Gr12 History Congo PDF

Case Study 1 Congo and Tanzania: A comparative case study Key question: What were the political, economic, social and cultural challenges and successes that Congo and Tanzania experienced between 1960 and 1980? Newly independent Congo and Tanzania You need to revise the successes and challenges face...

Case Study 1 Congo and Tanzania: A comparative case study Key question: What were the political, economic, social and cultural challenges and successes that Congo and Tanzania experienced between 1960 and 1980? Newly independent Congo and Tanzania You need to revise the successes and challenges faced by independent Africa: the kinds of states that emerged: aims and visions political successes and challenges economic successes and challenges social and cultural successes and challenges. How did the Congo become a tool of the Cold War? Belgian Congo achieved its independence in 1960 A crisis arose soon afterwards when Katanga Province declared itself independent under the regional premier Moise Tshombe. Tshombe had the support of the Belgian government and mining companies such as Union Miniere. The UN refused to suppress the rebels in Katanga. As a result Patrice Lumumba, the first premier of Congo, called on the USSR to help put down the rebellion. They obliged. This alarmed the USA who put pressure on the head of the army of Congo, Mobutu, to act against Lumumba. The CIA sponsored a coup against Lumumba’s government initiated by Mobutu. Lumumba was imprisoned and executed by firing squad on 17 Jan 1961. This event was committed with the assistance of the Belgian government and the CIA. Congo became a tool of the West in the Cold War. The Congo was a valuable source of minerals especially cobalt for Western technology and industries. Mobutu renamed Congo = Zaire in 1971. When Katangan rebels based in Angola in 1977 attacked Zaire → Belgium, France and US supported Mobutu. 26 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook Case study Unit XX 1 Significance of these events in the Congo Zaire became another example of Cold War politics as the USA and the USSR used the conflict to protect their own spheres of influence and to safeguard their own ideology. It also shows how the Congo (Zaire) did not manage to maintain full autonomy as it was backed by a superpower and Western powers and became a political pawn of the West. How did Tanzania apply African Socialism? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Tanganyika became independent in 1961 and was renamed Tanzania. Julius Nyerere became Prime Minister and his party, TANU, formed a government. In 1962 Nyerere became president after amending the constitution. In 1967 the Arusha Declaration was accepted which showed a support for socialism. The Arusha Declaration promoted socialism as rooted in African homegrown values and potential. Socialism was seen as an African tradition of peasantry, communal living and sharing Nyerere said that African Socialism did not derive from European socialism and Marxism but rather could teach European socialists about the true nature of socialism. In ujamaa, all humans care for one another and are bound together by affection and solidarity. Emphasis was placed on education. Elitism was ended by introducing universal education based on traditional and Western models. Recognition was given to the importance of traditional values, indigenous knowledge and wisdom. Soon after the Arusha Declaration was issued, banks and many large industries were nationalised in Tanzania. Successes and challenges faced by independent Africa The types of states established, the leadership strategies, and the ideologies and policies that were adopted by various African leaders were influenced by: colonialism → left a mixed legacy in Africa = positive and negative consequences the international context of Cold War politics. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 27 Case study Unit XX 1 What kind of states emerged in Congo and Tanzania State Leader Type of state Congo Mobutu Sese Seko Tanzania Julius Nyerere Centralised Unitary Military regime / dictatorship One-party rule The state assumed a guardian role and resorted to forceful maintenance of law and order. ‘Mobutuism’ emerged: cult figure who used state power to prop up his power. He was more interested in building an authoritarian state than a united nation. A consolidated, national identity was not achieved. A single-party state Socialist ideology Aimed to mobilise all Tanzanians to help build a nation. He succeeded in overcoming ethnic differences to establish a united Tanzania. Tanzania assumed a national identity. Elections were held to choose the ‘best’ individual but only one party, TANU, existed. Nyerere became president for life. Political successes and challenges faced by independent Africa African leaders in the late 1950s brought their own ideologies and policies to the process of decolonisation → large impact on the foundations laid for countries at and after independence. What type of political leaders emerged in the Congo and Tanzania? Patrice Lumumba: Pan-Africanist and nationalist in Congo 28 Challenged as leader by Moise Tshombe and Joseph Kasavubu: They both came from larger ethnic groups and strong regional power bases. Lumumba founded MNC in 1958 aimed for a national Congolese identity. 30 June 1960 = Congo independent: Kasavubu became President and Lumumba Prime Minister. He had to form the ‘new’ government. He wanted: a unitary Congo believed in ‘positive neutralism’ or a return to traditional African values rather than the adoption of external ideologies. He was murdered by the Katanga secessionist regime. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook Case study Unit XX 1 Mobutu Sese Seko: capitalist, dictator Initially in favour of Lumumba’s centralised state. BUT, when Katanga started secessionist struggle, he sided with Kasavubu and gave covert support to him against Lumumba. His troops captured Lumumba and handed him to Katangan rebels for execution. Led a coup in 1965, overthrew Kasavubu and became president of Congo: only allowed one party, MPR, to operate led a corrupt regime in Congo (renamed Zaire in 1971) which focussed on selfenrichment wanted to be seen as a nationalist hero → built up a cult around his personality: → developed Mobutuism: one-party state, dictatorship. Julius Nyerere: African socialism, social equality and peace Mwalimu = teacher: peaceful change racial harmony rejection of tribalism, ethnic and racial discrimination. 1962: amended constitution became executive president of Tanzania. 1963: TANU only political party → Tanzania = one-party state: elections: all candidates from the same party. Believed in African Socialism: community needs rather than individual needs. Committed to equality and dignity: 1967: Arusha Declaration = socialist map for Tanzania wanted to reduce the income gap in society stood for democracy BUT soon became a dictatorship → he did not tolerate opposition. nationalisation of resources but not accessible to the people of Tanzania. Believed in non-alignment. BUT tended towards the Eastern bloc due to its involvement in Zanzibar. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 29 Case study Unit XX 1 What colonial legacies did the Congo and Tanzania inherit at independence? CONGO DETAILS Ethnic division and tribalism Colonialism had divided people along ethnic and tribal lines. Different ethnic groups were often scattered over more than one state e.g. Congo, Rwanda, Burundi. The map of Africa had been redrawn. These divisions persisted during the Cold War when different groups aligned themselves with opposing political blocs. Some African leaders, e.g. Lumumba wanted to forge a new national identity and eradicate ethnic divisions. Mobutu Sese Seko forged national unity through his despotic rule after Lumumba was killed. Fairly sophisticated civil service and infrastructure. These collapsed after independence. WHY? The local African population had not been educated or trained to take on the administrative and technical functions. Colonial withdrawal left a technical vacuum. The strategy to develop peasant agriculture and greater government intervention in industrial development to grow employment opportunities was hampered due to a lack of expertise. Financial grants had been squandered due to poor and inadequate controls. The nature of colonial industry It was dependent mainly on mining in certain areas leaving many regions under-developed and poverty stricken. The economy of Congo became reliant on the export of cheaper raw materials and imported more expensive manufactured goods. Congo remained trapped and leaders did not govern efficiently or innovatively after independence. THEREFORE: It was difficult for the independent states to thrive economically or to stay politically stable. Leaders did not always adopt the best practices or policies. During the Cold War, states often became the site of proxy wars as independent states found it virtually impossible to stay unaligned. TANZANIA DETAILS Lack of technical and administrative capacity Colonial officials withdrew rapidly leaving a vacuum. Little training was done to educate Africans for their new roles in government. Uneven development: rural and urban areas. Nyerere tried to force the population to move back to the rural areas and to develop communal villages there to eradicate poverty. His policy of villagisation was rejected and resulted in more poverty for his people. Foreign policy of nonalignment adopted. Country remained dependent on foreign capital for its development. Debt hindered development. It began links with the Eastern bloc e.g. China helped construct the TANZAM railway line. BUT Nyerere did manage to build a nation-state in Tanzania. He overcame ethnic and tribal differences. 30 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook Case study Unit XX 1 What types of government emerged in the Congo and Tanzania? Congo Tanzania Kasavubu wanted a federalist state Lumumba wanted a unitary and centralised state. Kasavubu and Lumumba deposed quickly leaving form of government up to Mobutu Sese Seko to install. Sese Seko supported centralisation, authoritarianism and military control. In 1967 He merged party and state and all Zairians were born party members. Mobutuism became state ideology: seen as divine saviour. TANU and later CCM focussed on postcolonial structural re-organisation in Tanzania. The Arusha Declaration set out plans for UJAMAA VIJIJINI (ujamaa villages) Social, economic and political equality will be achieved through democratisation. No discrimination based on social status. All productive capacity to be collectivised and nationalised. Based on socialism. Transformed Tanzania to be self-reliant. Became a one-party state (no opposition) A short period of self- government before independence prepared Tanzania better to make the transition. But it also became a dictatorship and experienced political instability. What type of political instability and stability did the Congo and Tanzania experience? CONGO WHAT? Ethnic rivalry, tension and uncertainty WHY? Ideological differences between leaders e.g. Kasavubu and Lumumba. Congolese elites had different ambitions e.g. federalists vs Unitarians, regionalists and nationalists, etc. Secessionists gained the support of Belgian business to break away. This led to instability and civil war. Many deaths and anarchy existed in many areas. Soviet forces, the CIA, a UN force, mercenaries and Belgian and French soldiers made the situation more complex to solve. The murder of Lumumba and the death of Dag Hammarskjold (UN Secretary General) made matters worse. In 1965 some semblance of ‘stability’ returned when Mobutu Sese Seko seized power. He gained the support of some Western nations as an ally against the Eastern bloc and managed to establish a one-party dictatorship that lasted for more than 30 years. The West tolerated Sese Seko despite his dictatorial regime and massive corruption. Not really stable but rather dictatorial suppression of all opposition. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 31 Case study Unit XX 1 TANZANIA WHAT? Smooth transition to independence WHY? Period of self- government seemed to smooth over initial problems to some extent. Ujamaa seemed more appropriate to Tanzanian’s way of life. Tanzania’s centralised government brought stability initially. No civil war. 1964: Tanzania and Zanzibar united as a republic with Nyerere as president and Karume as vice-president. The two countries only really united under Nwinyi in 1985. Economic challenges and successes in independent Africa NOTE the overlap of political and economic aspects → not possible to split them when looking at economic challenges and successes in independent Africa. ZAIRE What type of economy was adopted? The new government drew up an economic and social expansion plan that placed emphasis on peasant agriculture and greater government intervention in industry. Aimed to process raw materials locally, avoid imports and increase employment. Adopted capitalist model. Production involved mainly cobalt and copper. Mono-culturalism (one product economy). Challenges Successes Virtually non-existent but under retrocession policy of Mobutu Sese Seko large portions of Zairianised enterprises were returned to their original owners. He managed to keep the economy afloat by eliciting aid (this is a questionable ‘success’ – be able to argue a point here). TANZANIA What type of economy was adopted? Adopted African socialist model. Embarked on villagisation process to increase self-reliant food production and rural development. Main export crop was coffee. Mono-culturalism (one- product) Challenges Successes Villagisation made service delivery in terms of health care and education easily accessible. Nyerere’s education philosophy was very successful. One of the highest literacy rates achieved in Africa. Stability in society and free from economic inequalities. Ujamaa led to some rural development. 32 Zairianisation and ‘radicalisation of the revolution’ led to problems. The nationalisation of trade led to chaos. Corruption devastated the economy. Mismanagement Infrastructure neglected. Dependent on massive financial aid. Sold off raw materials and minerals for the benefit of the West and quick cash returns; little development of Zaire. A new elite emerged leading to class distinction. Had to rely on foreign aid to avoid bankruptcy. Mobutu Sese Seko lived an opulent lifestyle and headed a corrupt regime. Self-reliance led to further debt Ujamaa was unproductive as economic growth declined. Tanzania remained under-developed economically. Farmers resisted villagisation. Had to rely on foreign aid to avoid collapse. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook Case study Unit XX 1 Social, cultural and educational practices in the Congo and Tanzania Clothing Language Under colonial rule African languages had become marginalised as limited in scope and confined to oral tradition, rural areas and the language of adults. Between 1962 and 1964 research centres and African language departments were started at many African universities. Many new universities started as well as research on African traditions and languages. Nyerere translated Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar and The Merchant of Venice into Kiswahili. He used the translations to also educate his people about exploitation and the struggle for political and economic liberation. Educational benefits Many of the founding fathers and leaders of the new states were educated at mission schools or Western colleges. They became the vanguard of the struggle for political independence and took over power. Many leaders felt that education needed to be transformed from the Western model in order to achieve mental liberation and decolonisation of the mind. Intellectually African thinking needed to change. This was debated at many pan-African congresses. There was a need to combine Western intellectual and educational programmes with African ones. Education should be used to promote unity, national and cultural identity, philosophy, social justice, ideology, science, technology, search for knowledge and the development of skills in African states. This would reduce poverty and unemployment. Universities were modelled on Western ones but developed African ideas. Africanisation In Zaire, Mobutu Sese Seko confiscated all farmlands, industry, commercial and mining enterprises from foreign owners for re-distribution to Congolese. Called Zairianisation: negative trend due to lack of experience. Resulted in mismanagement, maladministration and corruption. Also introduced a policy called authenticite between 1970 and 1990, to remove the legacy of colonialism and to promote a centralised Congolese identity. Colonial names were replaced with local ones, he banned Christmas and neckties, as these were seen to be un-African. In Tanzania, Nyerere promoted self-reliance. This was often at the cost of expertise and experience. Local people were employed to promote and develop the newly created villages. These people were inexperienced and as a result villages were mismanaged. Enforced villagisation led to resistance and rejection by the local population. Nationalism expressed in costume and dress. Move to dress in a more uniquely African way. Kwame Nkrumah set the tone and pace for change and other elites followed. It stimulated local textile making, weaving, embroidery and dyeing industries. New elites chose dress to highlight their status. New hairstyles replaced European ones. Congo: Mobutu outlawed the wearing of suits and ties: the abacos imposed by decree. It was inspired by dress of Mao Zedong of China. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 33