G11-History-STB-2023-web (2).pdf

 HISTORY STUDENT TEXTBOOK GRADE 11 Writers Wagaw Bogale (PhD) & Geremew Eskezia (PhD) Content Editor Yonas Legesse (M.A) Language Editor Abebe Admasu (PhD) Ill...

 HISTORY STUDENT TEXTBOOK GRADE 11 Writers Wagaw Bogale (PhD) & Geremew Eskezia (PhD) Content Editor Yonas Legesse (M.A) Language Editor Abebe Admasu (PhD) Illustrator Temesgen Gebeyehu (Professor) Book Designer Fantahun Ayele (PhD) Curriculum Editor Dessu Wirtu (PhD) Evaluators Doctor Telila (M.A), Bekele Kenea (M.A), Zegeye W/Mariam (M.A) FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA HAWASSA UNIVERSITY MINISTRY OF EDUCATION First Published August 2023 by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Ed- ucation, under the General Education Quality Improvement Program for Equity (GEQIP-E) supported by the World Bank, UK’s Department for International Development/DFID-now merged with the Foreign, Common wealth and Development Office/FCDO, Finland Min- istry for Foreign Affairs, the Royal Norwegian Embassy, United Nations Children’s Fund/ UNICEF), the Global Partnership for Education (GPE), and Danish Ministry of Foreign Af- fairs, through a Multi Donor Trust Fund. © 2023 by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Education. All rights reserved. The moral rights of the author have been asserted. No part of this textbook repro- duced, copied in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means including electronic, mechanical, magnetic, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Ministry of Education or licensing in accordance with the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia as expressed in the Federal Negarit Gazeta, Proclamation No. 410/2004 Copyright and Neighboring Rights Protection. The Ministry of Education wishes to thank the many individuals, groups and other bodies involved – directly or indirectly – in publishing this Textbook. Special thanks are due to Hawassa University for their huge contribution in the development of this textbook in col- laboration with Addis Ababa University, Bahir Dar University and Jimma University. Copyrighted materials used by permission of their owners. If you are the owner of copy- righted material not cited or improperly cited, please contact the Ministry of Education, Head Office, Arat Kilo, (P.O.Box 1367), Addis Ababa Ethiopia. ISBN: 978-99990-0-066-6  Text Book TABLE OF CONTENTS UNIT ONE HISTORY, HISTORIOGRAPHY, AND HUMAN EVOLUTION---------------------------1 1.1. History and Historiography ------------------------------------------------------------------1 1.2. Origin of Human Beings ---------------------------------------------------------------------9 1.3. Emergence of State ------------------------------------------------------------------------17 UNIT TWO MAJOR SPOTS OF ANCIENT WORLD CIVILIZATIONS UP TO c.500 A.D---------------------22 2.1. Ancient Civilizations of Africa -----------------------------------------------------------23 2.2. Civilizations in Asia -----------------------------------------------------------------------28 2.3. Civilizations in Europe--------------------------------------------------------------------36 2.4. Civilizations in Latin America-----------------------------------------------------------------42 2.5. The Rise and Spread of Christianity----------------------------------------------------------47 UNIT THREE PEOPLES, STATES AND HISTORICAL PROCESSES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF THE 13TH CENTURY---------------------------------------------------------------------------------51 3.1. Languages, Religions and Peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn -----------------------------52 3.2. Pre-Aksumite States and their Geographical Setting ----------------------------------61 3.3. The Aksumite Kingdom ------------------------------------------------------------------63 3.4. The Sultanate of Shewa ------------------------------------------------------------------66 3.5. Zagwe Dynasty -----------------------------------------------------------------------------67 3.6. The Kingdom of Damot ------------------------------------------------------------------69 3.7. The Bete-Israel (Ethiopian Jews) ----------------------------------------------------------70 Page i Grade 11 UNIT FOUR THE MIDDLE AGES AND EARLY MODERN WORLD, C. 500 AD-1789 ---------------------74 4.1. The European Middle Ages --------------------------------------------------------------74 4.2. Main Features of the Middle Ages --------------------------------------------------------79 4.3. The Middle Ages in Asia -----------------------------------------------------------------87 4.4. Development of Early Capitalism: 1500-1789 -----------------------------------------100 4.5. The Age of Exploration and Inception of Globalization---------------------------------102 4.6. The Renaissance ---------------------------------------------------------------------------106 4.7. The Reformation ----------------------------------------------------------------------------110 4.8. The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment ---------------------------------------113 UNIT FIVE PEOPLES AND STATES OF AFRICA TO 1500-------------------------------------------------119 5.1. Ancient and Medieval African States ----------------------------------------------------119 5.2. North Africa -------------------------------------------------------------------------------121 5.3. Spread of Islam to North Africa----------------------------------------------------------123 5.4. States in West Africa------------------------------------------------------------------------125 5.5. Central and Eastern Africa-----------------------------------------------------------------131 5.6. Southern Africa-----------------------------------------------------------------------------134 5.7. Relationships and Exchanges among Different Regions of Africa---------------------137 UNIT SIX AFRICA AND THE OUTSIDE WORLD: 1500-1880S---------------------------------------- 141 6.1. Medieval African States----------------------------------------------------------------------141 6.2. Contacts with the Outside World ---------------------------------------------------------151 6.3. Slavery and Slave Trade in Africa ---------------------------------------------------------154 6.4. The Legitimate Trade------------------------------------------------------------------------162 6.5. The White Settlement in South Africa----------------------------------------------------163 6.6. European Explorers and Missionaries: 1770-1870 ------------------------------------------------165 Page ii  Text Book UNIT SEVEN STATES, PRINCIPALITIES, POPULATION MOVEMENTS AND INTERACTIONS IN ETHIOPIA----------170 7.1. The Christian Highland Kingdom under t he Restored “Solomonic” Dynasty---------------170 7.2. The Expansion of Islam and the Emergence of Muslim Sultanates -------------------179 7.3. Political and Socio-Economic Conditions of the Southern and Central States in Ethiopia----185 7.4. Relationship between the Christian Highland Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanate of Adal-188 7.5. Population Movements in the Ethiopian Region ---------------------------------------193 UNIT EIGHT POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PROCESSES IN ETHIOPIA, MID 16TH TO MID-19TH CENTURY-------202 8.1. Peoples and States of Southern, Western and Eastern Ethiopia -----------------------203 8.2. Instability Versus Consolidation in the Christian Kingdom, 1559-1855 ------------ 218 UNIT NINE THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS, 1789 TO 1815 -----------------------------------------------238 9.1. The Industrial Revolution and its Political, Economic and Social Effects on Europe- -----239 9.2. The American War of Independence -----------------------------------------------------246 9.3. The French Revolution ---------------------------------------------------------------------249 9.4. The Period of Napoleon Bonaparte ------------------------------------------------------255 Page iii Grade 11 UNIT ONE HISTORY, HISTORIOGRAPHY, AND HUMAN EVOLUTION Introduction This unit focuses on two major historical issues. The first is basic historical methodology and historiography, which helps you understand the nature of history as an academic disci- pline. Every discipline has its own methodology, which is also true for history. Methodology refers to the sum total of rules, principles, procedures and techniques applied or followed in acquiring new knowledge or transforming the old one in a given discipline. The other focus area the unit addresses is the current scientific knowledge on human origins, including the evolution of early human cultures. Learning Outcomes: After learning this unit, you will be able to: Ê identify the main reasons why history is studied as an academic discipline; Ê describe some of the key elements in studying history; Ê show the major centers of human evolution on a map of the world; Ê analyze the specific features of each stage of human evolution. Ê appreciate the use of historiography in studying history. Key Terms and Concepts „ Historiography „ Objectivity „ Periodization „ Change and continuity „ Sources „ Hominids „ Primary sources „ Neolithic Revolution 1.1. History and Historiography Learning Competencies: After learning this lesson, you will be able to:  understand the significance of history as a discipline;  compare and contrast prehistory with history;  classify the sources of history;  demonstrate understanding of the uses and abuses of history;  understand the concept of periodization in history;  appreciate the role of history in the study of society. Page 1 Grade 11 Brainstorming Questions •Can you tell us the importance of learning history as a discipline? •Can you tell us primary historical evidences which are found in your locality? 1.1.1. History as an Academic Discipline History is a branch of knowledge that deals with all things (including thoughts, sayings and deeds) that have been done by people who lived in the past. In another sense, history is an organized and critical study of the past based on interpretation of evidences. The study of history covers the period called pre-history as well. This was the period before the be- ginning of the technique of writing about 4000 B.C. The term history itself comes from the Greek word “istoria” (historia) which means inquiry or knowledge acquired by investigation. As an academic discipline, history refers to the study of past events, present situation and prediction of the future relating to social, economic, technological and political develop- ments. It also deals with change and continuity of historical developments over time, and the patterns of cause and effect that determine change and continuity. History is often part of the learning area of social sciences, but with its own achievement objectives. In studying the human past historians usually attempt to answer questions such as what happened? When did it happen? How did it happen? Why did it happen? And what consequences did it have? History helps us to learn from the best achievements of people in the past. By learning about their deeds, we also try not to repeat the mistakes of the past. Since history enables us to understand the past society, we will be able to increase our understanding of the present society and may forecast the future society. History is also important for establish- ing identity of families, social groups, institutions, and countries. The study of history also provides skills that are essential for our intellectual growth. This is to mean that the rigor- ous selection and examination of evidence so as to arrive at conclusions is an important training of the mind. Thus, learning history enables students to analyze and solve problems. It enables students to understand the crucial issues (problems) confronting human society, and to give an informed, reasoned, and intelligent response to these problems. However, just as it is useful to humanity, history can also be abused. Selection is made from the past to justify the present. Judging the past from the perspectives (values) of the present is a serious problem in many countries including Ethiopia. This is wrong and does not give us an objective picture of the past. Page 2  Text Book History and Other Sciences History has differences and similarities with other sciences. Natural sciences study the phe- nomena of the physical world, while history studies human beings and human societies in the past. History does not conduct controlled experiments that are common in natural sciences. Natural scientists report the results of their findings in a neutral way. However, historians commonly make value judgments or put their personal views together with the result of their findings. On the other hand, both scientist and historians are concerned with discovery, shading light on new knowledge, and solving current problems of society. Both of them also use systematic methods involving rigorous checks, use of evidence, and drawing conclusions. Therefore, history is a science because it must be proved by the use of reliable sources. It has a methodology which is followed by all historians. Scholars also commonly categorize history under the social sciences, such as anthropolo- gy, sociology, psychology, economics and so on. Historians examine every aspect of the lives of human beings including economic and social conditions, and the development of religion, art and other elements of culture. But still, there are differences between historians and social scientists. Unlike historians, social scientists use experimental data in the form of samples. In addition, social scientists far more regularly use theoretical models and hy- pothesis than do historians. 1.1.2. Historiography Historiography refers to the history of historical writing. It is also a discipline dealing with the methods of writing history including the techniques of historical research and docu- mentation. History as a functional social activity stretches back to the beginning of human society. But the organized and systematic study of the past emerged largely with the rise of civilization particularly with the beginning of the technique of writing. For instance, the beginning of western (European) historical tradition is often associated with the ancient Greek historian named Herodotus (ca. 484-425 B.C). He wrote a long account, “Histories”, of the wars between the Greeks and the Persians. Herodotus is generally regarded as the “father of history”. His most famous successor was Thucydides (ca. 455 – 400 B.C) who chronologically, critically and accurately wrote about the war between Athens and Sparta known as the Peloponnesian War (ca. 431-408 B.C). As time went on, the content and quality of history writing improved. During the 1800s, the methods of modern academic historical study were developed and history became a Page 3 Grade 11 field of study in many schools. It was Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886) from the German Historical School who laid the foundations of modern academic history. Ranke is generally considered to be the “father of modern historiography”. Activity 1.1. 1. What is the term istoria? 2. Who is often considered as “the father of history”? 3. What are change and continuity? 4. In what way history be abused? What are the Key Elements in the Study of History? Modern historical study involves a number of key elements of history. Sources are one of the decisive key elements in historical study. No one can write history without sources. In history every statement must be supported by evidence. This evidence (historical informa- tion) is obtained from sources of history. The other key element in historical study is the interpretation of historical evidences. Before we start writing history, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of the originality and meaning of our evidences. Otherwise, there is the possibility of misrepresentation or wrong interpretation of historical evidences. After a clear understanding of historical evidences, the next step is the presentation of the facts on paper or writing history. The quality of historical writing is highly affected by the manner of presentation. In the past, the role of historical evidence was denied due consideration because no one bothered to support historical statements made by sources. Instead, the artistic value of romantic historical writing was very much emphasized and his- tory writing was taken just like the writing of fiction. But this academic attitude has already been rejected, particularly since the beginning of the 19th century, infavour of presenting historical information based on evidence in a simple, readable and attractive way. Another key element in the study of history is objectivity or writing unbiased or undistorted history. The lessons of the past are valued only if they are based on truth; that is, accu- rate history. Objectivity involves not only identifying the real or significant facts based on reliable primary sources but also presenting what all the facts say without any bias for or against. However, no history can be entirely objective. This is why histories are constantly being rewritten. Nevertheless, it is the utmost duty of the historian to present the reality as they really were and in the way they really occurred. Only history that tells the truth as accurately as possible can guide us accurately to avoid pitfalls in the future. Page 4  Text Book One final key element of historical study is the method of historical writing. Historical methods comprise the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other evidence to conduct research and then write histories in the form of accounts of the past. Writing history also refers to practicing history. In this regard, it must be clear that nowadays, the rapid development in information and communication technology as well as digital imaging techniques do have a great deal of influence on the methods and tech- niques of writing history. The major steps in writing history include collection of historical information (evidence), source criticism, interpretation and writing objectively. Ethiopian Historiography Ethiopia is one of the countries in the world that have indigenous tradition of historical writing since the 14th century, which continued up to the early 20th century almost un- interruptedly. A series of chroniclers wrote almost exclusively about the achievements of Ethiopian emperors. Hagiographers also made their own contributions to the development of the recorded history of the country. However, both hagiographies and chronicles have their own limitations. Hence, historians and students of history should be very careful and critical in using them to write history. In Europe, Ethiopian studies were founded in the last quarter of the 17th century by a Ger- man historian named Job Ludolf (1624-1704). Ludolf also wrote the first modern history of Ethiopia, which was published in 1684. After the middle of the 19th century several other Europeans took part in Ethiopian studies. Ethiopian history writers also appeared towards the end of the 19th century. Until the early 1960s, Ethiopian studies focused mainly on the northern part of the country. It was the establishment of the Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) in 1963 at the then Haile Sellassie I University that changed this pattern. Until then, Ethiopian studies focused on the north because the northern part of the country had the following advantages over the south: a) The north had a written language that served to keep records. b) Ancient Greek, Roman and Arab writers had left important information about the region. c) Several sources on the Christian kingdom are also available in the Egyptian Coptic church archives. d) The north provided archaeological sources for the study of the history of the region. Page 5 Grade 11 When we come to the south, even the available physical remains were not yet studied by then. Few Europeans attempted to penetrate the southern part of the country since the middle of the 19th century. However, the scanty information left by them is barely enough to reconstruct the history of the peoples and states of the region. Moreover, by then, the south had no written language and so had not kept records of its past. Therefore, compared to the north, in the south there was lack of sources of history. Besides, scholars had been reluctant to collect and use oral traditions as reliable historical sources until the 1960s because the methodology for the scientific utilization of oral evidence had not yet been established. In this regard, one of the problems of Ethiopian studies was the imbalance of sources. Very few scholars were interested in the southern part of the country, while many writers were attracted to the north, where one could get a variety of sources. Lack of comprehensiveness was another feature of Ethiopian historiography of the period including the north. This was because most studies focused on the political history of the country. Although we have studies in economic history, there are none in social and cultural history. Another problem in the study of Ethiopian history is the lack of objectivity in the sources themselves, like, for instance, the chronicles of Christian kings. There is also lack of objec- tivity in many of the studies conducted so far. Many scholars who conducted the studies were attached to one or another member of the royal family. As such they made biases in favour of their attachment. Some scholars also lacked access to pertinent sources. Lack of sufficient knowledge on the political, social and cultural realities of the country was another cause for this lack of objectivity in writing Ethiopian history. All these have affected Ethio- pian history in many ways. Activity 1.2 1. Who was the “father of modern historiography”? 2. What are the key elements in historical study? 3. Is it possible to be completely unbiased in historical writing? 4. In what century did the indigenous tradition of historical writing begin in Ethiopia? 5. Who started Ethiopian studies in Europe in the 17th century? 1.1.3. Sources of History Historians use two main types of sources in their research. They are primary sources and secondary sources. Primary sources have direct relation to the event they describe. Because Page 6  Text Book they come directly from the period under study, they are nearer in time and place to the event under investigation. By contrast, secondary sources do not have direct relation or nearness to the event they describe. Most of them are historical reconstructions. The most important examples of primary sources are monuments, inscriptions, coins, letters, diaries, memoirs, chronicles, documents of contracts and agreements, photographs, films and eye- witness accounts. Most history books are also good examples of secondary sources of history. Oral sources could be taken as either primary or secondary sources. For instance, eyewitness information is a primary source. But the information recounted by informants who obtained information from other sources (hear say) is secondary source. Critical examination of both primary and secondary sources is very important for establish- ing their authenticity (originality) and for a clear and deep understanding of their meaning and essence. Before we start writing history, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of the meaning of our evidence. Otherwise, there is the possibility of misrepresentation or wrong interpretation of historical evidences. Activity 1.3 1. What kinds of evidence do historians use to study the past? 2. What is source criticism? 3. Which one is a primary and secondary source: monuments, novels, letters, memoirs, articles, eyewitnesses, and chronicles? 1.1.4. Periodization in History History is commonly studied on the basis of periodization. Periodization in history means the division of the entire human past into chronologically arranged shorter periods. Past events could be understood properly if they are presented in a time frame. The division of the past into shorter periods also simplifies the work of historians, not only by limiting themselves to the study of a certain period of time but also by presenting the results of their studies. This is because historians present past events by organizing them according to their sequence in time. Historians follow different approaches to the periodization of history. Some of these ap- proaches divide the entire history of humankind into different periods based on human behavior, the process of tool making, and economic life. This periodizations start with the beginning of upright movement of hominids about 2.5 million years B.P (before present). Page 7 Grade 11 Table 1.1 Approaches to the periodization of history No Approach Stage of development Date 1 The Human behaviour Savagery 2.5 million-8,000 B. P Approach Barbarous 8,000-5,000 B. P Civilization 5,000 B.P to the present 2 The human tool making Stone Age 2.5 million – 5,000 B. P approach Bronze Age 5,000- 4000 B.P Iron Age 4,000 B.P to the present 3 The Human economic life Hunting and gathering Up to 8,000 B. P approach Farming and animal hus- 8,000 B.P -1750 A. D bandry Age of Industry 1750 A.D to the present The history of humankind is also generally divided into two major periods, called pre-his- tory and history. The beginning of the technique of writing around 4000 B.C marked the dividing line between the two periods. All events that took place before 4000 BC are studied under prehistory. The prehistoric period overlapped with a period known as the Stone Age, which lasted from 2.5 million BP - up to 5000 BP (before present). During this period humankind used stone tools as instruments of labour. Based on the slow progress in producing stone tools, the Stone Age is divided into the Old Stone Age (2.5 million-8000 B.P), Middle Stone Age (transitional) and the New Stone Age (8,000-5000 B.P). Those events after 4000 BC are also studied under history. However, only a small part of the human past has been recorded so far. But both the recorded part, and the part which still waits to be recorded, are commonly called history. In addition, since the technique of writing emerged at different times in different parts of the world, the distinction between pre-history and history varies from country, region or continent to another. The period of history is further divided into three minor periods called ancient, medieval and modern; mostly in European history. There are no uniform or fixed time gaps for divi- sions throughout the world. Every continent or country followed the periodization that fits with its own civilization or state formation. For instance, the ancient period of European history started from the rise of civilization in ancient Greece about 1, 250 B.C and lasted up to 476 (end of 5th Century A.D) when the west Roman Empire collapsed. The medieval period lasted from the end of the 5th century AD up to the 1500 when early capitalist rela- tions began in Europe. The modern period also dates from about 1500 up to the present. Page 8  Text Book Periodization in African history is unique from the rest of the world as a result of Europe- an colonization. The civilization developed by African peoples was disrupted as a result of their contacts with Europeans beginning from the 15th century AD. The centuries of Afro-European relations in the end led to the colonization of Africa by Europe. Because of this, periodization in African history is expressed in terms of pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial periods. The periodization of Ethiopian history is different from the periodization of the rest of Afri- ca because Ethiopia is the only African state that averted European colonialism and main- tained its own statehood. The ancient period of Ethiopian history falls between the time when the process of state formation began about 1000 B.C and 1270 A.D. The medieval period lasted from 1270 up to 1855 A.D. The period since 1855 is also called the modern period of Ethiopian history. Activity 1.4 1. What is periodization? 2. What is history and prehistory? 1.2. Origin of Human Beings Learning Competencies: After learning this lesson, you will be able to:  point out the different stages of human evolution;  compare and contrast the achievements of the different stages of the Stone Age;  explain the different theories about human evolution;  prepare a map showing the major archeological sites of human origin;  analyze how human society was organized from simple to complex;  debate on different views on the origin of human beings;  appreciate major contributions of the Neolithic revolution to modern human beings. Brainstorming Questions Ê How do cultural remains help us to interpret human evolution? Ê How are our lives today affected by the Neolithic Revolution? Ê Page 9 Grade 11 1.2.1. Theories of Origin How long people have lived on earth remained unsettled for a long period of time and the question of the origin of human being attracted human thought for centuries. Since the middle of the 19th century, in particular, there has been a constant growth in the scientific knowledge of the origin of human beings. This was the result of the efforts made by schol- ars attached to a number of newly emergent disciplines, like archaeology and anthropology. Currently, there are two major views concerning human origin. 1. Creationist View The term ‘Creationism’ refers to the religious belief that the universe, Earth, life, and hu- mans originated with supernatural acts of divine creation. Accordingly, Creationists believe that the earth and life on it including human beings with all complete physical shape and structure was created by a supernatural force. 2. Scientific View The scientific view about human origin is also called the theory of evolution. Evolution is the idea that the universe and life on earth were created by a process of evolution in that simple things developed into complex things over a very long time (millions or billions of years). Those who believe in this view are called evolutionists. They believe that simple form of life evolved into highly complex types of creatures such as humans. Since the emergence of the scientific view particularly in the 19th century, there was a strong debate over the origin of human beings between the creationist and evolutionist groups. This debate climaxed in the middle of the 19th century with the publication of Charles Darwin`s work entitled the “Origin of Species by Natural Selection” in 1859. This theory explains that human beings developed from lower being through a gradual and natural process of change. Darwin`s scientific work described evolution and natural selection as theoretical explanation for evolutionary philosophy. Eventually, Darwin`s theoretical expla- nation became the most convincing of all theories of evolution. 1.2.2. Stages of Human Evolution Hominids Hominid is a general biological term referring to members of the scientific family consisting of human beings and extinct prehistoric period human like creatures with enlarged brains Page 10  Text Book and the ability to walk upright on two legs. The two African apes, gorillas and chimpan- zees, are the closest living relatives of humans. These species are classified as members of a separate zoological family called pongidae. Anthropologists believe that human beings, gorillas and chimpanzees all developed from a common ancestor that lived between 8 and 5 million years ago. Scientists have calculated that the split between hominids and the line leading to chimpanzees and gorillas occurred millions of years ago. Biochemical studies of fossil evidence have also told us a great deal about the relationship between humans and apelike creatures. Australopithecines: The First Humans The name Australopithecine translates literally as the “southern ape” in reference to South Africa, where the first known Australopithecine fossils were excavated by archaeologists. These earliest human species are believed to have evolved in Africa around 6 million years ago. Two of their important traits distinguished them from apes: small canine teeth and bipedalism - that is, walking on two legs as the primary form of locomotion. However, some characteristics of Australopithecines also reflect their ape ancestry. They had a brain size of 390 -550 cc (cubic centimeter) in the range of an ape’s brain. Their body weight ranged from 27 to 49 kg, and they stood 1.1-1.5 m. Their weight and height compare closely to those of chimpanzees. Countries where fossil remains of genus Aus- tralopithecus were excavated include Ethiopia, Tanzania, Kenya, South Africa and Chad. Table 1.2 The seven species of Australopithecines Name of species Place of discovery Age (Estimated time) Year of Discovery 1 Australopithecus Kenya 4.2 - 3.9 million years 1994 anamensis ago 2 Australopithecus Ethiopia(Hadar in 3.9 - 2.9 million years 1974 afarensis Afar region) ago 3 Australopithecus Central Africa 3.5 – 3 million years 1995 bahrelghazali (around Lake Chad) ago 4 Australopithecus Lake Turkana region 2.9 – 2.6 million years 1985 aethiopicus in Kenya ago 5 Australopithecus Southern Africa 3 – 2.5 million years 1924 africanus 6 Australopithecus East Africa 2.5 - 1.5 million years 1959 boisei 7 Australopithecus Southern Africa 2.5 – 1.5 million years 1938 robustus Page 11 Grade 11 Genus Homo and Appearance of Modern Humans The current scientific knowledge about the origin of human being shows that Africa is the cradle of humankind. It is probably in Africa where the genus Homo originated about 2.5 million years ago. Australopithecus afarensis may well have been an ancestor of genus Homo. Compared to the species of Australopithecus, members of genus Homo had larger brains and smaller jaws. Homo habilis (handy human) – were the first of the genus Homo, lived in eastern and southern Africa about 2 million years ago. Homo habilis made the first stone tools which consisted of flakes and cores. They are known as Oldowan technology, named after the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania where they were first discovered. A partial skull of Homo habilis dated to about 1.9 million years ago was unearthed in the lower Omo basin in Ethiopia. Other important sites of Homo habilis include Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, Sterkfontein in South Africa and Lake Turkana area in northern Kenya. Homo erectus (upright human) – seems to have originated in Africaand became the earliest hominid to move out of Africa into Asia and Europe. The oldest fossils of this species are about 1.7 – 1.8 million years old. Homo erectus had slightly smaller brain and slightly larger teeth than what modern human beings have. The species stood over 1.5 m and walked upright on two legs. Homo erectus was the first hominid to make little and precise stone tools with precise shape mainly the “hand axe”. These tools are usually referred to as “Acheulian” after the name of a small town in northern France, Saint-Acheul, where one of them was first dis- covered. Homo erectus was probably the first hominid to master the use of fire around 1.5 million years ago. Fossil remains of Homo erectus have been unearthed at several sites in Ethiopia including Lower Omo Basin, Melka-Kunture, Konso-Gardula, Middle Awash (cen- tral Afar) and Gedeb (Gedeo zone). Homo erectus fossils were also found in Indonesia, Germany and China. Homo sapiens- are classified into “archaic” and “modern” Homo sapiens. The first seems to have evolved from Homo erectus sometimes between 300,000 and 600,000 years ago, and occupied much of Africa and Europe. A partial cranium and other bones of archaic Homo sapiens were uncovered at Bodo in Middle Awash. Fossil remains and microlithic stone tools of archaic Homo sapiens have also been found at different sites in Africa and Eurasia. Page 12  Text Book “Modern” Homo sapiens include all living humans plus fossil populations from about at least 100,000 years. The oldest dated sites of modern Homo sapiens are found in Africa, Near East (western Asia), Middle East as well as Europe. Fossil remains of this hominid in- cluding a complete skull dated to be more than 100, 000 years old have been uncovered at Kibish in the Lower Omo Basin. A lower jaw dated about the same age has also been uncovered from a cave site of Porc Epic near Dire Dawa. Modern human beings lived across Africa, Eurasia and Australia some 35,000 years ago. Much later, they also spread into the Americas. They led hunting and gathering way of life. Map1.1 Map of Early Homo sapiens migration routes Early Cultural Developments Pre-historic humans succeeded in entering the first stage of civilization by making tools from stone. Scholars named this human first technological advance the Stone Age. It began roughly 2.5 million years ago and ended in some parts of the world 5,000 years ago. Stone tool and weapon making by chipping one stone against another, and tool and weapon using behavior had a profound effect on human evolution. Based on the types of tools and tool making techniques, archaeologists commonly divide the Stone Age into three stages. They are Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age). But many scholars use the one that divides the Stone Age into two major periods of Old Stone Age (2.5 million – 8000 B.P) and New Stone Age (8,000 – 5, 000 B.P) because they could not find the exact demarcating line between the Old Stone Age and Middle Stone Age tools. Page 13 Grade 11 Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age) During the Old Stone Age, in addition to stone tool and weapon making, human being discovered fire, learned to live in caves and make clothing of skins, and painted pictures on the walls of caves. Paleolithic people were hunter-gatherers. Archaeologists further subdivide the Paleolithic period into three stages: Lower Paleolithic (2.5 million-200,000 B.P), Middle Paleolithic (200,000 - 30,000 B.P) and Upper Paleo- lithic (40, 000-10,000 B.P). The two successive Stone Age tool making technologies called Oldowan and Acheulean mentioned above characterized the Lower Paleolithic or early stage of the Old Stone Age. Oldowan stone tools were made by a technique called “direct percussion” (flaking). This tool making process created large, sharp-edged core tools capa- ble of breaking bones and slicing meat or vegetation; and smaller flakes that could scrape hides and sharpen wooden sticks. Table 1.3 Oldowan Sites Country Site Age Ethiopia Gona, Afar, Omo 2.5 million years 2.3 million years Kenya Lokalalei, Koobi Fora 2.3 million years 1.9-1.4 million years Tanzania Olduvai Gorge 1.9 – 1.2 million years Algeria Ain Hanech 1.7 million years South Africa Sterkfontein, Swartkrans 2-1.5 million years Acheulean stone tools refer to the “hand axe” technology that developed in Africa, the Near East, Europe and Asia dating from 1.5 million – 200,000 B.P. Acheulean tools are known as “bifaces” (flaked on both side), and usually had sharp edges, pointed end and were round at the top. The oldest Acheulean sites in Ethiopia include Konso-Gardula, Gedeb and Melka –Kunture. Oldowan tools are generally identified with Homo habilis, while Acheulean tools with that of Homo erectus. Page 14  Text Book A) B) Figure 1.1 “A” represents Oldowan and “B” Acheulean tools During the Middle Paleolithic period Homo erectus evolved into Homo sapiens. Studies on Middle Paleolithic populations help us understand the anatomy, behaviour, adaptation and cultural development of modern man. For instance, archaeological sites are often found in the deposits of caves and rock shelters for they were important to defend against predators, provide warmth and shelter. There was further refinement and standardization of tool mak- ing techniques during this Paleolithic stage. In Africa south of the Sahara hominids stopped making hand axe and large tools about 200,000 years ago. Instead, they began to make a wide variety of smaller tools based on flake technology. Some of these tools were used as spear point and knives. This may have enabled hominids to further exploit the environment. Gademotta archaeological site in central Ethiopian Rift Valley, dated to 200, 000 years ago, is one of the oldest Middle Paleolithic sites in Africa. Melka-Kunture, Porc Epic and Kone in Ethiopia; and Midhishi and Gud Gud in Somalia are other important sites that offered noteworthy information about Middle Paleolithic populations of the Horn of Africa. The Upper Paleolithic (Later Old Stone Age) lasted from about 40,000 years ago until the end of the last “ice age” about 10,000 years ago. Standardized blade technology appeared and became more widespread than in previous times. Towards the end of Upper Paleolithic, microliths (small, geometric-shaped blade segments) became increasingly common in many areas. They were fitted into handles and used as “Composite tools” in arrows and bows”. In Africa these new tools are called Late Stone Age tools, whereas in Europe they are referred to as “Upper Paleolithic”. Bone was also commonly used to make tools of many types. It was at this time that human biological and cultural evolution occurred at an increasingly rapid pace. Neolithic Revolution Hominids spent ninety nine percent of their history extending back to at least 4 million years on hunting-gathering and consuming wild products of the earth. Nevertheless, some- Page 15 Grade 11 times after 11, 000 years ago some human groups began to produce food rather than col- lect it. This replacement of hunting and gathering ways of life by food production through the domestication of plants and animals is referred to as the Neolithic Revolution. Scientists assume that the Neolithic Revolution independently started in different parts of the world at different times after 11, 000 years ago. This revolution in subsistence is considered as a turning point in the history of human being. In due course of time, most human groups adopted food production as their primary means of subsistence. Many different people also began a slow process of artificial selection, tending plants and farming animals. As a result, humans` way of life and the landscape changed considerably. People began to organize themselves around a base camp to which they returned regularly. There were more innovations in artifacts and more advances were made in human behavior than before. One of the better-known places in the world where agriculture first started is the Middle East particularly the Fertile Crescent, which covers what is now Lebanon, part of Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Syria and Turkey. We observe sites of sedentary life, domestication of plants and animals, new tools and diversification of human diets that implies the existence of divisions of labour. As a result of sedentary life, there emerged families and communities who inhabited defined territorial areas. Communities built stone houses and other kind of structures, which transformed into villages and very small towns. This was followed by the appearance of organized societies who were divided into classes of priests, chieftains, merchants, craftsmen, shepherds, etc. Neolithic humans invented the hatchet and millstone to grind cereals. They also made pottery for food cooking and storage. Artifacts were increasingly exchanged. Sacred places and traditional religions emerged during this period. Finally, the first conflicts started among human beings during the Neolithic period. When a village lost its crop, its herds and when its population increased, it would be tempted to take the resources of nearby communities which led to conflict. The Neolithic Revolution in the Ethiopian Region Some elements of the Neolithic tradition together with other cultural manifestations can be observed in the northern and southern parts of Ethiopia beginning from 4,000 B.C. Archaeological evidences show the existence of a Neolithic type of culture in Ethiopia and the Horn. The evidences include some of the characteristics of Neolithic culture such as the Page 16  Text Book existence of a ceramic tradition, polished stone tools, domestication of plants and animals, and sedentary life. Archaeologists have uncovered Neolithic type of cultural remains at different sites in Ethio- pia and the Horn. Fauna remains of dental fragments of a camel dated to 2,500 B.C come from Gobedra, near Aksum. Remains of chickpeas and vegetables dated to 500 B.C have also been excavated at Lalibela Cave. Another archaeological evidence of possible domes- tication of cattle dated to the 2nd millennium B.C has been found at the Lake Beseka site of central Ethiopia. Grinding stones and polished axes have also been found at Akordat and Barentu in Eritrea. The excavation of Neolithic material cultural remains at these sites including axes, ceramics, grinding stones, beads, stone figures, etc., indicates the develop- ment of Neolithic culture in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. This paved the way for the emergence of complex societies in the region. It is assumed that agricultural tradition in northern Ethiopia was already in existence be- tween 3, 000 and 2000 B.C. During this Neolithic time, new economic activities and cultural developments appeared in Ethiopia. Communities evidently started sedentary life, domesticated plants and animals, and used ceramics for cooking and storage. The pres- ence of a diverse environment in Ethiopia and the Horn made the region the homeland of many plant species, which brought about the cultivation of root plants like enset and crops such as teff, noog, finger millet, and coffee. Today, enset and these crops are staple foods in different parts of Ethiopia. Activity 1.5 1. What is the difference between creation and evolution? 2. What is the meaning of hominid? 3. What are the four main types of hominids that scientists identified based on fossil evidence? 4. Define the Stone Age or Paleolithic period. 5. Can you locate the sites where hominids were excavated at the map of Africa? 1.3. The Emergence of States Learning Competencies: After learning this lesson, you will be able to:  analyze how human economic and cultural activities led to the emergence of early states; Page 17 Grade 11  justify how agriculture led to state formation;  analyze how society was organized from simple to complex;  Appreciate the contribution of agriculture to human civilization. Brainstorming Questions „ Can you explain the reasons why people today still prefer to live along major rivers? „ Compare and contrast the level of democracy in ancient Greece and Rome with modern democracy and its election system. Early states emerged when human society maintained an organized existence in the form of family, clan, tribe, etc. The earliest known states in the world emerged around some 6,000 years ago. The process of state formation was almost certainly different in different societies. The Theories of the Emergence of State There are different theories about the emergence of ancient states that take religion, war leadership, and control of trade routes and irrigation as important factors for state forma- tion. But the factor (factors) for the emergence of one state might not be the case with another state. Religion was one of the important factors for the emergence of states in antiquity. Reli- gion gave some feeling of security in the ancient world, where humankind was exposed to famine, war, diseases, and natural disasters. It was also believed to secure the fertility of crops, animals and women. So, priests who mediated between the gods and humankind were important. It is possible to assume that they combined religious power with political functions, and ultimately, became kings whose authority was based on religion. Kings were considered as representatives of the supreme god on earth. Thus, this theory is called the “Devine Right Theory”. War leadership was another factor in the emergence of kingship in ancient times. With the frequent existence of fierce and bloody wars, a permanent war leader would be needed. A successful permanent war leader would gain loyal followers and emerge as a king. Although trade existed long before the emergence of ancient states, it is very probable that it served as a factor for the emergence of states. Chiefs of localities along trade routes could collect tolls on goods to give protection to merchants and trade routes. In time, such taxes might become regular tribute that would increase the wealth of a chief. It was easy for a Page 18  Text Book wealthy chief to have followers and make his power permanent as a king. Finally, there is the “oriental despotism” theory of the origin of ancient states. Scholars apply this theory regarding the origin of oriental states, particularly ancient Egypt, whose civilization depended on the Nile River and that of Mesopotamia, which was located in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates. In such civilizations where agriculture depended on large scale irrigation, a strong state power emerged because despotic state power was needed to organize labour for great irrigation and flood control works. Main Features of the Early States Early states of the world came into existence primarily as a result of the development of ag- riculture. This was because it was only agriculture that could provide regular surplus food to the farmers, and supported other classes, and state officials and soldiers. States in antiquity had populations with divisions into classes, and with specialized skills such as craftsmen, soldiers, officials, etc. Ancient states were different in size, power and level of “civilization”. The term “civilization” comes from the Latin words for citizen and city. In this context, civilized states were states with cities where there were literacy, reasonably developed technology by the standards of the time and enough wealth to create great monumental architecture, like in ancient Egypt and Aksum. There would also be a developed religion or secular philosophy like that in ancient China. Ancient empire states were seen as divinely created institutions, and their emperors were regarded as representatives of gods (later God) on earth. The position of the individual in the social hierarchy was determined on the basis of birth, and was believed to be god-given and thus immutable. The kings and emperors and their male descendants in the ancient world considered themselves elected by God to rule over the rest of society. Activity 1.6 1. How did war leadership become an important factor for the emergence of ancient states? 2. How did religion, war leadership, and control of trade become important factors for the emergence of ancient states? Page 19 Grade 11 Unit Summary History is a branch of knowledge which deals with past events and deeds. It sheds light on events of the past so that present society can learn from them. History is as old as the existence of humanity on earth. But the systematic and organized study of the past emerged with the beginning of civilization and improved in content and quality as time went on. At the beginning of the 19th century, in Europe, history emerged as an independent profession- al field of study being taught at schools and university levels. History has also been made part of the school curriculum since the introduction of modern education to Ethiopia. The study of history involves several key elements including critical evaluation of evidence, writing objectively, and attractive and readable presentation. In this regard, history writing on Ethiopia, particularly during the imperial period that came to an end in 1974, had some problems, including imbalance of sources, and a lack of objectivity and comprehensiveness. Besides, as history is useful to humanity, it is often abused to justify current political or any other reality. Based mainly on archaeological evidences, the study of history also covers the prehistoric period, during which there was no technique for writing. The theory of evolution claims that human beings evolved from human-like primitive creatures to modern humans. The physical, mental and cultural evolution of human beings was partly made possible by the development of tool making. Tools and weapons were made mainly from stone using differ- ent archaic technology, and thus, the period was called the Stone Age (2.5 million- 8000 B.P). Some other tools were also made from wood, bone and the like. During this very long period, humankind led hunting and gathering ways of life. However, in time, humankind learnt to domesticate plants and animals, which led to the beginning of agriculture. This was what has been termed as the Neolithic Revolution by scholars. It is generally thought to have occurred sometime after 11,000 years ago in some parts of the world. The development of agriculture may have been completed by about 6000 B.C when the Old Stone Age came to an end in different parts of the world. Food production led to a sedentary way of life, the emergence of communities and bigger societ- ies as well as the division of labour and specialization. The development of agriculture and the resultant surplus food production constituted the primary factor for the rise of the early states in antiquity, initially along river valleys. Page 20  Text Book Review Questions I. Describe the following terms and concepts „ „ • Historiography • Neolithic Revolution „ • Objectivity • Bipedalism „ • Change and continuity • Hominids II. Writing Short Notes to the concepts Listed Below 1. Define the terms “history” and “prehistory”. 2. What types of primary sources are available in your locality for write the history of a church or a mosque or any other institution? 3. On a map of Ethiopia, mark the locations where Homo erectus fossils have been discovered. 4. Describe the basic differences between the Oldowan tools and the Acheulean tools. 5. What were the major revolutionary changes of the Neolithic Revolution? Page 21 Grade 11 UNIT TWO MAJOR SPOTS OF ANCIENT WORLD CIVILIZA- TIONS UP TO C.500 A.D Introduction The ancient world had experienced major cultural and technological advancements that significantly transformed human life. The continent of Africa is one of the centers of culture and civilization of the ancient world. In addition to Africa, Asia, Europe and Latin America are some of the places of the ancient world where ancient culture and civilizations flour- ished. The major factor that made the emergence of ancient civilizations possible was the Neolithic/Agricultural Revolution. Early civilizations that arose in different parts of the world had the following major com- mon features: organized governments that would coordinate production of food and bring people together for projects, opened departments to oversee different functions; complex religion, mostly polytheistic, specialization of work, social classes that were broadly divided into upper and lower classes, and arts and architecture that express the talents, beliefs, and values of the people who created them. In this unit we will look into the major centers of culture and civilization of the ancient world that thrived in Africa, Europe, Asia, and Latin America. Learning Outcomes: At the end of this unit, you will be able to:  explain how the major civilizations arose and fell;  compare and contrast the achievements of the major civilizations of the world;  describe the changes that Christianity brought to the human outlook. Key Terms and Concepts „ Civilization „ Monotheistic „ Oligarchy „ Republic „ Monarchy „ Pharaoh „ Kingdom „ Philosophy „ Aristocracy „ Afterlife „ Dynasty „ Empire „ City-state „ Heresy „ Polytheistic Page 22  Text Book 2.1. Ancient Civilizations of Africa 2.1.1. Ancient Egypt Learning Competencies: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:  analyze the major achievements of ancient Egyptian civilization;  realize the value of the waters of the White and Blue Nile rivers;  name some contributions of the civilization of ancient Egypt;  appreciate the medical and architectural exploits of ancient Egyptians. Ê Brainstorming Questions Ê „ Egypt, in the words of the Greek historian is “the gift of the Nile.” What Ê relationship do you see between the saying and civilization? Ê „ How do you understand the importance of a writing system? Ê One of the places of the ancient world where culture and civilization thrived in Africa is Egypt. The ancient Greek historian by the name Herodotus (about 484- 425 B.C) aptly de- scribed Egypt as “The Gift of the Nile,” a pointer to the high degree of importance that the river had for ancient Egyptians. The annual flood that particularly comes from the highlands of Ethiopia supplies them with a significant amount of water and fertile soil along the river and the delta area. Without the Nile, therefore, Egypt would be the infertile desperate desert. The political unity of Egypt was also made possible by the Nile River. Ancient Egyptians also used the Nile as a highway linking north and south. The kings could send officials or armies to towns along the river. The Nile thus helped make Egypt one of the world’s unified states. The river also served as a trade route. Merchants voyaged up and down the Nile in sailboats, exchanging the products of Africa, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean region. Ancient Egypt had two distinct regions, Upper Egypt in the south and Lower Egypt in the north that covered the delta region. About 3,100 B.C., Menes, the king of Upper Egypt, united the two regions. He founded Egypt’s first capital at Memphis located in the delta. Page 23 Grade 11 Figure 2.1 The Nile River Valley Scholars divide the history of ancient Egypt into three main periods: the Old Kingdom (c. 2,686 B.C.-2,181 B.C.), the Middle Kingdom (c. 2040- 1730 B.C.), and the New Kingdom (c. 1550-1080 B.C). There were also the First and the Second Intermediate periods when central political authority broke down, followed by reunification. There were a total of 31 dynasties of indigenous rulers in Egypt. After the New Kingdom, however, indigenous rule ended in Egypt with the final Persian conquest in 343B.C.Alexander the Great conquered Egypt from the Persians in 332B.C. Macedonia-Greek rule continued until Egypt became part of the Roman Empire in 30 B.C. Egyptian kings played key roles in government and religion. The people believed each pha- raoh was a god. He held absolute power owning and ruling all the land in the kingdom. They were seen as human as well as divine. Ancient Egyptians believed in “life after death.” Accordingly, kings would continue their function of keeping the land and the people safe even after they passed away. Since the period of the New Kingdom (about 1550-1080 B.C), the king of Egypt was called Pharaoh. The word “Pharaoh” literally means “great house”. This term refers to both the royal house in which the king dwelled and also the respect the people held for the position. During the Old Kingdom, the kings who made their capital at Memphis organized a strong, centralized state. They took pride in preserving justice and order. They did so by means of a bureaucracy- a system of government that includes different job functions and levels Page 24  Text Book of authority. In the Egyptian bureaucracy, the pharaoh depended on a vizier or chief min- ister, to supervise the business of the government. Under the vizier, various departments looked after such matters as tax collection, farming, and the all-important irrigation system. Thousands of scribes carried out the vizier’s instruction. During the Middle and the New Kingdoms, the capital was moved to Thebes, much farther to the south. Ancient Egypt was divided into 42 provinces called nomes. The Pharaohs appointed government officials called nomarch to rule over the 42 nomes. The peoples of ancient Egypt were divided into a hierarchy of social classes. At the top of the social ladder was the Pharaoh. Next to the Pharaoh were government officials and reli- gious leaders. These were the high priests and priestesses (the female ones), who served the gods and goddesses. The class of merchants, scribes, and artisans formed the next hierarchy. They provided service for the rich and the powerful. At the bottom of the social ladder were the peasants who made up the majority of Egyptian society. They were farmers who worked the land. Of these, slaves formed the majority. They provided free labor services of various kinds and were the backbone of the economy. Egyptian women generally enjoyed a higher status and greater independence than women elsewhere in the ancient world. Under Egyptian law, women could inherit property, enter business deals, buy and sell goods, go to court, and obtain a divorce. They were not thus confined to the home. They manufactured perfumes and textiles, managed farming estates, and serve as doctors. Women could also enter the priesthood, especially in the service of the goddesses. The few women who learned to read and writewere, however, excluded from becoming scribes or holding government jobs. Religion is a major force that significantly shaped life in ancient Egypt.The people wor- shipped many gods and goddesses. Pharaohs, who were considered gods as well as mon- archs were said to have received their right to rule from the gods. Amon-Re, Osris, and Isis were the gods and goddesses that they worshipped. Osris was particularly significant to the Egyptians since he was the god of the Nile, who controlled the annual flood that fertilized the land. During the Old Kingdom, Egyptian pharaohs built many necropolis or cemeteries containing majestic pyramids near Memphis. These are the oldest and largest stone struc- tures in the world registered in UNESCO as world heritage sites. The largest one, built for the pharaoh Khufu, is the Great Pyramid erected at Giza. The age of pyramids gave way to the age of monuments during the Middle Kingdom, Page 25 Grade 11 which reached its climax during the New Kingdom period. The New Kingdom saw powerful pharaohs that ruled and expanded the territory until it became a major world power. It was in this period that Egypt’s first female ruler, Queen Hatshepsut (circa 1473-1458 B.C.), assumed power. From about 1472 to 1458 B.C., she en- couraged trade with the eastern Mediterranean lands and along the Red Sea coast of Africa. Her successor, Thutmose III (1479-1425 B.C.), was a great military general who expanded the territory of ancient Egypt to its greatest extent. He conquered Palestine and Syria in the north and Kush and Nubia in the south. To the south of Egypt, Nubia had developed along the Nile. For centuries, Egyptians traded/ fought with Nubia from which they acquired ivory, cattle, gold, slaves and ebony. Nubians served in the Egyptian army and left their mark on Egyptian culture. Much Egyptian art of this period shows Nubian soldiers and musicians as well as prisoners. Ancient Egyptians contributed a lot in the fields of architecture, writ- ing system (hieroglyphic), medicine, mathematics, calendar, and irrigation agriculture. After 1100 B.C., the power of Egypt gradually declined. Invaders, such as the Assyrians and the Persians conquered the Nile region. In 332 B.C., the last Egyptian dynasty ended as the Greeks took control. In 30 B.C., Egypt had become a Roman province. Activity 2.1.1 1. In what ways did ancient Egyptians’ indigenous knowledge inspire modern science? 2. What role did Menes play in the history of Ancient Egypt? 3. Who was Queen Hatshepsut? Explain her commercial achievements. 2.1.2. Kush-Meroe Learning Competencies: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:  internalize the cultural and technological similarities of Kush and Egypt;  realize the kind of relationships existed between Kush and Egypt;  name some contributions of the civilization of Kush-Meroe;  appreciate the achievements of Kush-Meroe. Brainstorming Questions „ What springs into your mind when you hear the term Kush? „ What do you know about the 25th dynasty of ancient Egypt? Page 26  Text Book Nubia is the name of a geographic region of Africa that extended from the southern boundary of Egypt southward to include present-day Sudan. Its southern boundary was south of the Nile River’s sixth cataract.Like Egypt, Nubia was divided into upper and lower areas and lived along the Nile. However, in southern Nubia, unlike in Egypt, a climate that provided greater moisture meant farming was not limited to the Nile valley. There had been cultural and technological relationships between Egypt and Kush. Egypt influenced the art and architecture of the Nubian region. The Nubians also worshiped some of the gods of Egyptians. They also adopted the customs and clothing styles of the Egyp- tians. They brought back royal rituals and a hieroglyphic writing system to Kush. However, the language has not yet been translated. They also adopted Egyptian pyramids. In Nubia, women played an important role as Queens. Kush rose to power in the 700s B.C. The Nubian kingdom of Kush conquered all upper and lower Egypt. In 751 B.C., Piankhi, a Kushite king, attacked the Egyptian city of Memphis. In the space of 15 years since the first conquest, Piankhi had gained control of Egypt. From this time on, two periods make up the history of Kush. Each period is based on the location of the capital and the king’s tomb. The city of Napata was the capital during this first period. Meroe was the capital during the second.Piankhi united Egypt and Kush and established Egypt’s 25th dynasty. Nubia was rich in goods that were scarce in Egypt: ivory, animal skins, timber, and minerals. This led to a lively trade along the Nile. Napata was the center for the spread of Egyptian goods and culture to Kush’s other trading partners in Africa and beyond. In about 590 B.C, Meroe took the place of Napata as capital. Meroe was located on the Nile and on trade routes leading from the Red Sea to the interior of Africa. It had access to gold and iron. The defeat of Kush by the Assyrians (8th century B.C) taught the Kushites that they needed iron weapons. Therefore, they learned iron smelting technology. Meroe was an ideal location for producing iron as it was located close to iron ore deposits. The prosperity of Meroe largely depended on trade. The main export items included ivory, slaves, skins, ostrich feathers, ebony and gold. The power of Meroe reached its climax from the middle of the 3rdcentury B.C to the 1stcen- tury A.D. During this period, the people of Meroe developed new styles of art and archi- tecture, used their own language, invented a system of writing and worshipped their own gods. The decline of Meroe began in the middle of the 1st century A.D. This was because of the rise of a rival empire, Aksum. In the middle of the 4th century A.D, the Askumite king Page 27 Grade 11 called Ezana invaded Meroe, whose army sacked and burned Meroe and thereby brought the ancient kingdom of Kush to its end. Activity 2.1.2 1. What were the strategic and economic advantages of Meroe to Kush? 2. What were the reasons for the decline and end of the civilization of Meroe? 3. What important technology did the Kushites learn from the Assyrians? 4. Draw a sketch map of the geography of the Nile and locate the places where the civilizations of Ancient Egypt and Kush-Meroe thrived. 2.2. Civilizations in Asia Dear students, in this section we shall turn our attention outside of Africa to look into the major civilizations that emerged in both the Near and Far East, the most notable of which were those that flourished in Mesopotamia, India, and China. 2.2.1 Mesopotamia Learning Competencies: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:  identify the major civilizations that flourished in Mesopotamia;  appreciate the achievements of the Sumerians;  differentiate the positive and negative aspects of the codes of Hammurabi;  tell the meaning of a city-state. Brainstorming Questions Ê Have you ever heard rivers named Tigris and Euphrates? Ê How do you relate them with the civilizations of Mesopotamia? Ê What were the contributions of the Assyrians to the field of military science? Asia was another home to several civilizations of the ancient world. Many of these ear- liest civilizations were based on city states. By about 2900 B.C, civilization flourished in Sumeria (in present day Southern Iraq) located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The name Mesopotamia comes from a Greek word meaning between rivers, a pointer to the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers that encircle Mesopotamia. Page 28  Text Book Figure 2.2 The Tigris and Euphrates river valleys The rulers of Sumerian city-states were absolute kings called lugals. The king ruled as the representative of the city-state’s chief god. He was not a god himself as was true in Egypt. He was responsible for seeing that the worship of the god was properly carried out. It was believed that the prosperity and security of the state was ensured by the proper worship of the god. Many inhabitants of the city-states lived within the walls of the cities. However, the major- ity of these were farmers who were going out to work on the land daily. The other inhab- itants were priests, officials, soldiers, craftsmen and traders. The city-states used to import various commodities including timber and metals. Some supplies were also brought in by military expeditions or obtained as tribute. Unlike Egypt, there were no great monuments built for the kings and numerous gods in Mesopotamia. This was because stone and good timbers were not available for construction. However, archeologists have excavated mounds of important structures made of mud bricks dried in the sun. According to some writers, the plough was first used in Sumeria before the establish- ment of the city-states. The Sumerians became experts in metal working and their bronze artifacts displayed the wonderful abilities the people acquired. Like ancient Egyptians, the Sumerians developed skills in astronomy and mathematics which they used for the preparation of a calendar, land measurement and administration. We got the concept 60 minutes in an hour and 3600 in a circle from the Sumerians. Between about 3200-2900 BC, the Sumerians developed a writing system. The system Page 29 Grade 11 used word pictures, developed from a system of wedge-shaped characters called cunei- form. Cuneiform was written by pressing wedge-shaped marks with a hand instrument on a tablet or soft clay. The clay then dried in the sun and became hard. Cuneiform was a complex, difficult, non-alphabetic writing system like hieroglyphics. The Sumerians made remarkable contributions to law, arts, and science. The Mesopota- mians made careful study of the celestial bodies. They recognized the difference between planets and fixed stars. This laid the foundation for the study of modern astronomy. Babylon was a great city in the ancient world located on the banks of the Euphrates River near the present day city of al-Hillah, Iraq. It was the capital of the kingdom of Babylonia. The city was both an important trading and religious center. The word Babylon means gate of the god. Records first mention Babylon in about 2200 B.C. King Sumuabum, the first important Babylonian ruler, founded a dynasty in 1894 B.C. The best known king of that dynasty was Hammurabi who ruled from 1792 to 1750 B.C and was famous for developing a fair code of law. The economic laws show buying, selling, lending at interests and the existence of private property. The criminal laws were harsh and discriminatory across social classes and gender. Punishments for ordinary people were more severe and physical. Hammurabi’s code of laws became a model for later codes. In the struggle for power and empire by conquest, the Assyrians emerged on top and established the largest empire in the Middle East since the 9th century B.C. Its civilization was similar in many ways to that of ancient Babylonia, its neighbor to the south. The Assyrians have been called the Romans of Asia. Like the Romans, they were great conquerors. They won their victories in the Roman way, with excellent organization, weap- ons, and equipment. The Assyrians were Semitic speakers and their homeland was in what is now northern Iraq. Their capital was at first Ashur, named after the chief god, and later Nineveh both cities on the Tigris River. The king of Assyria had absolute power. He ruled as the representative of the chief Assyrian god, Ashur. The Assyrian army, which consisted of cavalry, chariots and infantry, was efficient and well-organized. The Assyrians used a well developed siege techniques. The army was using iron weapons rather than bronze. Assyrian society consisted of nobles, free small scale land owners, private traders, hired people and a few slaves. Trade was important and a large part of the state revenues came from taxation on trade. Assyria declined after the mid-7th century B.C. The Medians and the Babylonians attacked Assyria. In 612 B.C., Ashur and Nineveh were captured and destroyed. The internal strug- Page 30  Text Book gle for succession weakened the Assyrian empire thereby creating an opportunity for its enemies within and outside the empire. The Assyrian Empire was replaced by the New Babylonian Empire, which, however, did not last long. The New Babylonian Empire began in 626 B.C, when the Babylonian military leader Nabopolassar became king of Babylon. Attacks by the Babylonians and their Median allies in 614 and 612 B.C., put an end to the Assyrian Empire. Under Nabopolassar, who reigned until 605 B.C., the New Babylonian Empire controlled much of the Middle East. Babylon achieved its greatest glory under the New Babylonian Empire. Nabopolassar and his son Nebuchadnezzar II rebuilt the city on a grand scale. During the reign of Nebuchadnezzar (605 to 562 B.C), workers built walls almost 26 meters thick. Nebuchadnezzar’s main palace and fortress stood along the Euphrates River. The famous Hanging Gardens is one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. In addition, the area included the ziggurat, a monument that was known in later times as the Tower of Babel. Nebuchadnezzar’s successors were unpopular, and the empire became weak. In 539 B.C, Persian invaders captured Babylon and overthrew the New Babylonian Empire. Ancient Persia was a land that included parts of what is now Iran and Afghanistan. The name Persia came from Persis, which was the Greek name for the region. The Persians called the region as the land of the Aryans, from which the name Iran comes, and their language Aryan. The founder of the Persian Empire was Cyrus the Great (557-530 B.C.). His successors further extended the empire until it was the largest of all ancient empires. The Persian Emperor was an absolute ruler, ruling as the representative of the Persian god, Ahura Mazda. The empire was divided into provinces called satrapies, each governed by an official called a satrap. The Persians taught their sons to ride horses, shoot bows and speak the truth. To lie and being in debt were considered disgraceful in Persian society. The early Persians were farmers and traders. The Persian peasants used irrigation to grow wheat, barley, oats and vegetables. They used underground tunnels to avoid evaporation, and brought water from distant places. Caravans carried goods from many parts of the world through Persia to the Mediterranean Sea. A gold currency called darics was used all over the empire. The Persian darics were named after the emperor Darius I (5th century B.C.) who first issued them. Zoroaster or Zarathustra was a Persian prophet who lived in the sixth century B.C. He in- troduced the religion of Zoroastrianism. He preached that there were two opposing prin- ciples, good and evil. The good was represented by the supreme god called Ahura Mazda, and the evil by Ahriman. Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire in 331 B.C., Page 31 Grade 11 and the region became part of Alexander’s empire. Activitiy 2.2.1 1. Explain briefly the religious practices of the Persians: its founder, teachings, and dieties. 2. Who was the founder of the Persian Empire? 3. __________________ is the writing system developed by the Sumerians. 4. What were the causes for the decline and end of the Babilonian and Persian em- pires? 2.2.2. India Learning Competencies: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:  realize the main idea behind the “Middle Way” in Buddhist religious teaching;  explain about the “cycle of rebirths” in Hindu religious teaching;  tell the different assumptions on the destruction of the civilization of India;  appreciate the exploits of ancient Indians in the field of mathematics. Brainstorming Questions „ What is the place of the Dravidians in the civilization of ancient India? „ How do you explain the value of river vally in making civilizations possible? „ What river is related with the civilization of India? The first Indian civilization began in the Indus Valley at about 2500 BC, and reached its height at about 1500 B.C. This civilization was started by the people called Dravidians who were indigenous to northern India. Archaeologists have discovered two major cities of the Indus Valley civilization: Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. It is not known whether Mohenjo-daro was the capital of one single empire or an independent city-state. The two cities appear to be large and the rectangular pattern of the streets and the buildings suggest some kind of urban planning. There were also good water supply and drainage systems. The buildings were constructed of bricks that were baked in furnaces. Different kinds of explanations have been given for the destruction of the Indus Valley civilization. But seemingly reasonable suggestions have been environmental degradation Page 32  Text Book caused by deforestation, epidemic disease like malaria, changes in the course of the Indus River and climatic changes. After the destruction of the Indus Valley civilization, there was a movement of Indo-Aryan people who had lived in Northern India and Persia into the interior of Northern India. These people conquered the Dravidians and drove them out of northern India. The Indo-Aryans moved into the great plains of northern India, settled there and established the civilized states of ancient and medieval India. Southern India remained largely Dravidian. The religion of Hinduism developed from the beliefs of the early Indo-Aryans. One basic common idea of Hinduism is that mankind is condemned to a cycle of rebirths. A person can be reborn as someone spiritually higher and better or as someone (or even an animal) lower and worse. Salvation can be achieved in different ways. For instance, it can be attained by giving up the pleasures of the material world and seeking spiritual enlightenment under the guidance of a guru (holy man). Buddhism emerged from Hinduism as a reform movement. Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama (c.563 - 483 B.C.). Buddhism taught the “middle way” to salvation by avoiding extremes of asceticism on one side or materialism on the other side. It spread outside India to South East Asia, China, and Japan. Indian scholars increased the world’s store of knowledge. Learned Indians concerned themselves with various fields of science and mathematics. Indian physicians made prog- ress in surgery and introduced the use of herbs to cure diseases. In the field of chemistry, Hindu scientists made it possible for craftsmen to tan leather dye cloth, and produce soap, cement, glass, and finely hardened steel. Indian scientists made their greatest con- tributions to mathematics. What we call Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.) were first used in India, later taken over and developed by the Arabs. The Indians also introduced the dec- imal system and the symbol for zero. Activitiy 2.2.2 1. What is the role of Siddhartha Gautama in the social life of ancient Indians? 2. List down some achievements of the civilization of ancient India. 3. What were the names of the two cities, which archaeologists excavated along the Indus River valley? Page 33 Grade 11 2.2.3. China Learning Competencies: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:  exercise the five human relationships of Confucian philosophy;  explain the achievements of the different periods of ancient Chinese history;  make a contrast between Confucianism and Legalism. Brainstorming Questions „ What similar stories you observe in the religious practices of human beings including the Chinese? The earliest centers of civilization and states in China were in the northern part of the region. Chinese civilization and the Chinese state expanded over time to the centers and south of present day China. The first dynasty in China was called the Shang dynasty (c.1700 – 1122 B.C.). The Shang kingdom was centered in the Huang-He valley. It became a highly developed society governed by a hereditary class of aristocrats. The dynasty’s accomplishments included the creation of magnificent bronze vessels, the development of horse drawn war chariots and the establishment of a system of writing. The earliest forms of Chinese script were pictographs. They were drawings or pictures of the objects they represented. As the Chinese script developed, characters became more simplified and less pictographic. The language consists of about 50,000 characters. The Chinese writing system is logographic. About 1122 B.C, the Zhou (Chou) people of west- ern China overthrew the Shang and established their own dynasty and ruled China until 256 B.C. The last period of the Zhou was a period of intensive wars between the rulers of rival Chinese sates. In fact it is called the “warring states period” (403-221 B.C.). Despite these wars, the Chinese literary classics developed, and Chinese philosophy emerged. Confucius (551-479 BC) was the most influential and respected philosopher in Chinese history. His real name was Kong Qiu or K’ung Fu-Tzu which means Great Master Kong. His ideas, which are called Confucianism, stress the need to develop moral char- acter and responsibility. No book exists that was written by Confucius. His conversations and sayings were recorded by his disciples in a book called the Analects. His influence grew after his death so that in the end, Confucianism became the official and dominant ideology of China from about 100 B.C. to the revolution of 1911. The Confucian tradition was further developed by Mencius, 372 - 289 B.C., the most important early Confucian Page 34  Text Book philosopher. Confucianism was basically a secular philosophy not a religion. Confucius accepted the existence of “Heaven” but based his ideas on human reason. He taught that society and states would be happy and prosperous if each individual kept to his or her proper place.For him,there are five cardinal human relationships: ruler to subject; father to son; husband to wife; elder brother to younger brother, and friend to friend. All these relationships except the last were relations of authority on one side and obedience and subordination on the other. However, Confucianism put great emphasis on personal ethics; summarizing ethics as “Do not do to others what you do not want done to you”. Mencius believed people were born good. He stressed the need to pressure “the natural compassion of the heart” that makes people human. Mencius emphasized the past as an ideal age and a model for examining present problems. During the later Zhou period, the rulers of the eastern states fought one another for control of all China. In 221 B.C., the Qin (Chin) state defeated all its rivals and estab- lished China’s first empire under the First Emperor, Qin Shi Huang. The ruler believed in a philosophy called Legalism. Legalism emphasized the importance of authority, efficient administration and strict laws. A combination of legalistic administrative practices and Confucian moral values helped the Chinese empires endure for more than 2000 years. The ancient Chinese are credited for many discoveries and inventions. The use of coal was first started by the Chinese. The Chinese were also the first to produce porcelain or Chi- naware. The wheelbarrow was also a Chinese invention. The varnish used to give a hard, glossy finish to wood, leather, and other surfaces originated in China. Another Chinese discovery is silk that could be made from the cocoons of silkworms. The Chinese started the silk industry and trade. Even more valuable was the manufacture of paper from cotton, a process invented about 150 A.D. The Chinese were the first to develop the technology of printing. Another Chinese invention was gun powder, which was used in China as early as 600 A.D. Figure 2.3 Qin dynasty porcelain vases Page 35 Grade 11 Activity 2.2.3 1. What was the first dynasty of China? 2. To which dynasty of Chinese history was the Warring States Period related? 3. What writing system did the ancient Chinese develop? 4. Make a list of the achievements of ancient China. 5. Draw a sketch map of China and then indicate the two important rivers along which the civilization of China flourished. 6. How did river valleys make the earliest civilizations possible? 2.3. Civilizations in Europe 2.3.1 Ancient Greece Learning Competencies: After learning this lesson, you will be able to:  realize the form of Athenian government;  appreciate the philosophical, historical and medical advancements of the ancient Greeks;  differentiate between direct and representative democracy;  comment on the merits and demerits of Athenian democracy;  explain the relationships that existed between Greek city-states;  mention some features of the Hellenistic Age. Brainstorming Questions „ What aspect of the civilization of ancient Greece is related with the discipline of history? „ Can you tell us two city states of ancient Greece? The ancient Greekdeveloped the earliest civilization in Europe sometime around 2500 B.C. The political, scientific, philosophical, historical, and artistic exploits of the ancient Greeks has continued to influence the modern world. Unlike many of the ancient civilizations that thrived along river valleys, civilization in Greece flourished in different independent city- states. Historically, the first recognized city-states evolved during the 4thand 5thcenturies B.C. A city-state is a small, independent country consisting of a single city where the gov- ernment exercised full sovereignty over itself and all territories within its borders. The single city functioned as the center of political, economic, and cultural life. The Greek term for city-states is polis. It is derived from the Acropolis of the 5th century, Page 36  Text Book which served as the center of Athenian government. The form of government was oligarchy (rule by a few powerful people). During the 5th century B.C, some city-states began to exercise democracy. They granted citizens, except women and slaves, the right to vote ongovernment policies, hold political office. Athens and Sparta were the well knowncity-states of ancient Greek. Athens was the largest of the Greek city-states in size and population. In the 5thcen- tury B.C, the population reached between 25,000 to 40,000. Athenshad good olive oiland wine but little fertile land for grain. Because of this, it imported grain from the coastal areas of northern Black Sea. Of the city-states, Athens was known for her strong navy. Athens introduced the principle of direct democracy where all adult citizens, except women and slaves, took part in decision making processes. Accordingly, citizens could attend, speak and vote in the general meeting of the citizens called the Assembly. The Assembly passed laws and determined government policies. It alsoelected Athenian generals. During the 5th century B.C, Athens became the center of Greek culture. Philosophy originated in ancient Greece during this time. Socrates, (470-399B.C), Plato (427-347B.C), and Aristotle (384-322B.C) are considered the most important Greek philosophers. The pursuit of truth or reality by the power of human reason was at the center of Greek philos- ophy. The ancient Greeks pioneered in medicine, physics, biologyand mathematics. Greek architects, sculptors and painters made important contributions to the arts. The leading Greek architects and sculptors built the Parthenon (temple) on the Acropolis. The ancient Greek dramatists, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, wrote many of their master pieces. The Greek historians, Herodotus (484-425 B.C) called (Father of History) and Thucydides, (460-400B.C) established proper historiography. Modern medicine also sees its founderin the Greek doctor, Hippocrates (460-357B.C). In many medical school today, doctors take the «Hippocratic Oath» on graduation, the oath first applied by Hippocrates on his pupils that they would practice their profession in the proper manner. Page 37 Grade 11 Figure 2.4 The Parthenon in ancient Greek The glorious days of Athens ended with the outbreak ofthePeloponnesian War (431- 404B.C), a series of wars made among the different city-states, in which Athens was defeated by Sparta. Due to these wars, their power considerably declined paving the way for external attack. Macedonia, a country north of Greece, was becoming stronger as theGreek city-states grew weaker. In 353 B.C, Philip II, king of Macedonia, set out toconquer Greece. The independence of Greek city-states ended in 338 B.C, whenPhilip II defeated them and brought them all under his control. Upon his death, his son and successor, Alexander the Great (336 – 323B.C), led a Greek and Macedonian army and conquered the entire Persian Empire. His conquest furthered the spread of Greek ideas and language in Egypt andthe Near East. Following his death in 323 B.C., the empire was divided among his gen- erals. The period of Greek history from the death of Alexander the Great to the Roman conquest of Greek in 30 B.C is known as the Hellenistic Age.The Hellenistic Age was a time when Greeks came in contact with outside people and their Hellenic, classic culture blended with cultures from Asia and Africa. Activity 2.3.1 1. How did the Peloponnesian war influence the power of Greek city-states? 2. Make a list of some contributions of the ancient Greek civilization. 3. What differentiates direct democracy from representative democracy? 4. How did Athenian democracy address the rights of women and slaves? Page 38  Text Book 2.3.2. Ancient Rome Learning Competencies: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:  recognize the achievements of different governments;  appreciate the achievements of the Etruscans;  realize the social hierarchy prevalent in ancient Rome;  recognize the place of slaves in Roman bureaucracy; and  explain the military exploits of Rome. Brainstorming Questions „ Who are the legendary founder