Ethiopia and the Horn History Common Course PDF

History of Ethiopia and the Horn (Hist.1012) 1.1. The Nature and Uses of History A. Nature  The term history is derived from the Greek word historia which meant “inquiry” or “an account of one's inquiries.” The first use of the term is attributed to one of...

History of Ethiopia and the Horn (Hist.1012) 1.1. The Nature and Uses of History A. Nature  The term history is derived from the Greek word historia which meant “inquiry” or “an account of one's inquiries.” The first use of the term is attributed to one of the ancient Greek historians, Herodotus (c. 484–c. 420 B.C.E.), who is often held to be the “father of written history.”  In ordinary usage, history means all the things that have happened in the human past.  More specifically, the distinction is between what actually happened in the past or that part which exists independently of the historian and still awaits to be recorded and the accounts of the past provided by historians, that is, „history‟.  Academically, history can be defined as an organized and systematic study of the past. The study involves the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events.  History can also mean the period of time after the development of complex social and political organizations along with the invention of writing.  Evidently, what actually happened in the past is almost infinite. Historians select which topics and problems they wish to study, as do scientists. In this regard, the major concern of history is the study of human society and its interaction with the natural environment which is also the subject of study by many other disciplines.  What differentiates history from other disciplines is that while the latter study the interaction between humans and their environment in the present state, history studies the interaction between the two in the past within the framework of the continuous process of change taking place in time.  Because of the longevity of that time, historians organize and divide the human past into discrete periods after identifying significant developments in politics, society, economy, culture, environment etc. through the rigorous study of documents and artifacts left by people of other times and other places. Then they give a label to each period to convey the key characteristics and developments of that era. Accordingly, history is conventionally divided into:-  Ancient ,  medieval and  modern history. This is what we call periodization in history; one of the key characteristics of the discipline.  E. H. Carr defined history as an “unending dialogue between the present and the past.” In short, the past does not exist now, but continues to live in present.  Until the early twentieth century the study and teaching of history was limited to narrative presentation of “what happened” in the past. At the core of this narration had been political events relating to the deeds of “great men” and “great women”. As societies have become more complex, as the different areas of the world have become more closely interconnected, as new types of primary source and research methods are brought into use, so more rigorous accounts of the past have become more necessary.  Thus, history assumed three dimensions as its main job i.e. to  narrate what happened,  discuss how it happened and  analyze why it happened  Contemporary history teaching and research pursue a more integrative approach offering students an expanded view of historical knowledge that includes aspects of  environment,  religion, 1   gender,  philosophy,  economics,  technology,  art and society instead of mere cataloguing of political events B. Uses of history History:- 1/ Help us better understand the present  History is the only significant storehouse of information available for the examination and analysis of how people behaved and acted in the past.  People need to produce some sort of account of their past because it is difficult to understand problems that face humanity and society today without tracing their origins in the past. Put differently, knowledge of relevant historical background is essential for a balanced and in-depth understanding of many current world situations. 2/ Provides us a sense of our own identity  Knowledge of history is indispensable to understand who we are and where we fit in the world.  As memory is to the individual, history is to the society. An individual without memory finds great difficulty in relating to others and in taking intelligent decisions.  A society without history would be in similar condition. It is only through sense of history that communities define their identity, orient them, and understand their relationships with the past and with other societies 3/ Provides the Basic Background for Many Other Disciplines  Historical knowledge is extremely valuable in the pursuit of other disciplines such as literature, art, philosophy religion, sociology, political science, anthropology and economics. With regard to the last four, it is fair to argue that history is a mother discipline for they arose out of historical investigation or formed part of historical writing. 4/ The Careful Study of History Teaches One Many Critical Skills  Studying history helps students to develop some critical skills relating to the how of doing research. These include but not limited to how to:- find and evaluate sources; make coherent arguments based on various kinds of evidence and present clearly in writing. These analytical and communication skills are highly usable in other academic pursuits. Gaining skills in sorting through diverse interpretations is also essential to make informed decisions in our day-to-day life. 5/ Can Help One Develop Tolerance and Open-Mindedness  Most of us have a tendency to regard our own cultural practices, styles, and values as right and proper. Studying different societies in the past is like going to a foreign country, which contributes to rid ourselves of some of our inherent cultural provincialism.  By studying the past, students of history acquire a broad perspective that gives them the range and flexibility required in many life situations. 6/ Can be Entertainment/supplies endless source of fascination  Exploring the ways people in distant ages constructed their lives involves a sense of beauty and excitement, and ultimately another perspective on human life and society. 7/ Enable us understand the past and avoid or correct mistakes of the past done by our ancestors 8/ Help us understand the existence of different customs, laws and institutions 9/ Help us to have broad understanding about national and international issues, democratic principles and nationalism 10/ Can help foster promote national feeling 2  To conclude, history should be studied because:-  it is essential to the individual and the society. we cannot escape from our past.  only through studying history we can grasp how and why things change; and  only through history we can understand what elements of a society persist despite change.  Aesthetic and humanistic goals also inspire people to study the past, far removed from present- day utility.  Nevertheless just as history can be useful, it can also be abused. Such abuses come mainly from deliberate manipulation of the past to fit current political agenda. In such cases, history is written backwards. That is the past is described and interpreted to justify the present. While personal biases are not always avoidable, a historian is different from a propagandist in that the former takes care to document his judgment and assertions so that they can be subjected to independent and external verification. 1.2. Sources and Methods of Historical Study  Historians are not creative writers like novelists; the work of historian must be supported by evidence arising from sources. Sources are instruments that bring to life what appear to have been dead. Where there are no sources there is no history. Sources are, therefore, key to the study and writing of history.  Historical sources are broadly classified into two types: Primary and Secondary.  Primary sources are:-  original or first hand in their proximity to the event both in time and space  surviving traces of the past available to us in the present  Examples :- manuscripts (handwritten materials), diaries, letters, minutes, court and administrative files, travel documents, photographs, maps, video and audiovisual materials, and physical remains or relics such as coins, fossils, weapons, utensils, and buildings, oral tradition (by eye witness)  Secondary sources are:-  second-hand published accounts about events that happened in the past.  often use primary sources, but are written long after the event has occurred, providing an interpretation of what happened, why it happened, and how it happened  give us what appear to be finished accounts of certain historical periods and phenomena  Examples:- articles, books, textbooks, biographies, and published stories or movies about historical events, oral tradition (a retold eye witness account) o What we have to know is that as new sources keep coming to light, no history work can be taken as final. New sources make possible new historical interpretations or entirely new historical reconstructions.  Oral sources are also indispensable to study and document the history of non-literate societies. In many societies, oral information can pass from one generation to another without being recorded. This type of oral data is called oral tradition. For the history of Ethiopia and the Horn, historians use a combination of the sources described above. However, whatever the source of information- primary or secondary, written or oral- the data should be subjected to critical evaluation before used as evidence. For instance:-  Primary sources have to be verified for their originality and authenticity because sometimes, primary sources like letters may be forged.  Secondary sources have to be examined for the reliability of their reconstructions.  An oral tradition may lose its originality and authenticity due to omission, exaggeration and distortion through time. Therefore, it should be crosschecked with other sources such as written documents to determine its veracity. 3  In short, historians (unlike novelists) must find evidence about the past, ask questions of that evidence, and come up with explanations that make sense of what the evidence says about the people, events, places and time periods they study. 1.3. Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn  Historiography is:-  The history of historical writing. In short, it means the history of history.  The history of historical accounts, studying how knowledge of the past, either recent or distant, is obtained and transmitted.  People have had some sense of the past perhaps since the beginning of humanity. Yet historiography as an intentional attempt to know and represent descriptions of past events in writing has rather a briefer career throughout the world.  The organized study and narration of the past was introduced by the Greeks Herodotus also called “Father of written History” (c. 484–c. 420 B.C.) and Thucydides (d. c. 401 B.C).  The other major tradition of thinking and writing about the past is the Chinese. The most important early figure in Chinese historical thought and writing was the Han dynasty figure Sima Qian (145–86 B.C.).  History emerged as an academic discipline in the second half of the nineteenth century first in Europe and subsequently in other parts of the world notably in the US. The German historian, Leopold Von Ranke (1795–1886), and his colleagues established history as an independent discipline in Bonn with its own set of methods and concepts by which historians collect evidence of past events, evaluate that evidence, and present a meaningful discussion of the subject. Ranke‟s greatest contribution to the scientific study of the past is such that he is considered as the “father of modern historiography”.  Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn has changed enormously during the past hundred years in ways that merit fuller treatment than can be afforded here. In order to appreciate twentieth- century historiography of the region, it is first necessary to examine earlier forms of historiography (historical writing).  The earliest known reference that we have on history of Ethiopia and the Horn is  The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (The Voyage of the Indian Ocean),  Written in the first century A.D by an anonymous author.  It is a manual document or handbook used by merchants who frequently come to the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean.  Gives a detailed account of the Aksumite state and the ports on the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden coasts. According to this document, Adulis was the port of the city of Aksum. It also states that the king of Aksum was called Zoscales, and could communicate with Greek.  Another document describing Aksum‟s trade and the then Aksumite king‟s campaigns on both sides of the sea is the Christian Topography. This document is:-  composed by Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek sailor, in the sixth century A.D  It also stated about the Aksumite merchants that visited lands to the south of Abbay to buy gold for the ruling class.  Unfortunately, contemporary Ethiopian materials are non-existent to substantiate the information from the above sources despite the country‟s reputation for an ancient civilization of literacy.  Inscriptions aside, the earliest written Ethiopian material dates from the seventh century A.D. The document was found in Abba Gerima monastery in Yeha.  The discovery of inscriptions that dates the 7th c AD was followed by a manuscript discovered in Haiq Istifanos monastery of present day Wollo in the thirteenth century A.D (medieval time). The value of manuscripts:- 4  Is essentially religious. have the added value of providing insights into the country‟s past. For example, the manuscript cited above contains the list of medieval kings and their history in brief.  The largest groups of sources available for medieval Ethiopian history are hagiographies. Hagiographies:-  Originating from Ethiopian Orthodox Church.  Invariably written in Ge‟ez  There important function is enhancing the prestige of saints  Yet other related anecdotes are also introduced, and often discussed in detail such as the development of the church and the state including territorial conquests by reigning monarchs.  A parallel hagiographical tradition also existed within the Muslim communities of the country.  One such account offers tremendous insight into the life of a Muslim saint, Shaykh Ja‟far Bukko of Gattira, in present day Wallo, in the late nineteenth century.  Besides the life of the Saint, this account discussed about:- the development of indigenous Islam and contacts between the region‟s Muslim community and the outside world  Ethiopia had also an indigenous tradition of history writing called chronicles.  Chronicles in the ancient Ethiopian Ge‟ez tongue first appeared in the 14th century and continue (sometimes in Amharic) into the early twentieth.  Kings or their successors entrusted the writing of chronicles to court scribes or clergymen of recognized clerical training and calligraphic skills.  The first and the last of such documents are the Glorious Victories of Amde-Tsion and the Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu respectively.  Chronicles incorporate both legends and facts past and contemporary about the monarch‟s genealogy, upbringing, military exploits, piety and statesmanship.  Chronicles are known for their factual detail and strong chronological framework, even if it would require considerable labour to convert their relative chronology to an absolute one.  Chronicles are also averse to quantification.  Major events in and around the imperial residence are explained mainly in religious terms; the chronicle, therefore offers very little by way of social and economic developments even in the environs of the palace.  However in conjunction with other varieties of written documents such as hagiographies and travel accounts by foreign observers, chronicles can provide us with a glimpse into the character and lives of kings their preoccupations and relations with subordinate officials and though inadequately the evolution of the Ethiopian state and society.  Written accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors to the coast also provide useful information on various aspects of the region‟s history. For example:-  al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta described the culture, language and import-export trade in the main central region of the east African coast in the tenth and in the fourteenth centuries respectively. o For the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, we have two documents composed by Yemeni writers who were eyewitnesses to the events they described. These were:- 1/ Futuh al Habesha (The Conquest of Abyssinia) was composed by Shihab al-Din, who recorded the conflict between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim principalities in the sixteenth century. This document also describes:- the operation of the war including the conquest of northern and central Ethiopia by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi 5  major towns and their inhabitants in the southeastern part of Ethiopia, although the discussion abruptly ends in 1535. 2/ The other first-hand account is left to us by Al-Haymi, who led a Yemeni delegation in 1647 to the court of Fasiledes (r. 1632-67). o Other materials that appeared in the sixteenth century include Aba Bahrey‟s Amharic script the History of the [Oromo].  The document was written in the 1593.  Notwithstanding its limitations, this document provides firsthand information about the Oromo population movement in the stated period  The contribution of missionaries and travellers to the development of Ethiopian historiography is also significant. o Mission sources  From the early sixteenth until the later nineteenth centuries, European missionaries (Catholics and Protestants) came to the country with the intention of staying, and who, nevertheless, maintained intimate links with Europe.  Some of the major topics covered by these missionary sources include religious and political developments within Ethiopia, and the country‟s foreign relations. An example of such account is:-  The Prester John of the Indies, composed by a Portuguese priest, Francisco Alvarez, who led the Portuguese mission to the court of Lebne-Dengel in 1520. o Travel documents  One example of travel documents is James Bruce‟s Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile.  Like other sources however both mission and travel materials can only be used with considerable reservations and with care for they are socially and politically biased.  Foreigners also developed interest in Ethiopian studies.  One of these figures was a German, Hiob Ludolf (l.1624-1704). Ludolf:-  was the founder of Ethiopian studies in Europe in the seventeenth century.  Was who wrote Historica Aethiopica (translated into English as A New History of Ethiopia).  never visited Ethiopia; he wrote the country‟s history based on information he collected from an Ethiopian priest named Abba Gorgorios (Aba Gregory) who was in Europe at that time.  The other foreigner was August Dillman  In the 19th century he published two studies on ancient Ethiopian history  Compared to Ludolf, Dillman demonstrated all markers of objectivity in his historical research endeavors.  Historical writing made some departures from the chronicle tradition in the early twentieth century. This period saw the emergence of traditional Ethiopian writers who made conscious efforts to distance themselves from chroniclers whom they criticized for adulatory tone when writing about monarchs.  The earliest group of these traditional writers include:-  Aleqa Taye Gebre-Mariam,  Aleqa Asme Giorgis and  Onesmus Nasib (Aba Gemechis).  Later, Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus and Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn joined the above three writers. 6   Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics from social justice, administrative reform and economic analysis to history. For instance:- Taye wrote Yeityopia Hizb Tarik (The History of Ethiopian People) Asme wrote Ye [Oromo] Tarik (The History of the Oromo) Onesmus translated the Bible into his native tongue, Afan Oromo. Afework wrote the first Amharic novel, Tobiya, in Ethiopian history Gebre-Hiwot has Atse Menilekna Ityopia (Emperor Menilek and Ethiopia) and Mengistna Yehizb Astedader (Government and Public Administration) to his name  The most prolific writer of the early twentieth century Ethiopia was, however, Blatten Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie. Hiruy published four major works. Namely: Ethiopiana Metema (Ethiopia and Metema), Wazema (Eve), Yehiwot Tarik (A Biographical Dictionary) and Yeityopia Tarik (The History of Ethiopia).  In contrast to their predecessors, Gebre Hiwot and Hiruy exhibited relative objectivity and methodological sophistication in their works.  Unfortunately, the Italian occupation of Ethiopia interrupted the early experiment in modern history writing and publications. After liberation:- Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria:  formed a bridge between writers in pre-1935 and Ethiopia professional historians who came after him.  has published some eight historical works.  made better evaluation of his sources than his predecessors.  Yet like his precursors, bias permeates most of his works. Yilma Deressa:  Wrote Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be’asra Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemen (A History of Ethiopia in the Sixteenth Century). This book addresses:-  the Oromo population movement and  the wars between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim principalities as its main subjects.  Tekle Tsadik and Yilma‟s works are written in Amharic and therefore can be used by the wider public and scholars alike Blatten Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel also contributed his share. Among others,  He wrote Zikre Neger (Things Remembered).  Zikre Neger is a comprehensive account of Ethiopia‟s prewar land tenure systems and taxation, but fails to capture localized circumstances, responses, and conflicts and silent on the actual impacts of government legislation on regulating access to resource control. Another work dealing specifically with aspects of land tenure is left to us by Gebre- Wold Engidawork and has been translated into English. Another writer of the same category was Dejazmach Kebede Tesema.  He wrote his memoir of the imperial period, published with as Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962 E.C.  The 1960s was a crucial decade in the development of Ethiopian historiography for it was in this period that history emerged as an academic discipline. In this period:  The pursuit of historical studies as a full-time occupation began with the opening of the Department of History at the then Haile Selassie I University (HSIU) in 1963.  Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) was established at Haile Sellasie I University College (1963). Its founding member and first director the late Richard Pankhurst. He has 7  authored or co-authored twenty-two books and produced several hundred articles on Ethiopia.  IES has been publishing the Journal of Ethiopian Studies for the dissemination of historical research.  IES has its own library that:  contains literary works of diverse disciplines  has its fair share in the evolution and development of professional historiography in Ethiopia.  The production of BA theses began towards the end of the decade.  The Department of History launched its MA and phD programs in 1979 and 1990 respectively.  Since then, researches by faculty (both Ethiopians and expatriates) and students have been produced on various topics.  Although entirely a research organization, the Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) is the other institutional home of professional historiography in Ethiopia.  The professionalization of history in other parts of the Horn is a post-colonial phenomenon  With the establishment of independent nations, a deeper interest in exploring their own past quickly emerged among African populations, perhaps stimulated by reactions to decades of education in an alien imperial historiography. With this came an urgent need to recast the historical record and to recover evidence of many lost pre-colonial civilizations.  The decolonization of African historiography required new methodological approach (tools of investigation) to the study of the past that involved:-  a critical use of oral data and  tapping the percepts of ancillary disciplines like archeology, anthropology and linguistics.  At the same time, European intellectuals‟ own discomfort with the Euro-centrism of previous scholarship provided for the intensive academic study of African history, an innovation that had spread to North America by the 1960s.  Foundational research was done at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) in London and the Department of History at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.  Francophone scholars have been as influential as Anglophones.  Yet African historiography has not been the sole creation of interested Europeans. African universities have, despite the instabilities of politics and civil war in many areas, trained their own scholars and sent many others overseas for training who eventually published numerous works on different aspects of the region‟s history. 1.4. The Geographical Context of Human History in Ethiopia and the Horn  The term “Ethiopia and the Horn” refers to that part of Northeast Africa which now contains the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia. The region:-  consists chiefly of mountains uplifted through the formation of the Great Rift Valley. (The Rift Valley is a fissure in the Earth‟s crust running down from Syria to Mozambique and marking the separation of the African and Arabian tectonic plates).  has a massive highland complex of mountains and plateaus divided by the Great Rift Valley and surrounded by lowlands, semi-desert, deserts and tropical forests along the periphery. (physiographic features)  has variety of climate, natural vegetation, soil composition, and settlement patterns.  As with the physical features, people across the region are remarkably diverse. They:  speak a vast number of different languages  profess to many distinct religions  live in a variety types of dwellings, and 8   engage in a wide range of economic activities.  However, peoples of the region were never isolated; they interacted throughout history from a diversity of locations. This interaction enable them to share common past.  The history of Ethiopia and the Horn has been shaped by contacts with others through commerce, migrations, wars, slavery, colonialism, and the waxing and waning of state systems. Yet the evolution of human history owed much to geographical factors notably:  location,  landforms,  resource endowment,  climate and drainage systems which continue to impact, as incentives and deterrents,  the movement of people and goods in the region The impact of the region‟s geography on the way people live and organize themselves into societies  Spatial location in relationship to other spaces and locations in the world is one geographical factor that has significant bearing on the ways in which history unfolds. Ethiopia and the Horn lies between the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean on the one hand, and the present-day eastern frontiers of Sudan and Kenya on the other. Thus, since early times,  The Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden linked Northeast Africa to the Eastern Mediterranean, the Near and Middle East, India, and the Far East  The Indian Ocean has linked East Africa to the Near and Middle East, India and the Far East.  Another element of geography that had profound impact on human history is drainage system.  Ethiopia and the Horn has five principal drainage systems. These are 1/ the Nile River System 2/ the Gibe/Omo–Gojeb River System 3/ the Genale/Jubba-Shebele River System 4/ the Awash River System and 5/ the Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes System  Flowing from Uganda in the south to the Sudan in the north, the White Nile meets the Blue Nile (Abay in Ethiopia that starts from the environs of Tana Lake) in Khartoum and eventually, drains into the Mediterranean Sea through Egypt.  The Awash River System is an entirely Ethiopian system and links the cool rich highlands of Central Ethiopia with the hot, dry lowlands of the Danakil Depression  The Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes System is a self-contained drainage basin, and includes a string of lakes stretching from Lake Ziway in the north to Lake Turkana (formerly known as Rudolf) on the Ethio-Kenyan border.  The Gibe/Omo–Gojeb River System links southern Ethiopia to the semi-desert lowlands of northern Kenya.  The Shebele and Genale rivers originate in the Eastern highlands and flow southeast toward Somalia and the Indian Ocean. Only the Genale (known as the Jubba in Somalia) makes it to the Indian Ocean; the Shebele disappears in sand just inside the coastline.  The above watersheds are very important in the life and history of the peoples inhabiting the region. Besides providing people with the source of their livelihood, the drainage systems facilitated the movement of peoples and goods across diverse environments, resulting the exchange of ideas, technology, knowledge, cultural expressions and beliefs.  Studying the drainage systems of Ethiopia and the Horn is crucial for proper understanding of the relationships of the peoples living within the river basins mentioned previously.  Ethiopia and the Horn can be divided into three major distinct environmental zones. 9 1/ The vast Eastern lowland  Covers the narrow coastal strip of northeastern Eritrea, widens gradually and descends southwards to include much of lowland Eritrea, the Sahel, the Danakil Desert, the lower Awash valley, and the arid terrain in northeast of the Republic of Djibouti. It then extends to the Ogaden, the lower parts of Hararghe, Bale, Borana, Sidamo and the whole territory of the Republic of Somalia.  There is not much seasonal variation in climatic condition of this zone. Hot and dry conditions prevail year-round along with periodic monsoon winds and irregular (little) rainfall except in limited areas along the rivers Awash, Wabe Shebele and Genale/Jubba which traverse the region and a few off-shore islands (eg. Dahlak, Socotra) in the Red Sea, Aden Gulf and Indian Ocean which are' inhabited by people closely related to those of immediate mainland districts.  Much of the lowland territory is covered only by shrub and bush as its major vegetation. 2/ Highland massif  Locate immediately to the west of and opposite to the eastern lowland  Starts from northern Eritrea and continues all the way to southern Ethiopia.  The eastern extension of the highland massif consists the Arssi, Bale and Hararghe plateau.  The major divide between the western and eastern parts of this zone is the Rift Valley.  The major physiographic features of the zone are complex of mountains, deep valleys, and extensive plateaus.  It is generally said that rainfall has declined in Ethiopia and the Horn since the 1960s causing drought and famine, such as the well-known Ethiopian famines of 1970s and 1980s. 3/ Western hot lowlands  Found along the western foothills or on the periphery of the plateau and on borderlands of the Sudan, stretching from north to south.  in earlier times this region characterized by thick forests chiefly on the banks of the Nile and its tributaries.  Despite the varied physical environments discussed above, the countries of the Horn of Africa are, for the most part, linguistically and ethnically linked together as far back as recorded history goes.  Population movements had caused a continuous process of interaction, creating a very complex picture of settlement patterns. This is the case, for example, in Ethiopia where a number of Cushitic groups live surrounding as well as interspersed among more or less semitized population in the northern and central highlands of the country.  The high degree of interaction, the long common history of much of the population and their adherence to Christianity or Islam, had weakened ethnic dividing lines in large parts of the region. Linguistic and cultural affinities are therefore as important as ethnic origin in the grouping of the population. Unit two Peoples and Cultures in Ethiopia and the Horn 2.1. Human Evolution  Regarding the origin of human being, there are two divergent views. These are: 1/ The creationist view that contends super natural force or God created non-living and living things including human being with complete physical shape and structure. 2/ The evolutionist view which argues that living things and nonliving things developed from small beings through gradual changes of many million years.  The earliest evolution theorist Charles Darwin (1809- 1882) published Theory of Evolution or Origin of Species by Natural Selection (1859) and Descent of Man (1871).  According to evolutionists, 10   human evolution accounts only fraction of history of the globe that had been formed through natural process about 4. 5 billion years ago or before present (B. P.)  The earliest known life came in to being between 3 &1 billion years B.P. Accordingly: Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds and other small animals (mainly invertebrates) emerged at about/circa (c.) 800 million years B. P. In due course, first primates branched out of Tarsiers and main placental mammal stream as of 200-170 million years B. P. Then, some primates developed into Pongidae such as baboons, monkeys, gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon etc while others evolved in to Hominidae (human ancestors).  Archaeological evidences suggest that:-  Human beings and apes share common ancestors.  East African Rift Valley is a cradle of humanity.  Evidences related to both biological and cultural evolution have been discovered in the Lower Omo and Middle Awash River valleys both by Ethiopian and foreign scholars. Such as: A fossil named as Cororapithecus dated 10 million B. P. was discovered in Ancar (in Hararghe) in 2007. A fossil called Ardipithicus Ramidus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 million B.P.) was discovered in Middle Awash. Ardipithicus ramidus (dated 4.2 million B.P.) was discovered by Tim D. White at Aramis in Afar in 1994. Other Australopithecines were also discovered at Belohdelie (dated back 3.6 million years B.P.), in Middle Awash. Fossilized animal bones (3.4 million years) were found with stone-tool-inflicted marks on them (the oldest evidence of stone tool use ever found in the world) by international team led by Shannon McPherron in Lower Awash Valley in 2010. A three years old child‟s fossil termed as Australopithecus afarensis, Selam, dated to 3.3 million years B.P was also discovered at Dikika, Mille, Afar in 2000. Another Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated c. 3.18 million years B. P.) with 40% complete body parts, weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters and pelvis looks like bipedal female was discovered by Donald Carl Johnson at Hadar in Afar in 1974 A. D. Fossil named as Australopithecus Anamensis was discovered around Lake Turkana. Ethiopian Anthropologist Berhane Asfaw and his team discovered an eco-fact named as Australopithecus Garhi (means surprise in Afar language) dated 2.5 million years B.P was discovered at Bouri, Middle Awash, between 1996 and 1999. Other species like Australopithecus Bosei, Australopithecus Aethiopicus and Pithecan were also discovered in different areas of East Africa Dr. Richard Luis Leaky and Mary Leaky found proto-human fossil named as Zinjanthropus in 1959. Genus Homo  The development of the human brain was to be the main feature of the next stage of human evolution, which produced the genus Homo, believed to have emerged 2-2.5 million years B.P.  Three species belong to genus Homo. These are: 1/ Homo Habilis:  is derived from Latin terms Homo which meant human being and Habilis meant skillful or handy.  Its partial skull was discovered in lower Omo dated 1.9 million years B.P.  Its brain size is 650- 800 C.C. 11 2/ Homo Erectus:  Also known as upright walking human being  Its fossil dated 1.6 million B.P was discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb with 185 cm tall, 68kg weight, 5-6 inches height and 900-1100 cc brain size.  Homo erectus seems to have originated in Africa and then spread out to the rest of the world. 3/ Homo-Sapiens (wise human being) A/ Skeleton of Archaic Homo-Sapiens/Knowledgeable human being/ (dated 400,000 years B.P.), named Bodo with brain size of 1300-1400cc was discovered in Middle Awash. B/ Homo Sapiens Sapiens  Its fossils dated 100, 000 years B.P, were discovered at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa and Kibish around Lower Omo (by Leakey in 1967).  Kibish fossils were re-dated in 2004 to 195, 000 years old, the oldest date anywhere in world for modern Homo Sapiens.  Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997, lived about 160, 000 years ago.  Cultural evolution is related to technological changes that brought socio-economic transformation on human life. It can be conventionally grouped in to:-  Stone Age,  Bronze Age and  Iron Age.  Stone tools had been the first technologies to be developed by human beings. By taking their features, ways and period of production, stone tools can be grouped in to three:- A/ Mode I (Olduwan, which was named based on the first report made at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania). The mode I stone tools are mainly Characterized by:-  crude and mono-facial styles, and  the direct percussion production. B/ Mode II (Acheulean, named after the first report at St. Acheul, France). Mode II stone tools were produced by:-  indirect percussion, by using hand-ax or hammer, and  bifacial, pointed and convex features. C/ Mode III (Sangoon). Mode III stone tools are characterized by:  flexible and finest form of production by the use of obsidian  Examples of the above types of stone tools have been found in Ethiopia and the Horn.  Fossilized animal bones (3. 4 million years B. P.) were found with stone-tool-inflicted marks on them (the oldest evidence of stone tool in the world) at Dikika in 2010.  Artifact findings suggest that the 1st stone tools (Olduwan tools) made and used by Homo habilis were discovered near Gona (dated 2.52 million years B.P. in 1992) and at Shungura in Afar.  Homo erectus produced Acheulean tools dated back to 1.7.million years B.P, probably the first to invent fire around 1.5 million years ago and started burial practice. Dutch hydrologist Gerrard Dekker found Acheulian tools (over a million years old) at Kella, Middle Awash in 1963.  Homosapiens produced Sangoon tools that trace back up to 300,000 years B. P. Gademotta site in central Ethiopian Rift Valley has been dated back to 200, 000 B. P. Other vital sites such as Gorgora, Ki‟one and Yabello in Ethiopia and Midhidhishi and Gudgud in Somalia have offered noteworthy information about Stone Age communities. The Stone Age  The period of the usage of lithus/ stone tools is divided into sub-periods. They are: 1/ Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) 12   Was a period from 3.4 million to 11, 000 years B.P.  was the period when human being developed language with shelter in cave using stone, bone, wood, furs & skin materials to prepare food and clothing.  There was sex-age labor division with able-bodied males as hunters of fauna, and children and females as gatherers of flora.  In due course, society developed from matriarchal to partriachial hierarchy.  Gademotta Stone Age site in central Ethiopian Rift Valley is one of the oldest sites in African continent and has been dated back to 200,000 B.P.  Other sites such as Gorgora, Ki‟one, Tiyya, Tuto Fala & Yabaldho in Ethiopia and Midhidhishi & Gudgud in Somalia are important sites that have offered noteworthy information about Stone Age communities in the Horn of Africa. 2/ Mesolithic/ middle Stone Age  Dated/lasted from 11, 000-10,000 B.P.  was a transition period between Old and Neolithic/New Stone Ages(10.000-6000 B.P). 3/ Neolithic/ New Stone Age  Lasted from 10,000 – 6000 B.P  was a time when human being used micro-lithic tools. 2.2. The Neolithic Revolution  It was during Neolithic period:-  human beings began to transform from mobile way of life to sedentary. This was a radical shift involving changes from hunting and gathering to the domestication of plants and animals.  Climatic change and increased hunter-gatherers‟ population resulted in the declining number of animals and availability of plants.  As food gatherers were already aware of growing cycle of most of grass types, they began to thickly grow those, which were most common and yielded seeds that are more edible.  The big animals, which depended on dense bushes for sustenance, were reduced by hunting and animals that people were able to domesticate easily were smaller ones.  People descend from mountain sides to build houses near cultivated plots fencing both and harvested crops had to be stored & protected from humidity & rodents  For better security and to help each other in hard works, families preferred to live together forming larger communities  Using stick or hoe for planting was also gradually replaced by ox-drawn plough  Farmers acquired surplus produce to exchange with better tools and clothes with the craftsmen who were able to concentrate on and specialize in the production of these items.  The process of domestication took place independently in the various parts of the world. In Ethiopia and the Horn chiefly in the more elevated and wetter-parts, people cultivated plants including  Teff (Eragrotis teff),  dagussa (Eleusine coracana),  nug (Guzotia abyssinica),  enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc.  The domestication of enset plant (Enseteedule) reduced shifting cultivation (continuous clearing of new plots), slowing down soil exhaustion.  Enset was widely cultivated over central and northern Ethiopia until increasing demands of states which had to support many units of professional soldiers forced farmers to cultivate cereals like teff only.  The discovery of polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones, beads, stone figures and animal remains in sites like Emba-Fakeda around Adigrat in Tigray as well as Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea evinces/expresses the existence of Neolithic material culture. Accordingly:- 13   The Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has provided us agricultural stone tools.  Stone tools used for cutting grass and grass like plants as well as rock paintings of domesticated animals have been found at Laga Oda rock shelter near Charchar.  Archaeologist, Dombrowiski, excavated remains associated with domesticated cattle, chickpeas and vegetables from Lalibela Cave on the southeastern shore of Lake Tana. Evidence for domesticated cattle also comes from around Lake Basaqa near Matahara. Playa Napata and Kado in the Sudan, Cyrenaica in Libya and Futajalon in West Africa were among known places of domestication of animals like Nidamawa and Zebu (Bos indicus) cattle that in due course expanded to Ethiopia and the Horn. 2.3. The Peopling of the Region 2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes  Ethiopia and the Horn in general is marked by ethnic and linguistic diversity. There are about 90 languages with 200 dialects in Ethiopia and the Horn. Beneath this apparent diversity, there is some degree of unity.  Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into two major language super families. These are Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan. A. Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into the following families: 1/ Cushitic: linguists divided this language family into four branches: o Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea bordering the Sudan. o Central: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen. o Eastern: this includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai, etc. o Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania. 2/ Semitic: is divided into two: North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese border); Tigre (spoken in Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland Eritrea and Tigray). South: is further divided into two  Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay.  Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered). 3/ Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Bambasi, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Dorze, Gamo, Ganza, Gayil, Gofa, Hamer, Hozo, Kachama-Ganjule, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Nayi, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc. Among its groups, Ometo includes Wolayta and Gamo while main Gonga is Keficho. B. Nilo-Saharan:/sub divided into sub families namely, Chari- Nile and Koman/. Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu‟er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk are languages belong to the Nilo-Saharan supper family.  Unclassified: Weyto (might be Cushitic or Semitic); Ongota (moribund possibly Omotic or separate branch of Afro-Asiatic or not at all) & Rer Bare (extinct-may be Bantu).  Language classification did not remain static. Factors like population movements, warfare, trade, religious and territorial expansion, urbanization etc. have resulted in intense linguistic processes that forced languages to be affected. In this process, some languages died out or have been in danger of extinction while others thrived off the social phenomenon that is evidently observed. 2.3.2. Settlement Patterns  A settlement pattern, the distribution of peoples across the landscape, is the results of long historical processes in northeast Africa. A Settlement pattern is differ from place to place. Such as:  In some areas, settlement was dense and in other areas sparse. 14   Some people inhabited extensive highlands and others the lowlands.  Based on historical linguistic and history of inter-peoples relations, studies indicate that environmental, socio-economic, and political processes significantly shaped and reshaped the spatial distribution of peoples in the region.  Since early times, the Cushitic and Semitic peoples had inhabited the area between the Red Sea in the east and Blue Nile in the west from where they dispersed to different directions. In due course,  the Cushites have evolved to be the largest linguistic group in Ethiopia and the Horn and have also spread over wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania.  the Semitic peoples spread over large area and eventually settled the northern, north central, northeastern, south central and eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. The Semites are the second majority people next to the Cushites.  Except the Shinasha, who live in Benishangul-Gumuz and the South Mao in Wallagga, the majority of Omotic peoples have inhabited southwestern Ethiopia along the Omo River basin. Yet, in the earlier times, they had extended much further to the north.  In the west, the Nilotes are largely settled along the Ethiopia-Sudanese border although some of the Chari-Nile family inhabited as far as southern Omo. The latter are identified as the Karamojo cluster living around Turkana Lake along Ethio-Kenyan border. 2.3.3. Economic Formations  The domestication of plants and animals gave humanity two interdependent modes of life: agriculture and pastoralism.  Pastoralism  While there may be pure pastoralists, it is very rare to think of a farmer without a head of cattle or two. Likewise, in Ethiopia and the Horn, these two forms of livelihood have coexisted and quite often interrelated.  Yet, topographic features and climatic conditions largely influenced economic activities in Ethiopia and the Horn.  A predominantly pastoral economy has characterized the eastern lowland region since early periods. Pastoral economy namely the production of camel, goat, and cattle has been the most common economic practice among the Afar, Saho and Somali as well as Karayu and Borana Oromo. While the Afar and Karrayu have depended on the Awash River, the Somali have owed a great deal to Wabi Shebelle and Genale (Jubba) Rivers.  Agriculture  The plateaus have sustained plough agriculture for thousands of years supporting sizable populations.  Majority of the populations were engaged in mixed farming. It is here (plateaus) that sedentary agriculture had been started and advanced at least since 10, 000 years B. P. by the Cushites, Semites and Omotic groups.  The major economic activity of the Omotic has been:- mixed farming and trade in northern Omo pastoralism and fishing predominantly practiced in southern Omo. Many of the Omotic groups have also been famous in metallurgy, weaving and other crafts.  In the sparsely populated western lowland region, the dominant economic formations were pastoralism, shifting agriculture, fishing, apiculture and hunting. For instance, sorghum, millet, cotton and others have been largely cultivated in the lowlands along Ethio-Sudanese border since antiquity.  The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo Rivers have been shifting cultivators where sorghum has been a staple food. Among majority Nilotic communities, cattle have high 15  economic and social values. Berta and other Nilotes had trade and other social contacts with northern Sudan. 2.4. Religion and Religious Processes 2.4.1. Indigenous Religion  This includes a variety of religious beliefs and practices, which are native to the region and have been followed by the local people since ancient times.  A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is belief in one Supreme Being, but special powers are attributed to natural phenomena, which are considered sacred. Spiritual functionaries:-  officiate over rituals,  propitiate divinities, and  are held in a lot of respect as intermediaries between the society and spirits.  Waqeffanna of Oromo o Waqeffanna of the Oromo is based on the existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa. Waqa's power is manifested through the spirits called Ayyana. The major spirits include:-  Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit)  Atete (women or human and animal fertility spirit)  Awayi/Tiyyana (sanctity spirit)  Balas (victory spirit)  Chato/Dora (wild animals defender spirit)  Gijare/ Nabi (father and mother‟s spirit)  Jaricha (peace spirit)  Qasa (anti-disease spirit) etc.  There is also a belief that the dead exist in the form of a ghost called Ekera in the surrounding of his/her abode before death, or his/her cemetery (Hujuba). o In the autumn and spring seasons every year at the edge of ever-flowing river and top of mountain respectively, there is thanks giving festival called Irrecha besides New Year (Birbo) rite.  Revered experts known as Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female) have maintained link between the Ayyana and the believers. Qallu ritual house is called Galma located on hilltop or in the grove of large trees.  On Wednesday and Friday nights, there is Dalaga/ecstasy at which Qallu or Qallitti is possessed by Ayyana so that s/he can interpret mysteries. The Jila/Makkala (delegated messengers) used to make pilgrimage to get consecration of senior Qallu (Abba Muda or anointment father) until about 1900. Abba Muda had turban surrirufa of tri-colors: black at top, red at center and white at bottom representing those in pre-active life, active (luba) and those in post-active life respectively.  Hadiya  Among the Hadiya the Supreme Being is known as Waa, who is believed to exist before everything (hundam issancho) or create world (qoccancho) and whose eyes are represented by elincho (sun) and agana (moon). The major spirits include:-  Jara (male‟s protector)  Idota (female‟s guard)  Hausula, Qedane and Warriqa attracted prayers and sacrifices at Shonkolla and Kallalamo mountains chosen by Anjancho and Jaramanjcho.  One of Hadiya's clans, Worqimene, is believed to have the power to send rain in drought. Fandanano (sing. Fandancho) practice is believed to be introduced by either spiritual leaders, Itto and Albaja from Bimado clan, or Boyamo, father of five Hadiya clans, and was largely followed by inhabitants of Boshana, Misha etc. 16  The Kambata  have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God and  religious officials known as Magnancho.  The Gedeo  called the Supreme Being, Mageno and  In Gede’uffa the word Dararo literally refers to flower. Its thanks giving festival/ceremony performed just after the harvest season every year in January, accompanied by praying ceremony.  The Konso religion centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh.  The Gojjam Agaw used to call the Supreme Being Diban (Sky God).  Among sections of the Gurage, there have been:-  Waq/Goita (supreme deity),  Bozha (thunder God) and  Damwamwit (health Goddess).  The Gurage and the Yem had a common deity known as Abba at Enar (Henar).  The Yem  worshipped Ha’o (Sky God).  So‟ala clan was considered as the top in religious duties as it was in charge of Shashokam (the most vital deity).  Religious functions were performed through couriers in each village called Magos.  The Konta‟s spirit-cult was called Docho.  The Wolayta  The Wolayta called God Tosa and spirit Ayyana. These spirits include:- Tawa-Awa /Moytiliya (father‟s spirit), Sawuna (justice spirit), Wombo (rain spirit), Micho (goat spirit), Nago (sheep spirit), Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit), Gomashera (war spirit), Talahiya (Beta Talaye or talheya, Omo spirit) etc.  In Wolayta:- Dufuwa (grave) was believed to be abode of Moytiliya. Annual worship of spirits was performed at a sacred place called Mitta usually at the end of May and beginning of June to offer sacrifice of the first fruits called Teramo or Pageta (Dubusha). During annual worship, people gathered around tree called Dongowa, which varied from clan to clan. Example:-  sycamore (Ficussur exasperate) for the Bubula  podocarpo for Zatuwa etc. The Qesiga called their meeting place Kasha (Dabre). To protect people from eating crop before harvesting Zomboro clan used Diqaysa practice by planting in their fields sour olive and nubica trees.  The Wolayta also:- had the practice of Chaganna (prohibited days to work) to protect produce from disaster. chose and kept dark brown heifer called Beka (Beqabe) or Baqa Potilliya (Literally, ritual cattle) as birthday fate. If they made error in respecting this custom, they would anoint their bodies with a leaf called Aydameta (ground red pepper) as repentance. 17  Religious practitioners known as Sharechuwa had Becha or Kera Eza Keta (ritual house). The Walayta‟s New Year is known as Gifata.  The Keficho called:-  Supreme Being as Yero;  Spirit as Eqo  A person who hosts Eqo, as Alamo or eke-nayo.  Father of all spirits dochi or dehe-tateno and its host dochi-nayo or Ibedechino/Ibede-gudeno (including Arito and Wudia Riti), with residence at Adio.  Harvest spirit Kollo and sacrifice to it dejo.  Earth and area spirits as Showe-kollo and Dude-baro respectively.  There are also local spirits like:-  damochechi of Channa  yaferochi of Sharada and  wogidochi of Adio  In Keficho, gepetato or king of hill identified by Yetecho clan as landowner.  Members of the Dugo clan led spiritual services.  The Boro-Shinasha people believe in super natural power called Iqa, which created everything and presides over the universe. The indigenous religion elements prescribe praying for the prevention of drought, flooding, erosion, disease and starvation within the community and their surrounding environment. Among various prayer rituals:-  The first is Gure Shuka for preservation of their locality through slaughtering animals by calling the name of God being at the tip of the mountains.  The second is Shode De’na, praying and slaughtering when unexpected disease happens.  The third is Marrowa Shuka; slaughtering for children to grow without disease and to prevent children from evil spirits attack; for rehabilitation of wealth; to promote harmonious way of life and productivities in the family.  The rituals are led by recognized elders, whose pray and bless are trusted to reach God among the three clans: Enoro, Endiwo and Dowa.  The Nuer:  believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven), but believe in the coming of God through rain, lightning and thunder, and rainbow is necklace of God. Sun and moon as well as other entities are also manifestation or sign of God. There are also spirits associated with clan- spears names such as WiW (spirit of war) associated with thunder.  believe that when a person dies, flesh is committed to earth while breath or life goes back to Kuoth and soul that signifies human personality remains alive as a shadow or a reflection, and departs together with ox sacrificed to place of ghosts.  An interesting feature of indigenous religion is the way its practices and beliefs are fused with Christianity and Islam. This phenomenon of mixing of religions is known as syncretism. 2.4.2. Judaism  Judaism is considered as the expression of the covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah (God) established with the ancient Jewish (Hebrew). Sources indicate that Judaism:-  has been followed in Ethiopia and the Horn by peoples since early times.  began to be clearly noticed in the 4th century AD, when the Bete-Israel (literally, house of Israel), one of the ancient peoples in the region, refused to be converted to Christianity.  The Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot (religious practices, which are generally recognized as Israelite religion that differs from Rabbinic Judaism). Many of the Bete-Israel accounts of their 18  own origins stress that they stem from the very ancient migration of some portion of the Tribe of Dan to Ethiopia, led it is said by sons of Moses, perhaps even at the time of the Exodus (1400- 1200 B.C.). Alternative timelines include perhaps the later crises in Judea, e.g., split of the northern Kingdom of Israel from the southern Kingdom of Judah after the death of King Solomon or Babylonian Exile.  Other Bete-Israel take as their basis the account of return to Ethiopia of Menilek I, who is believed to be the son of King Solomon (r. 974-932 B.C.) of ancient Israel and Makeda, ancient Queen of Saba (Sheba), and considered to be the first Solomonic Emperor of Ethiopia.  Another group of Jews is said to have been arrived in Ethiopia led by Azonos and Phinhas in 6th century A.D. Still others are said to have been Jewish immigrants intermarried with the Agaws. Whatever the case, the Jews appear to have been isolated from mainstream Jewish for at least a millennium. The Jewish developed and lived for centuries in northern and northwestern Ethiopia. 2.4.3. Christianity  Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D. during the reign of King Ezana (r. 320-360), who embraced Christianity dropping pre-Christian gods like:-  Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god)  Arwe (serpent-python god)  Bahir (sea god) and  Midir (earth god).  Instrumental in conversion of king Ezana were Syrian brothers, Aedesius and Frementius (Fremnatos).  When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373) appointed him as the first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC).  Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt continued until 1959, when Abune Baslios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch.  Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society in later part of fifth century, during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) by the Nine Saints shown in the table below: Table 1: The Nine Saints Name Origin Church/Monastery Location of the Church 1.Abuna Aregawwi (Abba Za Mika‟el) Rome Debre Damo Eastern Tigray 2.Abuna Isaq (Abba Gerima) Rome Debre Gerima Medera (East of Adwa ) 3.Abba Pentelwon Rome Debre Pentelwon Asbo (North East of Aksum) 4.Abba Afse Ladocia Debre Afse Yeha (Northeast of Aksum) 5.Abba Alef Qa‟esare‟a Debre Haleluya Biheza (Northeast of Aksum) 6.Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre Gubba West of Medera 7.Abba Liqanos Constantinople Debre Qonasel North of Aksum 8.Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania Southeast of Adwa 9.Abba Yima‟ata Qosa‟iti Debre Yima‟ata Ger‟alta Source: Sergew Hable Sellassie, Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270 (Addis Ababa: Haile- Selassie I University Press, 1972), pp.115-9.  The saints also translated Bible and other religious books into Geez.  Then expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period (1150-1270) and chiefly gained fresh momentum during the early Medieval Period (1270-1527), when many churches and monasteries were constructed. These include:-  Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela  Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in Eritrea  Debra-Hayiq in Wollo  Debre-Dima and Debre-Werq in Gojjam 19   Debra-Libanos in Shewa  Birbir Mariam in Gamo and  Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar  These churches and monasteries are not merely religious centers, but served through the ages as repositories of ancient manuscripts and precious objects of art.  From mid-sixteenth to the early seventeenth centuries, Jesuits tried to convert Monophysite EOC to Dyophysite Catholic. Yet, this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of the Jesuits. However, the Jesuits intervention triggered religious controversies within EOC.  As of 1804, missionaries‟ religious expansion was one of the dominant themes of treaties concluded between European diplomats and Ethiopian authorities.  The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder), Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin order founder), Cardinal Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie were active.  Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary Society of London (CMSL) and Wesleyan Methodist Society led Protestant missionaries and their major leaders were Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf.  Systematic approach of trained Protestants enabled them to win confidence of local people. They translated spiritual books into vernaculars. They adopted old names for Supreme Being like Waqayyo, Tosa etc and used them in new versions as equivalent to God. Village schools were established as centers of preaching the faith. These schools were open to all children of chiefs and farmers. They also provided medical facilities. All these attracted a large number of followers. Eventually, continuous and systematic indoctrinations seem to have resulted in grafting of new teaching on indigenous religion. 2.4.4. Islam  When Prophet Mohammed started the teaching of Islam in Mecca in 610 AD, he faced opposition from the Quraysh rulers. Under this circumstance, the Prophet sent some of his early followers including his daughter Rukiya and her husband Uthman as well as the Prophet's future wives Umm Habiba and Umm Salma to Aksum.  The first group of refugees was led by Jafar Abu Talib. In his advice to his followers, the Prophet said of Ethiopia, "…a king under whom none are persecuted. It is a land of righteousness, where God will give relief from what you are suffering."  The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash in Arabic sources), gave asylum for the refugees from 615-628.  Leaders of the Quraysh asked Armah to repatriate the refugees, but the king did not comply. Armah is said to have replied, "If you were to offer me a mountain of gold I would not give up these people who have taken refuge with me.”  Subsequently,  Islam spread to the Horn of Africa not through Jihad, but through peaceful ways including trade.  Islam was well established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on the Red Sea by the beginning of eighth century. In the early tenth century, the Muslim community on the islands developed a sultanate.  In due course, Muslims settled other places on the Red Sea coast. It was from these coastal areas that Islam gradually spread among the predominantly pastoral communities of the interior, largely through the agency of preachers and merchants.  Notwithstanding the debates, the Dahlak route played a minor role in introduction of Islam into the interior of the country because:-  Christianity was strongly entrenched as a state religion in Aksum and later states of northern Ethiopia and 20   open proselytization of Islam was prohibited. Thus, the port of Zeila on western coast of Gulf of Aden served as an important gateway for the introduction of Islam mainly into the present day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe.  Islam firmly established itself in the coastal areas by the eighth and ninth centuries. From there, it radiated to central, southern, and eastern Ethiopia through the role of Muslim clerics who followed in the footsteps of traders. In this regard, it should be noted that Sheikh Hussein of Bale, a Muslim saint of medieval period, played very important role in the expansion of Islam into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. Another Islamic center in this region is Sof Umar shrine.  Islam was introduced into Somali territories in 8th century A. D. through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava and Merca. Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu Minirate c.1269.  Islam was further expanded by mystical orders (turuq, singular tariqa). Among these,  The Qadiriyya (named after Hanbali jurist Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani, 1077-1166) emphasized collective devotion (hadra).  The Ahmadiyya, which had been set up by Ahmad Ibn Idris al Fasi of Fez in Morocco (1760-1837) stressed austerity, turban and veil. It had contacts with Tijaniyya (named after Abu al-Abbas Ahmad b. Muhammad b. al-Mukhtar al Tijani, 1737-1815) and Summaniyya (named after Muhammad b. Abd al-Karim al Sammāni, 1718-75). The sheiks of these orders expanded Islam as far as the Gibe region. The mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers have been the depositories of cultures, traditions and literature of local Muslims. UNIT THREE POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY 3.1. Emergence of States  The beginning of sedentary agriculture was one important factor for the emergence of states.  The growth of trade also facilitated the development of states.  State:-  refers to an autonomous political unit having population, defined territory, sovereignty and government with the power to decree and enforce laws.  was the outcome of regular cultural process. In this regard, it should be emphasized that, states arose independently in different places and at different times. Favorable environmental conditions helped to hasten the rate of transformation in some regions.  Religion is also the other factor for the emergence of states. The first states were theocratic states and priests (shaman) maintained the social and religious affairs of their people. As production became market oriented, the priests were gradually replaced by chiefs, who began collecting regular and compulsory tributes known as protection payments with which they maintained themselves; their supporters chiefly the army, the bureaucracy and other followers.  Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa, where early state formation took place. From small beginnings, such states gradually developed into powerful kingdoms and even empires with a well-demarcated social structure. Geographical proximity to and control of the international water bodies like Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean along with their ports as well as rich interior favored some of them to become stronger than their neighbors and eventually dominated them. 3.2. Ancient States 3.2.1. North and Northeast 21 A. Punt  Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn.  The evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian hieroglyphic writings, accompanied by vivid paintings; tell of a series of naval expeditions, which the Egyptian Pharaohs sent to Punt.  Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.) sent expedition to collect myrrh, ebony and electrum (gold and silver alloy).  During Pharaoh Asosi, treasurer of God Bawardede took dancing dwarf “dink" to Egypt from Punt.  The best described and illustrated expedition was the one undertaken by the order of the famous Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.), whose expedition is documented at her tomb in Dier El Bahri. She sent five ships under the leadership of Black Nubian Captain Nehasi via Wadi- Tumilat. The expedition:-  was warmly welcomed by the Puntites King Perehu, his wife Ati, sons, daughters and followers.  was able to return collecting frank incense, cinnamon, sweet smelling woods (sandal), spices, ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard and leopard skins, ostrich feathers and egg, live monkeys, giraffes, people etc. Hatshepsut presented some parts of the items to her god, Amun.  It was because of the ritual importance of their exports that Puntites were also known as Khebis of the Ta Netjeru (divine or ghosts land). Iron, bronze, asses, foxes, cattle, animals fur, dying and medicinal plants were also exported from Punt to Egypt. In return, axes, daggers, swords, knives, sickles, clothes, bracelets, necklaces, beads and other trinkets were imported from Egypt to Punt. Scholars have not reached agreement as to the exact location of Punt. The varieties of incense and myrrh mentioned in the writings have suggested northern or northeastern Somalia to some scholars while others are inclined more towards Northern Ethiopia because of the reference to gold, ebony and monkeys. The latter reinforce their guess arguing that at that early period, Egyptian sailboats might not have been strong enough to pass through the Strait of Babel Mandeb into the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean. Considering the two suggestions, still some others argue that it was probably stretched from Swakim or Massawa to Babel Mandeb (Gate of Tears) and Cape Gardafui. B. Da‟amat and Other Cultural Centers in Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea  The state known as Da‟amat had a center a little to the south of Aksum.  Inscription of the king of Da‟amat tentatively dated to the fifth century BC shows that he used politico-religious title known as Mukarib.  Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah (principal god), Astater (Venus god), Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon god) were worshipped in the domain of the Da‟amat state and other northern Ethiopian pre-Aksumite cultural centers. There were similar practices in South Arabia at the time.  There were a number of cultural centers in northern Ethiopia. The major ones are: Yeha:  is located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum and was the oldest of these centers.  probably emerged around 1, 000 BC as a small emporium where South Arabian merchants and their agents bought and stored ivory, rhinoceros horn and other commodities coming from the interior.  It seems that the period of its prosperity (zenith) was from about 750 to 500 B.C. Remains of walls of some of its buildings and stone masonry as well as still standing temple and inscriptions indicate Yeha‟s glory. Hawulti Melazo: 22   is situated to southeast of Aksum, where stone tablets that are inscribed in rectangular temple surrounded by a wall decorated with paintings representing herds of cattle have been excavated. Addi-Seglemeni:  is located at 10kms southwest of Aksum, from where a stone slab is fetched and the oldest Ethiopian monumental inscription is discovered.  There were also other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda etc. C. The Aksumite State  The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C.  Initially, its power was limited to a relatively small area comprising the town of Aksum and its environs. Gradually, however, it expanded to include large territories in all directions.  In its heyday, Aksumite territories extended from the Red Sea coast in the East to the Western edge of Ethiopian plateau overlooking the vast Nile Valley in the west and from the northern most corner of Eritrea and possibly as far south as northern parts of Shewa.  According to Periplus of Erithrean Sea, Adulis on the western coast of the Red Sea was the major port of Aksum. The long distance trade routes from Adulis and other posts on the Red Sea coast passed inland through such centers as Kaskasse, Coloe, Matara and even further west across Takaze River. The document also mentioned ports of Aden (Eudaemon) Gulf like Avalites (Zayla) and Malao (Berbera), and Indian Ocean Benadir Coasts like Serapion (Moqadishu), Nicon (Brava) and Merca.  The major items of export of the Aksumite state consisted mainly of the natural products such as ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and some spices (like ginger, cassia and cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and some curiosity animals like apes.  The Aksumite state imported a number of manufactured products like garments and textiles from Egypt, India, Roman Empire, and Persia; glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other places; metallic sheets, tools or utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from Roman Empire and Syria.  Zoscales (c. 76-89), the then king of Aksum, used to communicate in Greek language, Lingua Franca of Greco-Roman world. Aksum also had relations with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Laodicea (Asia Minor).  The Adulis inscription written in Greek about an unknown king, which eventually was published in Cosmas Indicopleustes‟ book, the Christian Topography, describes commercial activities of the Red Sea areas. It also mentions the internal long distance trade between Aksum and a distant region called Sasu, most probably in Beni Shangul and the adjoining lands beyond the Blue Nile. A big caravan made up of close to five hundred merchants some of them special agents of the kings of Aksum would take to Sasu cattle, lumps of salt (probably salt blocks) and iron to exchange for gold. Yet, as they did not speak each other‟s language, and did not even trust to be near to each other to bargain through signs and gestures, the whole exchange was done without one side seeing the other. This was a good example of silent trade. Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside world notably with the South Arabian region, leading to exchange of ideas, material and spiritual culture. Sometimes such contacts involved conflicts between the two regions. One of such known recorded conflict between areas on both sides of the sea took place around 200 A.D. Accordingly, peoples in Southern Arabian Peninsula, in present day Yemen, had difficulties in defending themselves against the army of the Aksumite king, Gadarat. Aksumite kings like Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II, etc. minted and issued different kinds of coins in gold, silver and bronze for both overseas and local transactions from the third to seventh centuries. Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i. e. 23  Roman Empire, Persia, China and Aksum) at the time. It was a major naval and trading power from the first to the seventh centuries. Aksumite ships were the main means of transporting goods. Aksum was the only one with sufficient sources of timber for shipbuilding and in those days, the technology for it existed in Adulis. Aksum had a large fleet of ships, which was used not only for trade but also for its wars across the Red Sea.  Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of Aksum beyond Himyar and Saba, but the local prince Dhu-Nuwas was converted to Judaism, marched to Zafar and Nagran, and killed many Christians. Byzantine Vasaliev Justinian (r. 527-65) with sanctification of Patriarch Timit III (518-538) provided Kaleb with a number of ships transporting armies led by Julianos and Nonossus against Dhu Nuwas. Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha as governor of Arabia that continued until 570 A. D. Kaleb was succeeded by his son Gabra Masqal (535-48) who built church at Zur Amba in Gayint.  It was during Gabra Maskal that Yared developed Ethiopian Orthodox Church liturgical songs and hymns.  The Aksumite state had begun to decline since the late seventh century because of internal and external challenges. Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural productivity and possibly plague infestation started to weaken it. With the destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702, the international lifeline of the state was cut. The whole network of Aksumite international trade came under the control of the rising and expanding Arab Muslims, and Aksumite state was isolated from its old commercial and diplomatic partners. Consequently, the Aksumite state declined economically. This naturally led to the decline of its political and military power not only on the Red Sea coast but also in its interior provinces, where Aksumite hegemony was challenged by local rebellions. The recurring rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the Aksumite state.  However, as a civilization, Aksum had a profound impact upon the peoples of the Horn of Africa and beyond, and on its successors i. e. the Zagwe, „Solomonic Dynasty‟, the Gondarine period etc.  Some of the achievements of Aksum include:- Sub-Saharan Africa‟s only surviving indigenous script and calendar as well as EOC hymns and chants, paintings etc. diversified ceramic and lithic tools ivory curving urbanization and sophisticated building traditions (palaces, stele, rock-hewn churches…). complex administrative and governance system, and agricultural system including irrigation etc. D. Zagwe Dynasty  After its decline, the center of Aksumite state shifted southwards to Kubar rural highland in the territory of the Agaw, one of the ancient inhabitants of the land between the Eritrean Plateau and Jema River, and to the west up to the Blue Nile valleys. This apparently gave Agaw elites the opportunity to take part in Aksumite state structure serving as soldiers and functionaries for at least four centuries.  After integrating so well with Aksumite ruling class, the Agaw successfully took over the state administration. Accordingly, the Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot married Masobe Worq, the daughter of the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od. Later he overthrew his father-in-law and took control 24  of power. Merra-Tekle-Haimanot's successors include Yimirahana Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab, Yetbarek etc. Notwithstanding the debates, the Zagwe Dynasty is believed to have ruled from C. 1150 to 1270.  The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District within Wag and Lasta, more exactly at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).  The territory of the Zagwe kingdom extended from most of the highland provinces of the ancient Aksumite kingdom in the north down to northern Shewa in the south; the Lake Tana region and the northern part of what is today Gojjam in the west.  The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksumite traditions almost intact.  Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with eastern Mediterranean region. The most important export items included slaves, ivory and rare spices while cotton, linen, silver and copper vessels, various types of drags and newly minted coins were imported.  The Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's paintings and the translation of some of religious works from Arabic into Ge'ez. That said, Zagwe rulers are best known for the construction of cave, semi-hewn and monolithic churches: 1. Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar with natural cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel. 2. Semi-hewn: with detailed interior decoration and partial decoration outside. They are not totally separated from surrounding rock. Their roofs or walls are still attached to rock, eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri‟el-Rufa‟el and Bete Abba Libanos. 3. Monolithic: with detailed decoration inside including roof and outside. They are completely separated (carved out) from surrounding rock, eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam and Bete Medhanialem.  Among the eleven churches of Lalibela:-  Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all.  Bete Giyorgis is said to be the most finely built in the shape of the cross.  Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem, and mitigate or even avoid difficulties, which Ethiopian Christians encountered in journey to Holy Lands at least once in their lifetime. This was done by constructing churches based on the model of Holy Lands in Israel.  The Zagwe Dynasty came to end due to:-  internal problems of royal succession and  oppositions from groups claiming descent from the ancient rulers of Aksum. The groups claiming descent from the ancient rulers of Aksum, considered Zagwe kings “illegitimate rulers” based on the legend of the Queen of Sheba. The legend was in turn based on a book known as Kebra Negest (Glory of Kings) that was translated from Coptic to Arabic and then into Ge‟ez. Based on the legend, the power claimants contend that “Solomonic” Dynasty ruled the Aksumite state until its power was “usurped” by the Zagwes. Yekuno Amlak (r. 1270-1285), who claimed decent from the last Aksumite king Dilna‟od, organized his forces being assisted by the ecclesiastical hierarchy and engaged the last king of Zagwe, Yetbarek in battle. Yetbarek was killed in Gaynt and Yekuno Amlak took the state power contending the “restoration” of “Solomonic” Dynasty. 3.2.2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States 3.2.2.1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat A. Bizamo:  was a kingdom located on the southern bend of Abay River just opposite to the present districts of Gojjam and around the current Wambara area.  was founded in the eighth century and had early connections with Damot. B. Damot: 25   was strong kingdom that expanded its territories into most of the lands to south of Abay and north of Lake Turkana as well as west of Awash and east of Didessa.  Motalami was its prominent king in the thirteenth century. C. Enarya:  was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia. The royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso).  In the ninth century, Aksumite king Digna-Jan is said to have led a campaign into Enarya, accompanied by Orthodox Christian priests carrying arks of covenant (tabots).  Enarya kingship was a divine one: the king (Hinnare-Tato) was secluded and considered as sacred. He communicated visitors through an intermediary, AfeBusho. The real power rested with Mikretcho (council) including Awa-rasha (king's spokesman) and Atche-rasha (royal treasurer). The kings had residences in Yadare and Gowi. D. Gafat:  historically, the territory of Gafat lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining Damot on the south western periphery of the Christian Kingdom.  was inhabited by Semitic speaking population related to Adere and the Gurage. It is not clear from available records whether the Gafat formed a “state” or not, but Gafat mountains provided a rich source of gold.  Despite efforts by Christian evangelists, the Gafat largely remained practitioners of their own indigenous religion.  As of early medieval period, Gafat was paying tribute to the Christian Kingdom mainly in cattle which came from six districts, among which Gambo and Shat are Gafat clan names.  The province was ruled by the title of Awalamo. 3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates After the spread of Islam since the beginning of the eighth century, viable Muslim communities and states had been established at many locations especially along the main trade routes from Zeila and its many branches penetrating the interior. These states include: A. Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent from Meca, set up Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A. D (283 A.H.) on northeastern foothill of Shewa. B. Dahlak:  This sultanate seemed to have emerged in the beginning of the tenth century AD.  located within the Red Sea and served as a gate way of Islam. In this direction Islam could not penetrate deep into the interior of northern Ethiopia because local Christian rulers opposed open Islamic activities from this Island. C. Ifat:  was a state located in the adjacent to Shewan Sultanate. Its territory ran from northeast southwesterly in the Afar plain eastward to the Awash.  established by Umar Walasma, who claimed decent from Hashamite clan and came from Arabia between 1271 and 1285. He intervened between quarrelsome Makzumite princes Dil-Marrah and Dil-Gamis, weakened and annexed the sultanate of Shewa. The sultanate was fertile and well watered.  Its inhabitants earned their living from cultivation of wheat, sorghum, millet and teff, and animal husbandry. Sugar cane, bananas, variety of fruits, beans, squashes, cucumbers, and cabbage completed the diet. Chat was described for the first time as being consumed as a stimulant.  Descendants of Walasma ruling family established another strong Muslim sultanate called Adal. D. Fatagar:  was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada‟a in the eleventh century. 26   was a hilly lowland area with thoroughly cultivated fields of wheat and barley, fruits, and extensive grazing grounds full of numerous herds of cattle, sheep and goats. E. Dawaro:  located south of Fatagar between upper waters of Awash and Wabi-Shebelle extending to Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast. We have valuable information on Dawaro by an Egyptian courtier Ibn Fad Allah el-umari.  was much smaller than Ifat, but resembled.  have a currency called hakuna in which transition takes place. F. Bali:  was an extensive kingdom occupying high plateau, separating basins of Shebelle and Rift valley Lakes.  was separated from Dawwaro by the Wabi-Shebelle River and extended southwards to the Gannale Dirre River.  was one of the largest of Ethiopia‟s Muslim provinces. Its economic activity resembles those of other nearby Muslim lands. Trade was mainly based on barter exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth etc.  had strong army composed of cavalry and infantry. G. Others: mutually independent states like Arababani (between Hadiya and Dawwaro), Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro and Bali), Fadise, Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah (West of Dawaro and North of Bali in Arsi) and Sim were established and flourished. 3.3. External Contacts  Ethiopia and the Horn had:-  Contacts with Egypt since at least 3,000 B. C. These relations may be the region‟s earliest contacts with the Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman World.  Very close relations with all commercially active South Arabian Kingdoms starting sometimes before 1,000 B.C.  The introduction of Christianity to Aksum established a new pattern of relation between the region and Egypt.  Until the introduction of Islam into Egypt and the general reduction of the Christians into minority, relations between the two were fairly smooth and friendly.  Following the introduction of Christianity, Aksum had established close relationship wi