eastern Hararge), Fatagar (around Shenkora), Bali (in Bale), Sharkah (Arsi), Hadya, Dara, and Arbabini. Activities 2.17  Discuss the significance of the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean coasts for the spread of Islam in the Horn of Africa.  Compare and contrast the role of the Dahlak Islands and port of Zaila for the spread of Islam in the Ethiopian region. Summary Before the rise of Islam, the Arabs were politically disunited and practiced traditional religions. With the rise of Islam, the Arabs entered a new way of life. They were united under Islam through Prophet Mohammed. With in a few decades of Mohammed's death, the Middle East came under their rule through jihad. Arab armies also marched westward across North Africa and eastward into Mesopotamia and Persia, creating a new empire that stretched from Spain to the Indus River valley. Arab rule also brought with it a new religion and a new culture to the conquered lands. Islam was introduced to Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa in a peaceful way through the agency of Muslim Arab merchants and clerics. It entered the region in three different directions: the Dahlak Islands in the Red Sea, the port of Zeila on the Gulf of Aden coast and the towns of Moqadishu, Brava and Mecca on Indian ocean coast. The port of Zeila served as the main gateway of Islam into the interior of Ethiopia. REVIEW QUESTIONS 2 I. Choose the best answer 1. The periplus of Erythrean Sea a) was written by Cosmas. b) served as a guide for merchants. c) describes the introduction of Christianity to Ethiopia. 2. Zoscales was the king of __________. a) Aksum c) Ifat b) Moroe d) South Arabia 3. ___________ was an ancient port in northern Ethiopia. a) Zeila c) Adulis b) Berbera d) Djibouti 4. The king of Aksum who welcomed the Muslim refugees was a) Caleb c) Zoscales b) Ella Saham d) Walasma II. Match Items of column A with their appropriates under B A. B. _______ 5. Hijira a) the most important gateway for Islam to _______ 6. Nine Saints Ethiopia _______ 7. Fremnatos b) converted Ezana to Christianity _______ 8. Caleb c) conquered South Arabia _______ 9. Zeila d) translated Bible to Geez e) the flight of Mohammed and his follwers III. Identify the followings 10. Ifat 11. Jihad 12. Adulis 13. Christian Topography 14. Zeila trade route 15. Prophet Mohammed IV. Give short answers 16. What internal and external factors led to the downfall of Aksum? 17. What are the benefits of Aksumite states? 18. Discuss the advantages of Ethiopia's exemption from jihad.  UNIT THREE STATES IN THE ETHIOPIAN REGION AND THE HORN OF AFRICA UP TO 1529 Introduction Beginning from the late ninth century onwards, the political centre of the Aksumite Empire shifted to Kubar, in southern Tigrai, near the Agaw inhabited districts. It was from the Agaw region that the Zagwe dynasty emerged and took over the political power from the weakened Aksumite rulers around 1150 AD. This unit deals with the history of the Ethiopian region and the Horn of Africa beginning from the emergence of the Zagwe dynasty up to 1529. This year marked the end of the dominance of the Christian highland kingdom when it was defeated by the forces of Ahmad Ibn Ibrahim (Ahmad Gragn). Objectives After learning this unit, you will be able to:  examine social, economic and political conditions in the Ethiopian region;  develop respect for the distinctive histories of the different peoples of Ethiopia and recognize their interrelated development;  develop the ability to identify and analyze cause and effect relations in historical study. Terms to know Dynasty Gult Right Holy Land Monolithic Rest Guerrilla Gult system Legend Pilgrimage Rock-Hewn Church 3. 1 The Zagwe Kingdom Activities 3.1  What does Zagwe mean?  How did the Zagwe dynasty emerge to Christian state power?  Explain Zagwe's international relations.  What are the main achievements of the Zagwe dynasty?  What are the main reasons for the downfall of the Zagwe dynasty?  Show the capital and the territorial extent of the Zagwe dynasty on map. After the downfall of Aksum, the Zagwe dynasty took over the political power in northen Ethiopia. This dynasty came from the local Agaw ruling class of Bugna, a district in Lasta. This province was part of the Aksumite empire and the people were long christianized after the arrival of the "Nine Saints". The Southward shift of Aksumite political center led to the integration of the Agaw people and the local ruling class with the Aksumite ruling class. The Agaw people were recruited into the Aksumite army while the Agaw ruling class began to intermarry with the Christian court of Aksum. This closer interaction eventually enabled the Agaws to take power easily from the Aksumite rulers in the middle of the 12th century. The Agew dynasty was founded around 1150AD. The founder of this dynasty was Merera, also known as Mera Tekle Haymnot. He established a new capital at Adefa, in Lasta, in the center of the Agaw speaking region. Adefa was later on renamed Lalibela, after one of the greatest kings of the dynasty king Lalibela (r.about 1190 - 1225 AD). The territorial limits of the Zagwe state included the former highland Aksumite provinces in the north and the present northern Shawa in the south. The Zagwe also seemed to have pushed their territory into the Lake Tana region in the west. Figure 3.1 Sketch map of the Zagwe Kingdom The economy of the Zagwe dynasty was based on agriculture. The peasantry formed the bulk of the population. The peasantry paid part of his produce to the court in the form of tribute. District governors were expected to organize an army to ensure peace for traders, trade routes and peasants. Trade brought additional income to the state. The trade of the kingdom was conducted through two outlets. The Dahlak Islands on the Red Sea coast served as an outlet for the trade of the northern part of the kingdom, while the Zeila port was the main outlet for the trade of the southern territories of the Zagwe state. The Zagwe dynasty maintained the cultural traditions of the Aksumite state almost intact. Christianity continued to be the state and official religion of the country. Geez was maintained as the language of the Church and writing. The dynasty continued to maintain cordial relations with the Muslim rulers of Egypt.  The tradition of visiting the Holy Land of Jerusalem in Palestine for religious purposes seemed to have reached its peak during this period. The Zagwe dynasty is renowned in Ethiopian history for its remarkable architectural achievement. This was the technology of building the monolithic rock-hewn Churches. The surviving evidences are the 11 rock hewn churches built during the reign of Emperor Lalibela in the first half of the thirteenth century. The presence of these beautiful Churches made the town of Lalibela one of the most important centers of learning and Christian culture in Ethiopia. This architectural achievement of the Zagwe dynasty is now recognized as one of the world's cultural heritage and became a known center of tourism in Ethiopia. Figure 3.2 The well known Lalibala rock hewn churches Activities 3.2  What are the economic and cultural importance of the rock hewn Churches of Lalibela at present?  Identify the similarities and difference between the politics of the Aksumite and that of Zagwe Kingdoms.  Collect oral traditions on the building of the rock hewn Churches and analyze them in group. Many reasons contributed to the downfall of the Zagwe dynasty. The first one was problem of succession to the throne among the Zagwe princes. Most of the time  they settled this issue by force of arms. They could not be able to arrange a smooth succession to the throne. Secondly, there had been strong opposition to the Zagwe kings throughout their rule. This opposition was from the regions of Tigray and Amhara. Particularly in Tigrai the leading clergymen of the Churches of Aksum and Debre Damo spread anti-Zagwe propaganda that was related to the legend of the Queen of Sheba. This legend maintains that all Christian kings must trace their descent directly from Menelik I. According to the legend Menelik I was born to king Solomon of Israel from Queen Sheba, the supposed queen of Ethiopia. Hence, the Zagwe kings were seen as illegitimate successors of Aksum. The intension behind this legend was the restoration of the ancient dynasty of Aksum. However, in spite of the strong opposition in Tigrai, the initiative to overthrow the Zagwe came from the Amhara region. The Amhara region was located to the south of Lasta, around southern Wollo and northern Shawa. An Amhara chief Yekuno Amlak, organized a movement against the Zagwe rule. He defeated Yetbarek, the last Zagwe king, in the battle field in 1270 AD. Yekuno Amlak established a genealogy that made him a descendant of the last Aksumite king, Dil Naod, who was deposed by the Zagwe dynasty around 1150 AD. By 1270 AD Yekuno Amlak declared himself an Emperor and at the same time the restorer of the so- called Solomonic dynasty. Thus, Yekuno Amlak (r. 1270 - 1285) is considered the founder the so- called 'Solomonic' dynasty. Yekuno Amlak and his successors had used this legend as an ideological arm to legitimize their political power and the tradition of identifying the Christian kings of Ethiopia with ancient Israel continued until 1974. 3.2 The Christian Highland Kingdom under Yekuno Amlak and his Successors Activities 3.3  Collect oral traditions about the legend of Queen Sheba and King Solomon. Discuss them in group.  What economic factors contributed to the shift of state power from Lasta to the region of Amhara?  Identify the territorial limits of the Christian Highland kingdom under Yekuno Amlak and his successors.  What do you understand by the words rest and gult?  The legend of Queen Sheba and King Solomon was not the major factor for the success of Yekuno Amlak in 1270. He was said to have built a strong army, by which he launched successive military expeditions against the Zagwe rulers. The maintenance of strong army presupposes economic strength, which might have been acquired from the Zeila trade route passing through the Amhara land. The control over the Zeila trade route helped Yekumo -Amlak to strengthen his economic power. The economic strength in turn helped him to organize and sustain strong army. This economic and military strength contributed much to his success in defeating the Zagwe king and to inaugurate a new ruling dynasty. Like the Zagwe rulers, the kings of the new Solomonic dynasty maintained the political and cultural traditions of Aksum. They continued to expand Christianity in different directions. The rulers exercised both political and religious powers at the same time. The Church-state relationship became very strong and almost reached its peak during this period. One very important development of this period was the large scale territorial expansion of the Christian kingdom. In 1270, when it came to power, the Christian kingdom was confined to the territory that consisted of southern Eritrea, Tigrai, Lasta and northern part of Shewa. From this area Yekuno Amlak and his successors began to expand the territory of the new dynasty. Its territorial limits covered the ancient highland provinces of Aksum and Zagwe in the north. It also covered the regions of Gonder and eastern Gojjam in the north west, Bizamo and Damot in the south west, the Gurage lands and the Omotic populations of Walayta and Gamo in the south and Ifat, Fatagar, Dawaro, Hadya and Bali in the east and south east.  Figure 3.3 Map of states in the Ethiopian Region in the 14th and 15th centuries In order to effectively administer over this vast territory, the Christian kingdom consolidated a feudal system of administration known as the gult system. Under this system state officials were granted right of collecting tribute (called the gult right) from the local peasantry. Gult right is a right given to an official to share in the produce of the peasantry. An official who was given this right by the state was known as bale-gult or gult owner. Peasants are given to him based on his rank in state hierarch