History of Ethiopia and the Horn (2).pdf

MODULE FOR HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN FOR HLIS Module Writers     Surafel   (Ph.D)………………… Addis Ababa University Gelgelo    Deressa...

MODULE FOR HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN FOR HLIS Module Writers     Surafel   (Ph.D)………………… Addis Ababa University Gelgelo    Deressa   (Ph.D)……………..…. Jimma University Debu      Dereje  Hinew  (Ph.D).…………………Wollaga University   Meseret  (M.A) ………………... Debre-Tabor University Worku Addis Ababa November 2019 1 Table of Contents Introduction to the Module 4 Unit One 7 Introduction (3 hours) 7 1.1. The Nature and Uses of History 7 1.2. Sources and Methods of Historical Study 13 1.3. The History of Historical Writing in Ethiopia and the Horn 14 1.4. The Geographical Context of Human History in Ethiopia and the Horn 20 Unit Two 25 Peoples and Cultures in Ethiopia and the Horn 25 2.1. Human Evolution 26 2.2. Neolithic Revolution 29 2.3. The Peopling of the Region 30 2.4. Religion and Religious Processes 34 Unit Three 45 Polities, Economy and Socio-Cultural Processes in Ethiopia and the Horn to the End of the 13th Century 45 3.1. Evolution of States 46 3.2. Ancient Polities 47 3.3. External Contacts 57 3.4. Economic Formations 59 3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements 60 Unit Four 66 Politics, Economy and Socio-Cultural Processes from the Late Thirteenth to the beginning of the Sixteenth Centuries (6 hours) 66 4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic’’ Dynasty 67 4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial and Religious Expansion of the Christian Kingdom 68 4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics of Muslim Sultanates 74 4.4. Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates 76 4.5. External Relations 78 Unit Five 83 Politics, Economy and Socio-Cultural Processes from Early Sixteenth to the End of the Eighteenth Centuries (10 hrs) 83 5.1. Interaction and Conflicts between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal 84 5.2. Foreign Interventions and Religious Controversies 89 5.3. Population Movements 91 5.4. Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and Religious Diversities 102 5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions 104 5.6. The Period of Gondar (1636-1769) and Zemene-Mesafint / Era of the Princes (1769-1855) 115 Unit Six 125 2 Internal Interactions and External Relations in Ethiopia and the Horn, 1800-1941 (10 hours) 125 6.1. The Nature of Interactions among Peoples and States of Ethiopia and the Horn 126 6.2. Power Rivalry 131 6.3. The Making of Modern Ethiopian State 133 6.4. Modernization Attempts 138 6.5. Socio-Economic Issues/Developments 141 6.6. External Relations: Challenges and Threats 145 Unit Seven 159 Internal Developments and External Relations, 1941–1994 (5 hours) 159 7.1. Post-1941 Imperial Period 161 7.2. The Derg Regime (1974-1991) 182 7.3. Historical Developments, 1991-4 194 3  Introduction to the Module This teaching material is prepared for a common course given to Higher Learning Institutions Students. The purpose is to help students understand a history of Ethiopia and the Horn from ancient to 1994 as a base for shaping and bettering of the future. The module generally focus on major topics in the history of Ethiopia and the Horn including social, cultural, economic, political experiences that were also intertwined. The contents of the module are categorized considering the chronology and thematic relations of events in time and space. To make this course inclusive and representative, the module also included regional histories across the period. The module is divided into seven units and each unit has its own specific objectives. The first unit defines history, describes why history is important, how history is studied and introduces the region Ethiopia and the Horn. The second unit seeks to explain peoples and cultures in the region. The major topics treated in the unit are human evolution, Neolithic Revolution, settlement patterns as well as religion and religious processes in Ethiopia and the Horn. Based on these historical backgrounds, the third unit describes states, external contacts, economic formations and achievement in terms of architecture, writing, calendar, and others to the end of the 13th century. Unit four treats political developments, evangelization and religious movements, trade and external relations of the region from late 13th to the beginning the 16th century. It explains how Christian and Muslim sultanates evolved in the region and how their interactions shaped the history of the region in the pre 16th century. Unit five is devoted to describe a history of the region from the early 16th to the end of the 18th Century. It deals with interaction between states, foreign interventions, religious controversies, population movements, and how these contributed to the integration of peoples across ethnic and religious diversities to the end of the 18th century. Besides, the unit describes peoples and states in different parts of the Horn. The unit ends up its discussion depicting the major condition and achievements of the period of Gonder, the era of princes and Yejju rule. 4 The social, cultural, economic, and political experiences of Ethiopia and the Horn in the 19th century and the early 20th century that played significant role in shaping the modern history of the region are given space in unit six. Historical processes including states formation and power rivalry, trade, external relation, threats and major battles, centralization and modernization attempts, Italian occupation, and socio-economic conditions from 1800 to 1941 makes central position in the modern history of the region. It also underlines how personalities helped change the setting, how societies interacted, and its implication for history of Ethiopia and the Horn. The last unit is devoted to describe historical developments in the region from the period of liberation from the Italian rule (1941) to the period of the ratification transitional charter (1994). To this, interactions such as consolidation of Imperial Power and socio-economic conditions, oppositions, national questions, reforms, and political changes of the period are given space. Finally, we would like to underline that despite serious attempts, the module is far from being comprehensive in terms of coverage of themes and issues across time and spaces in the region. Certainly, however, the topics and approaches considered in the module derive attention of learners and instructors of higher institutions, and help to develop smarter teaching material. Objectives The general objective of this module is to introduce students to the diverse histories of Ethiopia and the Horn and the extent to which interaction between peoples throughout the region and with the outside world have shaped human history. The specific objectives are:  distinguish the nature and uses of history  identify pertinent sources for the history of the peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn  describe changes & continuities that unfolded in Ethiopia and the Horn  elucidate the causes, courses and consequences of events happened in the region  explain the nature of the region‟s external contacts and their effects  appreciate peoples‟ achievements, heritages and cultural diversities of the region 5 Competences This module enables students to:  comprehend the nature of history;  analyze relevant sources for History of Ethiopia and the Horn;  understand Ethiopia and the Horn in relation to Human Evolution and Neolithic Revolution;  trace the origin, developments and achievements of states in the region during the ancient period;  examine the long-term effect of the „‟Solomonic‟‟ dynasty in the region;  scrutinize dynamics of territorial expansion of the Christian kingdom and rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates in the region;  know the role of foreign relations and interventions from ancient to modern times in the region;  realize the interplay between local developments and foreign influences;  explicate the role of population movements in shaping modern Ethiopia and the Horn;  illustrate the major socio-economic, religious & political achievements of Gondar period;  discuss salient features and effects of the “Zemene Mesafint”;  assess developments in Eastern, Central, Southern & Western parts of Ethiopia & the Horn;  expound the political process for formation of Modern Ethiopia and the Horn;  discern the move towards modernization and the challenges encountered;  point out legacies of major battles, victories and the roles of patriots;  elaborate the socio-economic and political progresses of the post 1941 imperial period;  differentiate the major changes, and challenges that led to the demise of the monarchy;  reveal the political momentum, reforms and oppositions during the Derg period;  clarify historical developments from 1991-4. 6  Unit One Introduction (3 hours) 1.1. The Nature and Uses of History Introduction Dear learners, This unit introduces you with the nature of history and historiography, the diverse histories of Ethiopia and the Horn and the extent to which interaction between societies throughout the region have shaped human history. History is a systematic study and organized knowledge of the past. The purpose of historical study is not simply to produce a mere list of chronological events about the deeds of the dead but to find patterns and establish meaning through the rigorous study and interpretation of surviving records. Historiography, on the other hand, refers to the history of history; it explores changes in historical interpretations through time. Accordingly, the unit considers popular and academic conceptions of history, the why and how of studying history and the state of historical writing in Ethiopia and the Horn focusing on Ethiopia. Finally, the unit discusses the role of geography in the region’s human history. In this regard, it shows that despite the region’s diverse environments, peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn were never isolated but they interacted throughout history. As a result, the social, economic, cultural and political history of Ethiopia and the Horn is highly intertwined. 7 Unit Objectives At the end of this unit, students will be able to:  differentiate between past and history.  distinguish between popular and scholarly conceptions of history.  understand the relationship between history and other disciplines.  identify categories of historical sources.  understand what methods historians use to study the past.  discern basic patterns of continuity and change.  explain the uses of history.  avoid judging the past solely in terms of present-day norms and values.  explain how the writing and purposes of history have changed over time  discuss the role of geography in human history. Unit Starters  What is history?  What do you think are the similarities and differences between past and history?  What is the relevance of knowing about the past?  What study history?  What are sources?  Identify categories of historical sources.  What techniques do historians use to write about the past?  What is historiography?  Have you ever read a historical work? Do you remember the title and author of the work?  Can you name some writers of Ethiopian history?  How do you think geographical factors impact, as incentives and deterrents, the movement of people and goods in a region? 8 A. Nature The term history is derived from the Greek word historia which meant “inquiry” or “an account of one‟s inquiries.” The first use of the term is attributed to one of the ancient Greek historians, Herodotus (c. 484–c. 420 B.C.E.), who is often held to be the “father of written history.” In ordinary usage history means all the things that have happened in the human past. The past signifies events, which have taken place and the facts of the past which are kept in writing. More specifically, the distinction is between what actually happened in the past or that part which exists independently of the historian and still awaits to be recorded and the accounts of the past provided by historians, that is, „history‟. Historians apply their expertise to surviving records and write history in the form of accounts of the past. Academically, history can be defined as an organized and systematic study of the past. The study involves the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after the development of complex social and political organizations along with the invention of writing. Evidently, what actually happened in the past is almost infinite. Historians select which topics and problems they wish to study, as do scientists. In this regard, the major concern of history is the study of human society and its interaction with the natural environment which is also the subject of study by many other disciplines. What differentiates history from other disciplines is that while the latter study the interaction between humans and their environment in the present state, history studies the interaction between the two in the past within the framework of the continuous process of change taking place in time. Because of the longevity of that time, historians organize and divide the human past into discrete periods after identifying significant developments in politics, society, economy, culture, environment etc. through the rigorous study of documents and artifacts left by people of other times and other places. They then give a label to each period to convey the key characteristics and developments of that era. This is what we call periodization in history; one of the key characteristics of the discipline. When historians talk about continuity, they are not implying that a particular pattern applied to everyone in the world or even in a particular country or region. Nor are they claiming that 9 absolutely nothing changed in the pattern they are describing. All aspects of human life i.e. social, cultural, economic and political in the past have been changing from time to time; and none of them were practiced in exactly the same way in the lifetime of our ancestors. But some things stay more or less the same for long periods of time, since few things ever change completely. For example, we continue to speak the languages of our forefathers; follow their beliefs and religious practices; wear the costumes they were wearing; continue to practice their agricultural or pastoral ways of life; maintain the fundamental components or structures of their social organization. In the same vein, the basic fabric of society in Ethiopia and the Horn remains similar and continues to have special characteristics. This is why E. H. Carr defined history as an “unending dialogue between the present and the past.” In short, the past does not exist now, but continues to live in present. Until the early twentieth century the study and teaching of history was limited to narrative presentation of “what happened” in the past. At the core of this narration had been political events relating to the deeds of “great men” and “great women”. As societies have become more complex, as the different areas of the world have become more closely interconnected, as new types of primary source and research methods are brought into use, so more rigorous accounts of the past have become more necessary. Thus, history assumed three dimensions as its main job i.e. to narrate what happened, to discuss how it happened and to analyze why it happened. Contemporary history teaching and research pursue a more integrative approach offering students an expanded view of historical knowledge that includes aspects of environment, religion, gender, philosophy, economics, technology, art and society instead of mere cataloguing of political events. B. Uses People live in the present. They plan for and worry about the future. History, however, is the study of the past. Given all the demands that press in from living in the present and anticipating what is yet to come, why bother with the past? Why is history worth attention as a subject of study? 10 History should be studied because it is essential to the individual and the society. The uses of history in the context of the relationship between the past and the present and its role in defining our own identity along with a variety of other reasons why the study of history is a rewarding venture are summarized below. History Helps Us Better Understand the Present History is the only significant storehouse of information available for the examination and analysis of how people behaved and acted in the past, and people need to have some sense of how societies function simply to run their own lives. A purely contemporary analysis of social changes may shed some light on contemporary developments, but knowledge of relevant historical background is essential for a balanced and in-depth understanding of many current world situations. Societies have felt a need to produce some sort of account of their past because it is difficult to understand problems that face in humanity and society today without tracing their origins in the past. History Provides Us a Sense of Our Own Identity Knowledge of history is indispensable to understand who we are and where we fit in world. Each of us is born into a nation, but also into a region, a culture, an ethnic group, a social class, and a family. Each such grouping can and does influence us in a number of ways. The study of history helps us to get our bearings in such respects allowing us to achieve a social as well as a personal identity. An individual without memory finds great difficulty in relating to others and in taking intelligent decisions. A society without history would be in similar condition. It is only through sense of history that communities establish their identity, orient them, and understand their relationships with the past and with other societies. History Provides the Basic Background for Many Other Disciplines Historical knowledge is extremely valuable in the pursuit of other disciplines such as literature, art, philosophy religion, sociology, political science, anthropology and economics. 11 With regard to the last four, it is fair to argue that history is a mother discipline for they arose out of historical investigation or formed part of historical writing. The Careful Study of History Teaches One Many Critical Skills Studying history helps students to develop some critical skills relating to the how of doing research. These include but not limited to how to find and evaluate sources; how to make coherent arguments based on various kinds of evidence and present clearly in writing. These analytical and communication skills are highly usable in other academic pursuits. Gaining skills in sorting through diverse interpretations is also essential to make informed decisions in our day-to-day life. History Can Help One Develop Tolerance and Open-Mindedness Most of us have a tendency to regard our own cultural practices, styles, and values as right and proper. Studying different societies in the past is like going to a foreign country which contributes to rid ourselves of some of our inherent cultural provincialism. By studying the past, students of history acquire a broad perspective that gives them the range and flexibility required in many life situations. History Can be Entertainment Finally, history supplies us an endless source of fascination. Exploring the ways people in distant ages constructed their lives involves a sense of beauty and excitement, and ultimately another perspective on human life and society. To conclude, history should be studied because we cannot escape from our past. Only through studying history can we grasp how things change; only through history can we begin to comprehend the factors that cause change; and only through history can we understand what elements of an institution or a society persist despite change. Aesthetic and humanistic goals also inspire people to study the past, far removed from present-day utility. Nevertheless, 12 just as history can be useful, it can also be abused. Such abuses come mainly from the deliberate manipulation of the past to fit current political agenda. In such cases, history is written backwards. That is, the past is described and interpreted to justify the present. While personal biases are not always avoidable, a historian is different from the propagandist in that the former takes care to document his judgment and assertions so that they can be subjected to independent and external verification. That said, how do historians study and interpret the past and the changes that took place in periods during which they have not lived themselves? 1.2. Sources and Methods of Historical Study Historians are not creative writers like novelists; the work of historian must be supported by evidence arising from sources. Sources are instruments that bring to life what appear to have been dead. Where there are no sources there is no history. Sources are, therefore, key to the study and writing of history. Historical sources are broadly classified into two types: Primary and Secondary. Primary sources are surviving traces of the past available to us in the present. They are original or first hand in their proximity to the event both in time and space. Examples of primary sources are manuscripts (handwritten materials), diaries, letters, minutes, court and administrative files, travel documents, photographs, maps, video and audiovisual materials, and physical remains or relics such as coins, fossils, weapons, utensils, and buildings. Secondary sources, on the other hand, are second-hand published accounts about events that happened in the past. Examples of secondary sources are articles, books, textbooks, biographies, and published stories or movies about historical events. Secondary sources often use primary sources, but are written long after the event has occurred, providing an interpretation of what happened, why it happened, and how it happened. Secondary sources give us what appear to be finished accounts of certain historical periods and phenomena. Nevertheless, as new sources keep coming to light, no history work can be taken as final. New sources make possible new historical interpretations or entirely new historical reconstructions. 13 Oral sources are also indispensable to study and document the history of non-literate societies. In many societies, oral information can pass from one generation to another without being recorded. This type of oral data is called oral tradition. For the history of Ethiopia and the Horn, historians use a combination of the sources described above. However, whatever the source of information-primary or secondary, written or oral- the data should be subjected to critical evaluation before used as evidence. Primary sources have to be verified for their originality and authenticity because some times primary sources like letters may be forged. Secondary sources have to be examined for the reliability of their reconstructions. An oral tradition may lose its originality and authenticity due to omission, exaggeration and distortion through time. Therefore, it should be crosschecked with other sources such as written documents to determine its veracity. In short, historians (unlike novelists) must find evidence about the past, ask questions of that evidence, and come up with explanations that make sense of what the evidence says about the people, events, places and time periods they study. 1.3. The History of Historical Writing in Ethiopia and the Horn Historiography is the history of historical accounts, studying how knowledge of the past, either recent or distant, is obtained and transmitted. People have had some sense of the past perhaps since the beginning of humanity. Yet historiography as an intentional attempt to know and represent descriptions of past events in writing has rather a briefer career throughout the world. The organized study and narration of the past was introduced by the Greeks Herodotus (c. 484–c. 420 B.C.E.) and Thucydides (d. c. 401 B.C.E.). The other major tradition of thinking and writing about the past is the Chinese. The most important early figure in Chinese historical thought and writing was the Han dynasty figure Sima Qian (145– 86 B.C.E.). Despite such early historiographical traditions, history emerged as an academic discipline in the second half of the nineteenth century first in Europe and subsequently in other parts of the world notably in the US. The German historian, Leopold Von Ranke (1795–1886), and his colleagues established history as an independent discipline in Bonn with its own set of methods and concepts by which historians collect evidence of past events, 14 evaluate that evidence, and present a meaningful discussion of the subject. Ranke‟s greatest contribution to the scientific study of the past is such that he is considered as the “father of modern historiography”. Modern Western-style historical writing in Africa has much shorter life span than the global trend noted above. Nonetheless, it is not the case that the Africa had no history prior to colonial times- a view once confidently held among Eurocentric writers. Such unfounded assumption has been successfully refuted after independence owing to both the considerable efforts of Africans to recover their past through oral traditions and the growing knowledge of the existence of writing before the arrival of Europeans. Poetry and folk tales from different regions of Africa have been used to establish reasonably reliable chronologies of historical events with or without the presence of literacy. Writing in many parts of Africa was introduced by Arabs in the centuries following the rise of Islam. An exception to this trite generalization is Ethiopia where there had been an indigenous tradition of history writing from at least the fourteenth century as will be discussed shortly. Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn has changed enormously during the past hundred years in ways that merit fuller treatment than can be afforded here. This section is devoted to exploring significant transformations in historical writing. In order to appreciate twentieth- century historiography of the region, it is first necessary to examine earlier forms of history (historical writing). The earliest known reference that we have on history of Ethiopia and the Horn is the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, written in the first century A.D by an anonymous author. Another document describing Aksum‟s trade and the then Aksumite king‟s campaigns on both sides of the sea is the Christian Topography composed by Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek sailor, in the sixth century A.D. Unfortunately, contemporary Ethiopian materials are non-existent to substantiate the information from the above sources despite the country‟s reputation for an ancient civilization of literacy. The earliest Ethiopian material, a manuscript, dates from medieval times. The document was found in Haiq Istifanos monastery of Wallo in the thirteenth century A.D. The value of manuscripts is essentially religious. Yet, for historians, they have 15 the added value of providing insights into the country‟s past. For example, the manuscript cited above contains the list of medieval kings and their history in brief. The largest groups of sources available for medieval Ethiopian history are hagiographies originating from Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Invariably written in Ge‟ez, an important function of hagiographies is enhancing the prestige of saints. Yet other related anecdotes are also introduced, and often discussed in detail such as the development of the church and the state including territorial conquests by reigning monarchs. A parallel hagiographical tradition existed within the Muslim communities of the country. One such account offers tremendous insight into the life of a Muslim saint, Shaykh Ja‟far Bukko of Gattira, in present day Wallo, in the late nineteenth century. Besides the saint‟s life, the development of indigenous Islam and contacts between the region‟s Muslim community and the outside world are some of the issues discussed in this document. Ethiopia had also an indigenous tradition of history writing called chronicles. Chronicles in the ancient Ethiopian Ge‟ez tongue first appeared in the fourteenth century and continue (sometimes in Amharic) into the early twentieth. Kings or their successors entrusted the writing of chronicles to court scribes or clergymen of recognized clerical training and calligraphic skills. The first and the last of such documents are the Glorious Victories of Amde-Tsion and Tarika Zemen Za Dagmawi Menilek respectively. Chronicles incorporate both legends and facts- past and contemporary about the monarch‟s genealogy, upbringing military exploits, piety and statesmanship. Chronicles are known for their factual detail and strong chronological framework, even if it would require considerable labour to convert their relative chronology to an absolute one. They are also averse to quantification. Major events in and around the imperial residence are explained mainly in religious terms; the chronicle, therefore offers very little by way of social and economic developments even in the environs of the palace. However, in conjunction with other varieties of written documents, such as hagiographies and travel accounts by foreign observers, chronicles can provide us with a glimpse into the character and lives of kings, their preoccupations and relations with subordinate officials and, though inadequately, the evolution of the Ethiopian state and society. 16 Written accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors to the coast also provide useful information on various aspects of the region‟s history. For example, al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta described the culture, language and import-export trade in the main central region of the east African coast in the tenth and in the fourteenth centuries respectively. For the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries we have two documents composed by Yemeni writers who were eyewitnesses to the events they described. The first document titled Futuh al Habesha (The Conquest of Abyssinia) was composed by Shihab al-Din, who recorded the conflict between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim principalities in the sixteenth century. Besides the operation of the war including the conquest of northern and central Ethiopia by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al- Ghazi, the document describes major towns and their inhabitants in the southeastern part of Ethiopia, although the discussion abruptly ends in 1535. The other first-hand account is left to us by Al-Haymi, who led a Yemeni delegation in 1647 to the court of Fasiledes (r. 1632- 67). Other materials that appeared in the sixteenth century include Aba Bahrey‟s Amharic script the History of the [Oromo]. Written in the 1590s, this document provides firsthand information about the Oromo population movement in the stated period. The contribution of missionaries and travellers to the development of Ethiopian historiography is also significant. From the early sixteenth until the later nineteenth centuries, missionaries (Catholics and Protestants) were generally the only Europeans who came to the country with the intention of staying, and who, nevertheless, maintained intimate links with Europe. Thus, mission records provide us with a run off information covering a considerable period of time. Some of the major topics covered by missionary sources include religious and political developments within Ethiopia, and the country‟s foreign relations. An example of such account is The Prester John of the Indies, composed by a Portuguese priest, Francisco Alvarez, who led the Portuguese mission to the court of Lebne-Dengel in 1520. Added to missionary sources, travel documents had important contribution to the development of Ethiopian historiography. One example of travel documents is James Bruce‟s Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile. Like other sources, however, both mission and travel 17 materials can only be used with considerable reservations and with care for they are socially and politically biased. Foreigners also developed interest in Ethiopian studies. One of these figures was a German, Hiob Ludolf (l.1624-1704). Ludolf was the founder of Ethiopian studies in Europe in the seventeenth century. He wrote Historica Aethiopica (translated into English as A New History of Ethiopia). Ludolf never visited Ethiopia; he wrote the country‟s history based on information he collected from an Ethiopian priest named Abba Gorgorios (Aba Gregory) who was in Europe at that time. In the nineteenth century, August Dillman published two studies on ancient Ethiopian history. Compared to Ludolf, Dillman demonstrated all markers of objectivity in his historical research endeavours. Historical writing made some departures from the chronicle tradition in the early twentieth century. This period saw the emergence of traditional Ethiopian writers who made conscious efforts to distance themselves from chroniclers whom they criticized for adulatory tone when writing about monarchs. Unlike chroniclers, writers in this period discussed a range of topics from social justice, administrative reform and economic analysis to history. The earliest group of these writers include Aleqa Taye Gebre-Mariam, Aleqa Asme Giorgis and Onesmus Nasib (Aba Gemechis). Later, they were joined by Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus and Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn. Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics from social justice, administrative reform and economic analysis to history. Taye and Asme wrote Yeityopia Hizb Tarik (The History of Ethiopian People) and Ye [Oromo] Tarik (The History of the Oromo) respectively while Onesmus translated the Bible into his native tongue, Afan Oromo. Notwithstanding his other works, Afework wrote the first Amharic novel, Tobiya, in Ethiopian history while Gebre-Hiwot has Atse Menilekna Ityopia (Emperor Menilek and Ethiopia) and Mengistna Yehizb Astedader (Government and Public Administration) to his name. The most prolific writer of the early twentieth century Ethiopia was, however, Blatten Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie. Hiruy published four major works namely Ethiopiana Metema (Ethiopia and Metema), Wazema (Eve), Yehiwot Tarik (A Biographical Dictionary) and Yeityopia Tarik (The History of Ethiopia). In contrast to their predecessors, Gebre-Hiwot and Hiruy exhibited relative objectivity and methodological sophistication in their works. 18 Unfortunately, the Italian occupation of Ethiopia interrupted the early experiment in modern history writing and publications. After liberation, Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria formed a bridge between writers in pre-1935 and Ethiopia professional historians who came after him. Tekle-Tsadik has published some eight historical works. He made better evaluation of his sources than his predecessors. Yet like his precursors, bias permeates most of his works. Another work of importance in this period is Yilma Deressa‟s A History of Ethiopia in the Sixteenth Century. The book addresses the Oromo population movement and the wars between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim principalities as its main subjects. Tekle-Tsadik and Yilma‟s works are written in Amharic and therefore can be used by the wider public and scholars alike. Blatten Geta Mahteme- Selassie Wolde-Meskel also contributed his share. Among others, he wrote Zikre Neger (Things Remembered). Zikre Neger is a comprehensive account of Ethiopia‟s prewar land tenure systems and taxation, but fails to capture localized circumstances, responses, and conflicts and silent on the actual impacts of government legislation on regulating access to resource control. Zikre Neger should also be treated with some caution because one of its main aims is to extol the modernization efforts and achievements of the country‟s reigning monarchs notably Emperor Haile-Selssie I. Another work dealing specifically with aspects of land tenure is left to us by Gebre-Wold Engidawork and has been translated into English. Another writer of the same category was Dejazmach Kebede Tesema. Kebede wrote his memoir of the imperial period, published with as Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962 E.C. The 1960s was a crucial decade in the development of Ethiopian historiography for it was in this period that history emerged as an academic discipline. The pursuit of historical studies as a full-time occupation began with the opening of the Department of History at the then Haile Selassie I University (HSIU). The production of BA theses began towards the end of the decade. The Department launched its MA program in the early 1980s. Since then researches by faculty (both Ethiopians and expatriates) and students have been produced on various topics. Although entirely a research organization, the Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) is the other institutional home of professional historiography in Ethiopia. The IES library 19 contains literary works of diverse disciplines and has its fair share in the evolution and development of professional historiography in Ethiopia. The professionalization of history in other parts of the Horn is a post-colonial phenomenon. With the establishment of independent nations, a deeper interest in exploring their own past quickly emerged among African populations, perhaps stimulated by reactions to decades of education in an alien imperial historiography. With this came an urgent need to recast the historical record and to recover evidence of many lost pre-colonial civilizations. The decolonization of African historiography required new methodological approach (tools of investigation) to the study of the past that involved a critical use of oral data and tapping the percepts of ancillary disciplines like archeology, anthropology and linguistics. At the same time, European intellectuals‟ own discomfort with the Eurocentrism of previous scholarship provided for the intensive academic study of African history, an innovation that had spread to North America by the 1960s. Foundational research was done at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) in London and the Department of History at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Francophone scholars have been as influential as Anglophones. Yet African historiography has not been the sole creation of interested Europeans. African universities have, despite the instabilities of politics and civil war in many areas, trained their own scholars and sent many others overseas for training who eventually published numerous works on different aspects of the region‟s history. 1.4. The Geographical Context of Human History in Ethiopia and the Horn The term “Ethiopia and the Horn” refers to that part of Northeast Africa which now contains the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia. The region occupies a total land area of 1,882,857 square kilometers and consists chiefly of mountains uplifted through the formation of the Great Rift Valley. The Rift Valley is a fissure in the Earth‟s crust running down from Turkey to Mozambique and marking the separation of the African and Arabian tectonic plates. The major physiographic features of the region are a massive highland complex of mountains and plateaus divided by the Great Rift Valley and surrounded by lowlands, semi-desert, deserts and tropical forests along the periphery. The diversity of the 20 terrain led to regional variations in climate, natural vegetation, soil composition, and settlement patterns. As with the physical features, people across the region are remarkably diverse: they speak a vast number of different languages, profess to many distinct religions, live in a variety types of dwellings, and engage in a wide range of economic activities. At the same time, however, peoples of the region were never isolated; they interacted throughout history from a diversity of locations. Thus, as much as there are many things that make people of a certain area unique from the other, there are also a lot of areas in which peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn share common past. The history of Ethiopia and the Horn has been shaped by contacts with others through commerce, migrations, wars, slavery, colonialism, and the waxing and waning of state systems. Yet the evolution of human history owed much to geographical factors notably location, landforms, resource endowment, climate and drainage systems which continue to impact, as incentives and deterrents, the movement of people and goods in the region. In this section, we will study the impact that the region‟s geography has on the way people live and organize themselves into societies. Spatial location in relationship to other spaces and locations in the world is one geographical factor that has significant bearing on the ways in which history unfolds. Ethiopia and the Horn lies between the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean on the one hand, and the present-day eastern frontiers of Sudan and Kenya on the other. Since early times, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden linked Northeast Africa to the Eastern Mediterranean, the Near and Middle East, India, and the Far East. Likewise, the Indian Ocean has linked East Africa to the Near and Middle East, India and the Far East. Another element of geography that had profound impact on human history is drainage system. Ethiopia and the Horn has five principal drainage systems. These are the Nile River System, Gibe/Omo–Gojeb, and Genale/Jubba-Shebele River Systems, the Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes System, and the Awash River System. Flowing from Uganda in the south to the Sudan in the north, the White Nile meets the Blue Nile (Abay in Ethiopia that starts from the environs of Tana Lake) in Khartoum and eventually, drains into the Mediterranean Sea 21 through Egypt. The Awash River System is an entirely Ethiopian system and links the cool rich highlands of Central Ethiopia with the hot, dry lowlands of the Danakil Depression. The Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes System is a self-contained drainage basin, and includes a string of lakes stretching from Lake Ziway in the north to Lake Turkana (formerly known as Rudolf) on the Ethio-Kenyan border. The Gibe/Omo–Gojeb River System links southern Ethiopia to the semi-desert lowlands of northern Kenya. The Shebele and Genale rivers originate in the Eastern highlands and flow southeast toward Somalia and the Indian Ocean. Only the Genale (known as the Jubba in Somalia) makes it to the Indian Ocean; the Shebele disappears in sand just inside the coastline. The above watersheds are very important in the life and history of the peoples inhabiting the region. Besides providing people with the source of their livelihood, the drainage systems facilitated the movement of peoples and goods across diverse environments, resulting the exchange of ideas, technology, knowledge, cultural expressions and beliefs. Thus, studying the drainage systems of Ethiopia and the Horn is crucial for proper understanding of the relationships of the peoples living within the various basins. Ethiopia and the Horn can be divided into three major distinct environmental zones. The vast Eastern lowland covers the narrow coastal strip of northeastern Eritrea, widens gradually and descends southwards to include much of lowland Eritrea, the Sahel, the Danakil Desert, the lower Awash valley, and the arid terrain in northeast of the Republic of Djibouti. It then extends to the Ogaden, the lower parts of Hararghe, Bale, Borana, Sidamo and the whole territory of the Republic of Somalia. There is not much seasonal variation in climatic condition of this zone. Hot and dry conditions prevail year-round along with periodic monsoon winds and irregular (little) rainfall except in limited areas along the rivers Awash, Wabe Shebele and Genale/Jubba which traverse the region and a few off-shore islands (eg. Dahlak, Socotra) in the Red Sea, Aden Gulf and Indian Ocean which are' inhabited by people closely related to those of immediate mainland districts. Much of the lowland territory is covered only by shrub and bush as its major vegetation. 22 Immediately to the west of and opposite to the eastern lowland region forms the highland massif that starts from northern Eritrea and continues all the way to southern Ethiopia. The eastern extension of the highland massif consists the Arssi, Bale and Hararghe plateau. The major divide between the western and eastern parts of this zone is the Rift Valley. The major physiographic features of the zone are complex of mountains, deep valleys, and extensive plateaus. It is generally said that rainfall has declined Ethiopia and the Horn since the 1960s causing drought and famine, such as the well-known Ethiopian famines of 1970s and 1980s. Further to the west, along the western foothills or on the periphery of the plateau and on borderlands of the Sudan, stretching from north to south, hot lowlands were characterized in earlier times by thick forests chiefly on the banks of the Nile and its tributaries. Despite the varied physical environments discussed above, the countries of the Horn of Africa are, for the most part, linguistically and ethnically linked together as far back as recorded history goes. Population movements had caused a continuous process of interaction, creating a very complex picture of settlement patterns. This is the case, for example, in Ethiopia where a number of Cushitic groups live surrounding as well as interspersed among more or less semitized population in the northern and central highlands of the country. The high degree of interaction, the long common history of much of the population and their adherence to Christianity or Islam, had weakened ethnic dividing lines in large parts of the region. Linguistic and cultural affinities are therefore as important as ethnic origin in the grouping of the population. Learning activities  Discuss the connections between past, history, sources and historian.  What do we mean by change and continuity in history?  Of what benefit is history to the individual and the society?  What is the difference between primary and secondary sources?  What are the different sources of history? How will you evaluate them?  What is the difference between history and historiography? 23  Who was Leopold von Ranke? Discuss his views on history.  Discuss how the writing of Ethiopian history has changed over the last hundred years by using the writings of individual historians.  Briefly describe the similarities and differences between chronicles and hagiographies and their use to write Ethiopian history.  Describe the contribution of missionary sources to the study of Ethiopian history.  Explain how geography shaped human history in Ethiopia and the Horn. 24  Unit Two Peoples and Cultures in Ethiopia and the Horn Introduction Dear learners, The region Ethiopia and the Horn is referred to as the cradle of humankind. It is also a region where ancient civilizations including religion, making tools, and food production occurred. These developments contributed to the social evolutions, economic formations, and socio-cultural and political settings. This unit traces human evolutions and Neolithic Revolutions and then describes languages and peoples settlement along with cultural settings of the region. The purpose is to show that the region is home to diverse peoples, and cultures (languages, religion, customs…) and economic activities. Unit Objectives  At the end of this unit, students will be able to:  evaluate evidences for Ethiopia and the Horn as the cradle of mankind;  understand Ethiopia and the Horn in relation to Neolithic Revolution;  identify the peoples and languages of Ethiopia and the Horn;  elucidate settlement patterns and economic formations of the peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn;  discuss religion and religious processes of Ethiopia and the Horn. Unit starters  Define language and language families.  Explain how trade facilitates peoples‟ relations. 25   What do you know about the domestication of plants and animals?  How do you think human beings came into being?  What is religion?  What do we mean by indigenous religion?  Can you name some religious practices in Ethiopia and the Horn? 2.1. Human Evolution Regarding origin of human being, there are two divergent views. The first view is creationist view that contends super natural force or God created non-living and living things including human being with complete physical shape and structure. The other view is evolutionist view which argues that living things and non living things developed from small beings through gradual changes of many million years. The earliest evolution theorist Charles Darwin (1809- 1882) published Theory of Evolution or Origin of Species by Natural Selection (1859) and Descent of Man (1871). According to evolutionists, human evolution accounts only fraction of history of the globe that had been formed through natural process about 4. 5 billion years ago or before present (B. P.) The earliest known life came in to being between 3, 000 &1, 000 million years B.P. Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds and other small animals (mainly invertebrates) emerged at about/circa (c.) 800 million years B. P. In due course, first primates branched out of Tarsiers and main placental mammal stream as of 200-170 million years B. P. Gradually, some primates developed into Pongidae such as baboons, monkeys, gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon etc while others evolved in to Hominidae (human beings). Hence, scientists verify that human beings and apes share common ancestors. Scientists have considered East African Rift Valley as cradle of humanity. A fossil named as Cororapithecus dated 10 million B. P. was discovered in Ancar (in Hararghe) in 2007. Ardipithicus Ramidus (dated 4. 2 million B.P.) was discovered by Tim D. White at Aramis in Afar in 1994 A. D. Other Australopithecines were also discovered at Belohdelie (dated back 3.6 million years B.P.), Maka etc. Fossilised animal bones (3.4 million years) were found 26 with stone-tool-inflicted marks on them (the oldest evidence of stone tool use ever found in the world) by international team led by Shannon McPherron in Lower Awash Valley in 2010. Fossil termed as Australopithecus Afarnesis/Lucy/Dinkinesh (dated c. 3.18 million years B.P.) with 40% complete body parts, weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters and pelvis looks like bipedal female was discovered by Donald Carl Johnson at Hadar in 1974 A.D. Picture 1: Skelton named as Australopithecus Afarensis/Lucy/Dinkinesh Fossil named as Australopithecus Anamensis was discovered around Lake Turkana. Ethiopian Anthropologist Berhane Asfaw and his team discovered eco-fact named as Australopithecus Garhi (means surprise in Afar language) between 1996 and 1999 A.D. Other species like Australopithecus Bosei, Australopithecus Aethiopicus and Pithecan were also discovered in different areas of East Africa. Dr. Richard Luis Leaky and Mary Leaky found proto-human fossil named as Zinjanthropus in 1959. 27 Homo Habilis is derived from Latin terms Homo which meant human being and Habilis meant skillful or handy. Homo Habilis (dated back 2-2.5 Million years B.P.) with brain size of 650- 800 C.C. was discovered at Kobi Fora in Kenya; Laetoli and Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania with Oldwan obsidian flint stone tools between 1972 and 1986. Artifact findings suggest that tools made and used by Homo Habilis were also discovered near Gona (dated 2.52 million years ago in 1992) and at Shungura in Ethiopia. Skeleton of 12 years old boy named as Homo Erectus was discovered at Nario Kotome by Kenyan Archaeologist Kamoya Kimeu c. 1984. Erectus (dated 1. 6 million years B. P.) was also discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadebi in Ethiopia with clothes, ornaments, burials and fire usage indicators as well as 185 cm tall, 68kg weight, 5-6 inches height and 900-1100 cc brain size. Dutch hydrologist Gerrard Dekker found Acheulian tools (over million years old) at Kella in 1963. Archaic Homo-Sapiens/wise human being (dated 400,000 years B.P.) was discovered as Neanderthalensis in Germany in 1856; Cromagnon in France-Spain in 1868; Java in Indonesia; Peknaisi in China; Kabwe in Zambia; Bodo in Middle Awash with brain size of 1300-1400cc. Fossils of Homo Sapiens Sapiens (100, 000 years B.P.) were discovered at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa and Kibish around Lower Omo (by Leakey in 1967). Kibish ones were re-dated in 2004 to 195, 000 years old, the oldest date anywhere in world for modern Homo Sapiens. Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997, lived about 160, 000 years ago. The period of the usage of lithus/ stone tools is divided into sub-periods. The first is Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) up to 11, 000 B.P. This was the period when human being developed language with shelter in cave using stone, bone, wood, furs & skin materials to prepare food and clothing. There was sex-age labor division with able-bodied males as hunters of fauna and children & females as gatherers of plants. In due course, society developed from matriarchal to partriachial hierarchy. Gademotta Stone Age site in central Ethiopian Rift Valley is one of the oldest sites in African continent and has been dated back to 200,000 B.P. Other sites such as Gorgora, Ki‟one, Tiyya, Tuto Fala & Yabaldho in Ethiopia and Midhidhishi & Gudgud in Somalia are important sites that have offered 28 noteworthy information about Stone Age communities in the Horn of Africa. Mesolithic/ middle Stone Age (11, 000-10,000 B.P.) was transition between Old and Neolithic/New Stone Ages. Neolithic (10,000-6,000 B.P.) was time when human being used micro-lithic tools. 2.2. Neolithic Revolution It was during Neolithic (10,000-6,000 B.P.) that human beings began to transform from mobile way of life to sedentary one that was radical shift from hunting and gathering to growing plants and breeding animals. A combination of global warning and increased hunter- gatherers‟ population brought about a diminishing in numbers of animals and availability of plants. As food gatherers were already aware of growing cycle of most of grass types, they began to thickly grow those which were most common and yielded more edible seeds. The big animals which depended on dense bushes for sustenance were reduced by hunting and animals that people were able to domesticate easily were smaller ones. Peoples had to descend from mountain sides to build houses near cultivated plots fencing both and harvested crops had to be stored & protected from humidity & rodents. For better security and to help each other in hard works, families preferred to live together forming larger communities. Using stick or hoe for planting was also gradually replaced by ox-drawn plough. Farmers acquired surplus produce to exchange with better tools and clothes with the craftsmen who were able to concentrate on and specialize in the production of these items. Gradually intermediaries (traders) also began to buy the products of both to take to predetermined places or markets and sell. The process of domestication took place independently in the various parts of the world. In Ethiopia and the Horn especially in the more elevated and wetter-parts, people began to cultivate plants including Eragrotisteff/poa abyssinica, dagussa/Eleusine Coracana/millet, nug/Guzotia Abyssinica/oilseeds, Ensete Ventricosum etc. The domestication of the enset plant/Ensete edule reduced continuous clearing of new plots/shifting cultivation slowing down soil exhaustion. Enset was widely cultivated over central and northern Ethiopia until increasing demands of states which had to support many units of professional soldiers forced 29 farmers to cultivate cereals like teff only. The existence of Neolithic material culture is attested from Laga Oda near Carcar, Gobdura rock shelter near Aksum, Fakeda around Adigrat, Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea. These sites provide direct archaeological evidence such as polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones, beads, stone figures, remains of animals like camels etc. Archaeologist Dombrowiski excavated chickpeas and vegetables at Lalibela cave near Lake Tana. Evidence of domesticated cattle comes from Lake Basaqa near Matahara. Playa Napata & Kado in Sudan and Futajalon in West Africa were among known places of domestication including Nidamawa and Zebu (Bos indicus) cattle. 2.3. The Peopling of the Region 2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes According to Ethnologue, there are 88 languages with 200 dialects, of which 86 are living and 2 are extinct in Ethiopia and the Horn. A. Afro-Asiatic  Cushitic: linguists divided this language family into four branches.  Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken at western edge of Eritrea on Sudan border.  Central: Agaw includes Awing, Qimant; Tamtanga & Bilen/Bogos.  East Cush: this includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Alaba, Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Bussa, Darashe, Dasanech, Gauwada, Gedeo, Hadiya, Kambata, Konso, Libido, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro & Tsemai. Yet, the Oromo have inhabited throughout the eastern, northern, southern and western parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.  Ethiopian Semitic: the Semitic languages of Ethiopia are generally known as Ethio- Semitic because other Semitic languages are spoken mainly in the Middle East.  North: Tegra (in Ertrean Lowland), Tigrinya; Ge'ez (endangered, liturgical)  South  Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay.  Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered). 30   Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Bambasi, Basketo, Bench,Boro (Shinasha), Chara, Dawro, Dime, Dizi, Doko, Dorze, Gamo, Ganza, Gayil, Gofa, Hamer-Banna,, Hozo, Kachama-Ganjule, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Nayi, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko,Wolaytta, Yem and Zayse.Among its groups, Ometo includes Wolayttaand Gamo while main Gonga is Keficho.  Nilotic: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama,Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle , Mursi, Nuer, Nyangatom, Opuo,Shabo, Suri& Uduk.  Unclassified: Weyto (might be Cushitic or Semitic); Ongota (moribund possibly Omotic or separate branch of Afro-Asiatic or not at all) & Rer Bare (extinct-may be Bantu). 2.3.2. Settlement Patterns The Cushitic Speaking peoples are indigenous to East Africa inhabiting from Sudan to Tanzania. The proto Cushitic speaking peoples are said to have been dominant between the Blue Nile valley in the west and Red Sea in the East in Northeast Africa. The peoples speaking this language family regarded as the descendants of the ancient Ethiopia or Kush and once shared the Nile valley civilization. Specifically, Nubia (the land of Kush with capital first at Napata and later Meroe) was from where most probably Cushitic peoples dispersed. According to Ehret, it was around the seventh millennium BC (before Christ) that the ancestral Cushitic began to spread in the northern edge of the Ethiopian highland. The proto-Cushitic are said to have dispersed further south and formed various subdivisions or separate linguistic and cultural groups and subgroups in the sixth and fifth millennium BC. They are said to have evolved into a separate identity from the Cushitic speaking peoples in between 4th and 3rd millennium BC. Among these Cushitic peoples, major change took place toward the later part of the first millennium B. C. when the Afar, Somali and Saho descended eastward from the southern temperate plateau regions. The Cushitic speaking peoples were dominant inhabitants in the north, central, southern, western, eastern and rift valley regions of Ethiopia as well as the Djibouti and Somalia. Broadly, the Cushitic language speaking peoples occupy the largest portion of Ethiopia and the Horn and also spread over into such neighboring regions even as far south as Tanzania. 31 According to Harold Marcus, the Afro-Asiatic group of languages developed and fissured in the Sudan-Ethiopian borderlands. Proto-Cushitic and Proto-Semitic began their evolution there. On the other hand, according to some historical sources, Ethio-Semitic is believed to be introduced from the Middle East especially Arabian Peninsula. Whatever the case, the Semitic language family in Ethiopia is the second major family next to the Cushitic. Omotic languages speakers are indigenous to Ethiopia. The majority of Omotic peoples are dominant in southwestern Ethiopia being concentrated along Omo River basin bordering in all directions. Nevertheless, this is exceptional for Shinasha who is living in southwestern Gojjam and South Mao in southwestern Wollagga. Many Omotic languages have been kept aloof and evolved from dialects to independent languages because of mountainous landscape. Nilo-Saharan Super Family peoples are dominant societies of western lowlands from north to south along Ethio-Sudanese borderlands. Nilo-Sahara entered Ethiopia from the Sudan in about 3rd millennium B. C. and believed to have settled in western and southwestern Ethiopia between third Millennium B. C. to the first Millennium B.C. Some of the Chari-Nile family settled in western Ethiopia along Ethio-Sudanese border and other in southern Omo. These are identified as the Karamojo cluster living around Turkana Lake along the Ethio- Kenyan border. On the other hand, the majority of the speakers of this language super family also live outside Ethiopia. 32 Map 1: The Distribution of Languages of Ethiopia and the Horn According to 2007 Ethiopian census, Oromo (the largest linguistic group) accounted to 34.4%, Amhara 27%, Somali 6.2%, Tigray 6.1%, Sidama 4%, Gurage 2.5%, Wolayta 2.3%, Afar 1.73%, Hadiya 1.72, Gamo 1.5 & others 12.55%. Afan Oromo has 33.8% speakers, Amharic 29.33%, Somali 6.25%, Tigrigna 5. 86%, Sidama 4.84%, Wolayta 2.21%, Gurage 2.01%, Afar 1.74%, Hadiya 1. 69%, Gamo 1.45% and others 11.62%. Only 14 languages cover about 93 % of population. 41 languages are institutional, 14 developing, 18 vigorous, 8 in danger and 5 near extinction. Hudson (1999:96) states that a language with fewer than 10, 000 speakers is likely to become extinct within generation, there are 22 such languages in Ethiopia and the Horn. 2.3.3. Economic Formations A predominantly pastoral economy characterized the eastern lowland region since early periods. A transhumance pastoral economy has characterized the life of the majority of the Eastern lowland Cushitic communities since very early times. Camel, goat and cattle are the most common domestic animals among the Afar, Saho and Somali as well as Karayu and 33 Borana Oromo. The life of Afar and Karrayu is highly associated with Awash River while the Somali owe a great deal to Wabi Shebelle and Genale/Juba Rivers. The plateaus have sustained plough agriculture for thousands of years supporting sizable populations. It is here that the large majority of the populations of the region live. It is also here that the Cushitic had started and advanced mixed sedentary agriculture since 10, 000 B. P. and ancient processes of state formation were taken place first by the Cushitic and then together with the Semitic, who used to practice plow agriculture economic activity for long. The life of Omotic societies has been highly intertwined with Omo River. The major economic activity of the Omotic has been mixed farming and trade in northern Omo while southern Omo have predominantly practiced pastoralist and fishing. The Omotic have been distinguished by the large-scale cultivation of enset (a staple food) and evolution of highly organized polities. Many of them have also been famous in metallurgy, weaving and other crafts. Peoples in the sparsely populated western lowland region earned their livelihood from a range of activities. Here lived, small groups of hunter-gatherers leading a basically nomadic way of life and being almost entirely dependent on fruits and forest animals. Nilo-Saharans along Nile have been shifting cultivators where sorghum has been a staple food. Among majority Nilotic communities, cattle have high economic and social values. Berta and other Nilotes had trade and other social contacts with northern Sudan. 2.4. Religion and Religious Processes 2.4.1. Indigenous Religion Distinctive mark of indigenous religion is belief in one omnipotent, omniscient, eternal or transcendental Supreme Entity, but special powers are attributed to natural phenomena that are declared to be sacred. Vicars (parsons and diviners) who officiate over these rituals & propitiate spirits are held in a lot of respect as intermediaries between society and spirits. Among indigenous religious groups, Oromo Waaqeffannaa is one. The Waaqeffata have believed in existence of one supernatural power called Waaqaa that is believed to be source 34 of life & nature, Beelii Belelii/Alpha-Omega/ultimate power in the universe. Under Waaqaa, there are divinities called Ayyaanaa, each seen as manifestation of Waaqaa. These include Abdaari (crop land fertility spirit), Ateetee Ayyobar/Ayyolee (women or human & animal fertility spirit), Awaayii/Tiyyanaa (sanctity spirit), Balas (victory spirit), Caattoo/Doora (wild animals defender), Gijaaree/Nabi (father & mother‟s sprit), Jaaricha (peace spirit), Qasaa (anti-disease spirit) etc. Adbaar that is still witnessed on September 17/Masqal & May 1st E. C. is a relic of rite in veneration of Abdaar in a syncreticized form. Oromo also believe that the dead exist in form of ghost called Ekeraa in surrounding of his/her abode before death or dachee of his/her cemetery/Tujuba. Nonetheless, they have not believed in suffering in hell, but if human beings have committed sin, they would be punished while alive with tolerable punishment. Just at the beginnings of autumn and spring seasons every year at ever flowing river side and top of mountain respectively, Oromo have thanks giving festival called Irreechaa besides Ifaanoo (torch light) and Birboo (New Year) ceremonies. Effective relationship between Ayyaanaa and Oromo has been often maintained by revered expert known as Qaalluu/Ladduu for male and Qaallitti for female. Qaalluu or Qaallitti care for spiritual wellbeing as well as influence socio-economic & political life of the community. Place of worship or Qaalluu house is called Galmaa located on hilltop/side or in grove of large trees. On Wednesday and Friday nights, there are special prayer ceremonies to practice Dalaga/ecstasy at which Qaalluu or Qaallitti is possessed by Ayyaanaa so that s/he can interpret mysteries. Worship places also include under trees, beside large bodies of water, by side of big mountains, hills etc. However, these are not objects of worship but simply places of worship. In fifth year of Gadaa period, Lubaa in power sent Jilaa/Makkalaa (delegated messengers) as pilgrims or hajj, with kallachaa and gifts like qumbii (myrrh) to make their reverence pledges to get blessings of senior Qaalluu known as Abbaa Muudaa or anointment father centered at Ribuu Fugug. Abbaa Muudaa used to consecrate other Qaalluus to different regions or clans and had turban surrirufa or cloth of tri-colors: black at top, red at center and white at bottom representing those who yet to enter active life, those in active life (Lubaa) and those who passed active life respectively. 35 Among the Hadiya the Supreme Being is known as Waa, who is believed to exist before everything (hundam issancho) or create world (qoccancho) and whose eyes are represented by elincho (sun) & agana (moon). Spirits like Jara (male‟s protector), Idota (female‟s guard), Hausula, Qedane & Warriqa attracted most of prayers and sacrifices at Shonkolla & Kallalamo mountains chosen by Anjancho & Jaramanjcho. Native Hadiyas known as Worqimene are believed to have the power to send rain in drought. Fandanano (sing. Fandancho) practice believed to be introduced by either spiritual leaders, Itto & Albaja, or Boyamo, father of five Hadiya clans. Fandanano was largely followed by inhabitants of Badawacho, Badogo, Boshana, Lemo, Libido, Misha, Shashogo & Soro areas. Hadiya related Kambata called God as Negita and have religious officials known as Magnancho (Magananna, God‟s people). Konso also practice traditional religion centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh. Among the Gurage there have been Waq/Goita (supreme deity), Bozha (thunder God) and Damwamwit (health Goddess). The Wolayta called God as Tosa & spirit as Ayyana including Tawa Awa/Moytiliya (father‟s spirit), Sawuna (justice spirit), Wombo (rain spirit), Micho (goat spirit), Nago (sheep spirit), Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit), Gomashera (war spirit), Talahiya (Beta Talaye or talheya, Omo spirit) etc. Grasses that grew on Dufuwa (grave) should not be cut down and used since Dufuwa was believed to be abode of Moytiliya. Annual worship of spirits was performed at a sacred place called Mitta usually at the end of May and beginning of June to offer sacrifice of the first fruits called Teramo or Pageta (Dubusha). People gathered around tree called Dongowa which varied from clan to clan: sycamore/ficussur exasperata for the Bubula, podocarpo for Zatuwa etc. The Qesiga called their meeting place Kasha (Dabre). To protect men from eating crop before harvesting Zomboro clan used Diqaysa practice by planting in their fields sour olive and nubica trees. The Wolayta also had the practice of Chaganna (prohibited days to work) to protect their produce from natural disaster. The Wolayta also chose and kept with special care dark brown heifer called Beka (Beqabe) or Baqa Potilliya (Lit. ritual cattle) which was believed as their birth day fate. If they made error in respecting this custom they would anoint their bodies with certain leaf called Aydameta (ground red pepper) as repentance. Religious practitioners known as Sharechuwa had Becha or Kera Eza Keta (ritual house). 36 Yem worshipped Sky God/Ha’o. So‟ala clan was considered as top in religious duties since it was in charge of the most important deity (Shashokam). There was also deity known as Aba at Henar. Religious functions were performed through couriers in each village called Magos. Kafa called the Supreme Being as Yero; spirit as Eqo; and a person who hosts Eqo is known as Alamo or medium and referred to as eke-nayo (person in service of spirit). Father of all spirits is dochi or dehe-tateno and its host is called dochi-nayo or Ibedechino/Ibede-gudeno (including Arito & Wudia Riti), king of all Alamos with residence at Adio. Spirit of harvest is called Kollo and sacrifice to it is known as dejo (altogether kollo-dejo). Spirits of earth & area are known as Showe-kollo & Dude-baro respectively. There are also local spirits like damochechi of Channa, yaferochi of Sharada and wogidochi of Adio as well as gepetato or king of hill that is identified by Yetecho clan as land owner. Spiritual services were headed by Dugo clan. Kafa related to Konta‟s spirit-cult was called Docho. The Nuer believe that God is spirit of sky or Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven) creator, but Nuers believe in coming of God through rain, lightning & thunder and rainbow is necklace of God. Sun and moon as well as other entities are also manifestation or sign of God. There are also spirits associated with clan-spears names such as WiW, spirit of war, associated with thunder. The Nuer believe that when a man or woman dies, flesh is committed to earth while breath or life goes back to God (Kuoth) and soul that signifies human personality remains alive as a shadow or a reflection, and departs together with ox sacrificed to place of ghosts. 2.4.2. Judaism Judaism is the religion of the ancient Jewish/Hebrew people. It is considered to be the expression of the covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah/God established with the Israeli. It has been followed in Ethiopia and the Horn by the people called Beta Israel (literally, "house of Israel" began to be clearly noticed in the 4th century AD, when the community refused to be converted to Christianity). The Beta Israel/Ethiopian Jews practiced Haymanot (religious practices, which are generally recognized as Israelite religion that differs from Rabbinic 37 Judaism). Many of the Beta Israel accounts of their own origins stress that they stem from the very ancient migration of some portion of the Tribe of Dan to Ethiopia, led it is said by sons of Moses, perhaps even at the time of the Exodus (1400-1200 B.C.). Alternative timelines include perhaps the later crises in Judea, e. g., at the time of the split of the northern Kingdom of Israel from the southern Kingdom of Judah after the death of King Solomon or at the time of the Babylonian Exile. Other Beta Israel take as their basis the account of return to Ethiopia of Menilek I, who is believed to be the son of King Solomon(r. 974-932 B.C.) of ancient Israel and Makeda, ancient Queen of Saba/ Sheba, and considered to be the first Solomonic Emperor of Ethiopia. Another group of Jews are said to have arrived in Ethiopia led by Azonos and Phinhas in 6th century A.D. Still others are said to have been Jewish immigrants intermarried with Agaws. Whatever the case, the Jews appear to have been isolated from mainstream Jewish for at least a millennium. The Jewish developed and lived for centuries in northern and northwestern Ethiopia, in more than 500 small villages spread over a wide territory. Most of them were concentrated mainly on North Gondar, Shire Enda- Selassie, Wolqayit, Tselemti, Dembiya, Segelt, Quara and Belesa. 2.4.3. Christianity Evidences show that Aksumite King Ezana (r. 320-360 AD) dropped pre-Christian gods like Ares/Hariman/Maharram/war god, Arwe (serpent-python god), Bahir (sea god) & Midir (earth god) and embraced Christianity. Instrumental in conversion were Syrian brothers, Aedesius & Fremnatos (Frementius). When Fremnatos (also called Kasate Birhane by locales) visited Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373), appointed him first Bishop of Ethiopia under title Aba Salama. This made Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC) subservient to Coptic in Egypt until full independence i.e. consecration of its own patriarch, Abune Baslios was achieved in 1959. Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society in later part of 5th century, during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) by the Nine Saints shown in the table below. 38  Table I: The Nine saints Name Origin Church Commemoration Date Abuna Aregawwi/Abba Za Rome Debre Damo 14 Tekmet/ 25 October Mika‟el Abuna Isaq/Abba Gerima Rome Medera 17 Sene /24 June Abba Pentelwon Rome Asbo 6 Tekmet/17 October Abba Afse Ladocia Yeha 29 Genbot/6 June Abba Alef Qa‟esare‟a Biheza/Haleluya11 Megabet/20 March Abba Gubba Cilicia West of Medera29 Genbot/6 June Abba Liqanos ConstantinopleDebre Qonasel 28 Hedar/8 December Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania 16 Ter/25 January Abba Yima‟ata Qosa‟iti Ger‟alta 28 Tekmet/8 November The saints translated Bible and other religious books into Geez. Then expansion of Christianity chiefly gained fresh momentum in Zagwe period (1150-1270). During early Medieval (1270-1527) many churches and monasteries were constructed including Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in Eritrea; Debra-Hayiq in Wallo; Debre-Dima & Debre- Werq in Gojjam; Debra-Libanos in Shawa and Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar. In 16th and 17th centuries, Jesuits tried to convert Monophysite EOC to Dyophysite Catholic. Yet this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of the Jesuits. However, the Jesuits intervention triggered religious controversies with in Ethiopian Orthodox Church. EOC spread to central, south, east & western parts following their conquest by the northern Christian Kingdom. People were baptized as government obligatory decree. Lately, monopolization of burial places by Church forced people to accept Tawahedo. Since 1804, missionaries‟ religious expansion was one of the dominant themes of treaties concluded between European diplomats and Ethiopian authorities. Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto, Lazarist mission founder; Giustino De Jacobis, Capuchin order founder; Cardinal Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie were active. Protestant missionaries were led by Anglican Church Missionary Society/ACMS, Church Missionary Society of London/CMSL & Wesleyan Methodist Society and their major leaders were Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg, J. L. Krapf & Theophil Lefebvre. Systematic approach of trained Protestants enabled them to win 39 confidence of local people. They translated religious books into vernacular languages. They adopted old names for Supreme Being like Waaqayyoo, Tossa and used them in new versions as equivalent to God. Village schools were established by Protestants as a way to preach their religion. These schools were open to all children of local chiefs and peasant farmers. They also provided medical facilities. All these attracted a large number of followers. Eventually, continuous and systematic indoctrinations seem to have resulted in grafting of new teaching on indigenous religion. 2.4.4. Islam Islam was founded by Prophet Mohammed (PBUH). When his teachings faced opposition from the Quraysh rulers, Aksumite king Armah Ella Seham/Ashama b. Abjar in Arabic sources gave asylum for the early followers including his daughter Rukiya & her husband Uthman and his future wives Umm Habiba and Umm Salma led by Jafar Ali Talib from 615- 628 A. D. Armah refused to return them to persecutors and is said to have declared,” If you were to offer me a mountain of gold I would not give up these people who have taken refuge with me.” Accordingly, there has grown a tradition, chiefly in Arabic sources and among Ethiopian Muslims, that the Aksumite king Ahmed al-Nejash was converted to Islam. As a result of these early peaceful contacts, Islam was introduced to the Horn of Africa not through Jihad, but through trade routes. It was well established in Dahlak/Alalay Islands on Red Sea by beginning of 8th century. By the beginning of 10th century, the Muslim community on islands developed a sultanate. At about the same time other places on the Red Sea coast were settled by the Muslims. It was from these coastal centers that Islam gradually spread among the predominantly pastoral communities of the interior, largely through the agency of preachers and merchants. It was from these coastal centers that Islam gradually spread among the predominantly pastoral communities of the interior, largely through the agency of preachers and merchants. The Dahlak route, however, played a minor role in introduction of Islam into the interior as Christianity was strongly entrenched as a state religion in Axum and later states of northern Ethiopia and open proselytization of Islam was prohibited. The port of Zeila on western coast 40 of Gulf of Aden served as the more important gateway for the penetration of Islam in a larger scale into mainly Shawa, Wallo and Hararghe. Islam firmly established itself in the coastal areas by the eighth and ninth centuries. From there, it radiated to central, southern and eastern Ethiopia by means of Muslim clerics who followed in the footsteps of traders. Islam was introduced into Somalia in 8th c A. D. through Benadir coasts of Mogadishu, Brava & Merca. Abu Bakr Ibn Fukur/Fakhira al Din Sahil set up Mogadishu Minirate c.1269 A.D. Islam further expanded in Somalia by Tariqa/mystical orders. Among these, Qadiriyya (named after Hanbali jurist Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani, 1077-1166) that emphasized collective devotion (hadra). Ahmadiyya , which had been set up by Ahmad Ibn Idris al Fasi of Fez in Morocco (1760-1837), that stressed austerity, turban & ve‟il. It had contacts with Tijaniyya (named after Abu‟l-Abbas Ahmad b. Muhammad b. al-Mukhtar al Tijani/1737-1815) and Summaniyya (named after Muhammad b. Abd al-Karim al Sammāni/1718-75). The Ulama of these orders expanded Islam as far as the Gibe region in mid-19th c. Later, the people especially in Arssi, Bale and Hararghe adopted Islam en masse as opposition to the imposed EOC. Picture 2: Dirre Sheik Hussein Mosque 41 Apart from these, societies in Ethiopia and the Horn developed indigenous knowledge systems that embraced social, religious, political, economic and environmental values. This includes the knowledge, skill and practices in the fields of governance, peace and social order, education, production and reproduction, rehabilitation of the destitute, resource management and disease protection. In the past, recognition and utilization of indigenous knowledge in response to social, economic, and political crisis proved success in time and space. Taken in totality, indigenous knowledge enabled many peoples to live sustainably within their local environments for many thousands of years. Among the bulk of indigenous knowledge of peoples were the values of peace and practices in maintaining it. In many cultures, the application of indigenous knowledge enabled members of a society to anticipate conflict and social disorder. Accordingly, they had mechanisms to ease the social consequence pre-hand. For long, such knowledge-enabled societies to configure balanced utilization of resources, establish social harmony, self-help associations, and support the needy members for better live. Retroactive mechanism of problem solving includes urgent response to fundamental problems such as conflict, drought, famine, resource depletion, soil exhaustion, production failure, and other underlying problems. Among others, the most dominant practice in the aspect of peace and order was conflict resolution. Peoples in Ethiopia and the Horn practiced a number of conflict resolution mechanisms. Among others, some of them are Shemgelenna among the Amhara, Yajoka among the Gurage, Seera among the Kambata, Gumaa among the Oromo, Makabanto among the Afar, Gudu’emale among the Sidama, Dayad among the Somali, Bayto among the Tigray people and others. These wisdoms worked effectively for centuries with less cost because first they were part of the culture and values of peoples that they espoused in common. Secondly, such conflict resolution mechanisms emphasis on inter-connectedness governed by a principle "I am because we are," emphasis on restoration, forgiveness and reconciliation instead of punishment. It also emphasizes people-to-people peace building and promote local ownership of the peace. 42 The other indigenous culture was the practice of folk medicine. In the region, medical system varied across ecological diversities, socio-cultural background of the different ethnic groups as well as history of disease. These health care systems have their own historical background, perceptions about health and illness, practices and types of healers. In the system, peoples utilized innumerable varieties of traditional medicine to treat human and animal health problems. A major component of traditional medicine was the use of medicinal plants. Herbal medicines were utilized to treat externally and internally illness. Those for internal use consisted of the roots, bark, leaves, fruit and seeds of a wide variety of plants. Medicines for external application were even more numerous. Many medicines also contained butter, while others were made with honey, white-of-egg, fig-juice, or the latex. Various medicinal plants, such as degessa and gizewa were utilized as vapor baths. Thermal waters also known as tsebel was the most common treatment. Tsebel is waters blessed in the name of a particular saint and which are used as treatment for a wide range of illnesses. Healing in traditional medicine was not only concerned with curing of diseases but also with the protection and promotion of human physical, spiritual, social, mental and material wellbeing. It is widely believed in Ethiopia that the skill of traditional health practitioners is 'given by God' and knowledge on traditional medicines passed orally from father to a favorite child. Healers obtained their drugs mainly from natural substances and in descending order of frequency; these constitute plants, animals and minerals. They prepared in various dosage in the form of liquids, ointments, powders and pills. When side effects became severe, antidotes were claimed to be used. The healers imposed restriction when patients took certain types of drugs. Drugs were stored usually in containers such as bottles, papers, pieces of cloth, leaves and horns, and were kept anywhere at home. Traditional medication also involved prevention to avoid contiguous diseases. In the past, the spread of highly infectious diseases such as smallpox was prevented by deserting places where the epidemics occurred. Moreover, sweeping or covering floors with particular plants was another traditionally preventive measure. 43 Learning Activities  Briefly describe the differences between creationist and evolutionist views of human origin.  Briefly describe the differences between creationist and evolutionist theories of human.  Why do you think Lucy had attracted more attention from the world than other human remains discovered in Ethiopia and the Horn?  Discuss the salient features of the three species of Homo family.  List major developments in the three stone Ages.  Explain the link between hunting and taming animals and gathering and plant domestication.  Explain the relations between the domestication of plants and animals and early civilizations in Ethiopia and the Horn?  What are the major categories of language families in Ethiopia and the Horn? Describe also their geographical distribution in the region.  Explain how the study of language can be useful in understanding cultures and societies.  Discuss the connections between drainage systems and economic formations in Ethiopia and the Horn.  Identify the commonalities among indigenous religions of Ethiopia.  Discuss the role of trade and religion in the relations between peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn.  Explain how physical environment -land forms, vegetation, climate- affects the way people live and the ways that humans organize themselves in social, political, and economic institutions. Illustrate your discussion with examples from the experience of peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn.  Sketch on map of Ethiopia the major trade routes and the flow of trade items. 44  Unit Three Polities, Economy and Socio-Cultural Processes in Ethiopia and the Horn to the End of the 13th Century Introduction Dear Learners, From ancient to the 13th century, societies in Ethiopia and the Horn underwent political, economic, social and cultural changes. One remarkable change in the period was the evolution of polities with diverse socio-cultural and economic settings. While agriculture and trade contributed to the evolution of states, religions shaped the socio-cultural setup of the states in different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. The results of the period were socio-cultural achievements such as architecture, arts, writing, calendar, numerals etc. It also explains the external relations of the period that had significant role in shaping the history of region. Unit Objectives At the end of this unit, students will be able to:  show the evolution of states in Ethiopia and the Horn;  identify the prominent ancient states of the Ethiopian and the Horn;  elucidate the factors for the rise and developments of these states;  examine the relation among these states thereby analyzing the impact. Unit starters  What does a state mean? 45   Can you name some of the earliest states in Ethiopia and the Horn?  Tell how Ethiopian people in different geographical locations maintained relationships.  Explain how religion facilitates peoples‟ relations. 3.1. Evolution of States Not until perhaps 5,000 B.C. did villages begin to aggregate into larger political units, but once this process began, it continued at a progressively faster pace and led, around 4000 B.C., to the formation of the first state in history that was by all odds the most far-reaching development. Here a state means an autonomous political unit, encompassing many communities within its territory and having a government with the power to decree and enforce laws. State was the outcome of a regular and determinate cultural process. Moreover, it was a recurring phenomenon: states arose independently in different places and at different times. Where the appropriate conditions existed, the states emerged. The first states were theocratic states, and the social and religious affairs of their community were maintained & regulated by priests/shaman with voluntary contributions. As production became market oriented the priests were gradually replaced by chiefs who began collecting compulsory tributes known as protection payments with which they maintained themselves, their supporters and other followers. Favorable environmental conditions helped to hasten the rate of transformation in some regions of the globe. Ethiopia and the Horn is one of few places in Africa where early state formation has taken place. There emerged first small states that gradually developed into powerful kingdoms and even empires with a well-demarcated social structure in the various parts of it. Geographical locations like nearness to and control of the international water bodies like Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean along with their ports as well as rich interior favored some of them to become the strongest of their neighbors and eventually to dominate them. 46 3.2. Ancient Polities 3.2.1. North and Northeast A. Punt Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn. It was probably stretched from Swakim or Massawa to Straits of Babel Mandeb (Gate of Tears) and Cape Gardafui. The evidence of Punt does not come from the Horn but in Egyptian hieroglyphic writings, at times accompanied, by vivid paintings, tell of a series of naval expeditions which the Egyptian Pharaohs sent to Punt. Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.) sent expedition to collect myrrh, ebony and electrum (gold and silver alloy). During Pharaoh Asosi, treasurer of God Bawardede took dancing dwarf “dink" to Egypt from Punt. At time of Pharaoh Pepi II (2625-2475) expedition led by Captain Sebni took resins. Captain Harkhuf moved through Byblos and took all good tribute from Punt. Senekhkere ordered his officer Henu through Coptos and Kosseir to Punt. Pharaoh Sesotris (1980-1935) continued contact with Punt. Amenemhat II (1938-1903) sent captain Khentkhetwer to Punt. Queen Hatshepsut/Hashepsowe (1490-1468 B.C.), whose expedition is documented at Dier El Bahri tomb, sent 5 ships under black Nubian captain Nehasi via Wadi-Tumilat. The expedition was warmly welcomed by the Hamitic Puntites king/Perehu, his wife/Ati, his sons & daughters and followers. The expedition was able to return collecting frank incense, cinnamon (sweet smelling woods/sandal), spices, ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard skins, ostrich feathers & egg, live monkeys, giraffes, people etc. Hatshepsut presented some parts of imports to her god Amun. It was because of the ritual importance of their exports that Puntites were also known as Khebis of the Ta Netjeru/divine or ghosts land. Iron, bronze, asses, foxes, cattle, animals fur, dying and medicinal plants were also exported from Punt to Egypt. In return axes, daggers, swords, knives, sickles, clothes, bracelets, necklaces, beads and other trinkets were imported from Egypt to Punt. 47 Map 2: The Land of Punt B. Damat and Other Cultural Centers in Northern Ethiopia Habashite and Agazian clans are thought to have migrated from Ma'in, Qataban, Himyar, Hadramawit and chiefly Sabean states of South Arabia to Eritrea and Tigray around 1000 B.C. They named their new settlements after places in Arabia from which they came with nostalgic memories. Thus, Ahsea, northwest of Yeha, corresponds to Ahsiyah of Tihama in Yemen. Assab is corrupt form of Sabat. Bisicia between Aqordat and Kassala can be identified with Bahilah in central Yemen. Coloe in Eritrea recalls Cullai in Qataban. Hauzen in Tigray is derived from south Arabian Hausan. Madera, southwest of Yeha, is coined from Madaran in South Arabia. The Mereb River is named after Arabian dam of Marib. Sahart in Tigray is named after Sahartan, 75 km from Hodeida on Arabian coast of Redsea. Sarae is named after Sarwan/Sarat Mountain in Yemen. With indigenous Cushitic material base, Sabean influence encouraged emergence of Damat state with center south of Aksum led by Mukkarib (south Arabian title for king) from 6thcentury B. C. onward. Various south Arabian gods and goddesses