History Grade 9 Student Textbook PDF

HISTORY Student TEXTBOOK GRADE 9 HISTORY HISTORY STUDENT TEXTBOOK Student TEXTBOOK GRADE 9 GRADE 9 Barcode ISBN PRINTING PRESS Price:ETB 167.00 HISTORY STUDENT TEXTBOOK GRADE 9 Writers: Desta Roba Julla (MA) Tesfaye Masebo Melko (MA) Editors: Tigab Beze Bikis (PhD) (Content Editor) Messay Kebede Abebe (MA) (Curriculum Editor) Girma Gezahegn Belihu (PhD) (Language Editor ) Illustrator: Ayele Sankura Samako (MSc) Book Designer: Mulat Shiferaw Siyoum (MSc) Evaluators: Doctor Telila (MA) Bekele Kene'a (MA) Zegeye Woldemariam (MA) FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA HAWASSA UNIVERSITY MINISTRY OF EDUCATION ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA June 2022 First Published June 2022 by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Education, under the General Education Quality Improvement Program for Equity (GEQIP-E) supported by the World Bank, UK’s Department for International Development/DFID-now merged with the Foreign, Common wealth and Development Office/FCDO, Finland Ministry for Foreign Affairs, the Royal Norwegian Embassy, United Nations Children’s Fund/UNICEF), the Global Partnership for Education (GPE), and Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, through a Multi Donor Trust Fund. © 2022 by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Education. 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Photo Credits:pages 8, 11, 12, 16, 24, 28, 32, 42, 46, 55, 68, 71, 74, 76, 80, 87, 92, 98, 105, 108, 111, 175, 179, 192, 198, 199, 204 @ reaserchGate.net @ history.org @ Euro-royal.com @ en.wikipedia.org @ en.wikipedia.org @ UNESCO site @ Encyclopaedia Britannica @ slideplayer.com @ world history.org @ arrajol.com @ historyhustle.com @ assets.sutori.com Printed by: P.O.Box : ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA Under Ministry of Education Contract no. : ISBN: Table of Contents Contents U 1 NIT The Discipline of History and Human Evolution000000000000000000000001 1.1 Meaning of Prehistory and History.......................................................................2 1.2 The Discipline of History......................................................................................3 1.2.1 The importance of History..................................................................................4 1.2.2 Historiography and Historical interpretations.....................................................4 1.2.3 Sources of History...............................................................................................5 1.2.4 Dating in History................................................................................................6 1.3 The Evolution of Human Beings..........................................................................9 1.4 Theories of Human Evolution.............................................................................11 1.5 Africa and Human Evolution..............................................................................12 1.6 The Stone Age.....................................................................................................14 2 1.7 The Emergence of States......................................................................................17 UNIT Ancient World Civilizations up to c. 500 AD............................22 2.1 Ancient Civilizations of Africa...........................................................................23 2.1.1 Ancient Egypt....................................................................................................23 2.1.2 Nubia.................................................................................................................25 2.2 Civilizations in Asia...........................................................................................25 2.2.1 Mesopotamia....................................................................................................26 2.2.2 Persia.................................................................................................................26 2.2.3 India..................................................................................................................27 2.2.4 China...............................................................................................................28 2.3 Ancient Civilization of Latin America...............................................................29 2.3.1 Maya................................................................................................................29 2.3.2 Inca...................................................................................................................30 2.3.3 Aztecs................................................................................................................30 2.4 Civilizations in Europe.......................................................................................30 2.4.1 Ancient Greek Civilization..............................................................................31 2.4.2 Ancient Roman Civilization.............................................................................32 3 2.5 Rise and spread of Christianity...........................................................................34 UNIT Peoples and States in Ethiopia and the Horn to the end of 13 C.......................................................................................40 th 3.1 Languages, Religions and Peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn............................... 41 3.1.1 Languages Families..........................................................................................41 3.1.2 Major Religions of Ethiopia.............................................................................44 3.1.3 Settlement Pattern of Peoples of Ethiopia......................................................51 3.2 Pre-Aksumite States and their Geographical Setting..........................................53 3.4 Aksumite Kingdom............................................................................................54 3.5 Zagwe Dynasty..................................................................................................56 4 3.6 The Sultanate Shewa...........................................................................................59 U NIT The Middle Ages and Early Modern World, C. 500 to 1750s..........................................................................................65 4.1 The Middle Ages in Europe................................................................................66 4.1.1 Dark Age...........................................................................................................66 i History Grade 9 Student Textbook 4.1.2 Feudal Society...................................................................................................66 4.1.3 Byzantine Empire..............................................................................................67 4.2 The Middle Ages in Asia.....................................................................................69 4.2.1 The Rise and Expansion of Islam.....................................................................69 4.2.2 The Expansion of the Ottoman Empire...........................................................70 4.2.3 Dynastic Cycle in China..................................................................................72 4.3 Development of Early Capitalism.......................................................................72 4.4 The Age of Explorations and Discoveries..........................................................73 4.5 The Renaissance...................................................................................................75 4.6 The Reformation.................................................................................................77 5 4.7 Industrial Revolution..........................................................................................79 U NIT Peoples and States of Africa to 1500.............................................84 5.1 Languages and Peoples of Africa.........................................................................85 5.2 States in North Africa..........................................................................................88 5.3 Spread of Islam and its Impact in West Africa.....................................................89 5.4 States in Western Africa......................................................................................90 5.5 Equatorial, Central and Eastern Africa................................................................93 5.6 Southern Africa....................................................................................................95 5.7 Africa’s Intra and Inter-continental Relations.....................................................97 5.8 Trans-Saharan trade.............................................................................................98 6 5.9 Early Contacts with the Outside World................................................................99 UNIT Africa and the Outside World 1500- 1880s..............................104 6.1 Contact with the Outside World........................................................................... 105 6.2 Slavery..............................................................................................................107 6.3 The “Legitimate” Trade.....................................................................................112 6.4 The White Settlement in South Africa...............................................................113 7 6.5 European Explorers and Missionaries...............................................................116 U NIT States, Principalities, Population Movements & Interactions in Ethiopia 13th to Mid-16th C...............................120 7.1 The “Solomonic” Dynasty & the Christian Kingdom, 13th -16th C....................121 7.2 The Muslim Principalities.................................................................................124 7.3 Relationship Between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal, 1520s to 1559..........................................................127 7.4 Political and socio-economic conditions of southern and central states in Ethiopia.............................................................................132 7.5 Population Movements, Expansion and Integration in Ethiopia......................135 7.6 Gada System of the Oromo...............................................................................140 7.7 Moggasa and Guddifacha..................................................................................144 8 7.8 Egalitarian System of Governance.....................................................................145 U NIT Political, Social and Economic Processes in Ethiopia Mid- 16th to Mid- 19thC.......................................................................155 8.1 Peoples and states of the Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions.... 156 8.1.1 Southern states.............................................................................................156 8.1.2 Western states...............................................................................................167 ii Table of Contents 8.1.3 Eastern States: Harar, Afar, Somali................................................................174 8.2 Gondarine Period..............................................................................................178 8.3 The Zemene Mesafint (The Era of Warlords)....................................................181 8.4 The Yejju Dynasty..............................................................................................183 9 8.5 The Kingdom of Shoa........................................................................................185 U NIT The Age of Revolutions 1750s to 1815...........................................188 9.1 Industrial Capitalism in Europe.......................................................................189 9.1.1 Political, Economic, and Social Effects of Industrial Revolution0000000000000000000189 9.2 French Revolution..............................................................................................191 9.3 Napoleonic Era..................................................................................................196 9.4 American War of Independence........................................................................201 9.5 The Congress of Vienna....................................................................................203 Glossary............................................................................................................209 iii 1 | Unit 1 The Discipline of History and Human Evolution Unit THE DISCIPLINE OF HISTORY AND HUMAN EVOLUTION Unit Introduction This unit intends to familiarize and the emergence of states. In you with the elementary meth- order to facilitate your learning odology of history which helps and to make it interesting to you to learn the subsequent units you, major points and arguments more successfully. Accordingly, the are illustrated with examples and lessons in this unit cover meaning images. The unit closes with a of pre-history and history, the discipline of history, evolution summary of the main points of each human beings, theories on the lesson, followed by review questions origin of human beings, Africa that enable you to measure your and human evolution, Stone Age achievements all through the unit. Unit learning outcomes At the end of this unit, learners will be able to: discuss the main objectives of studying history. evaluate the place of Africa and Ethiopia in human evolution. 🔑 summarise the theories on the origin of state and its major features. Key Terms Human Evolution Prehistory State History Chronology 1 History Grade 9 Student Textbook 1.1 Meaning of Prehistory and History Lesson learning outcomes At the end of this lesson, learners will be able to: define the discipline of History. explain the difference between prehistory and history Brainstorming Discuss in group prehistory and history. The term history, derived from the Greek word Istoria, means “inquiry” or “an account of one’s inquiries.” History is the story of humans in the past. It tells what they did and what happened to them. Historians are people who study and write about the human past. They tell us that history began about 5,500 years ago when people first began to write. However, the story of people begins in prehistory. Prehistory is the study of the distant past. Prehistory was the time before people developed the art of writing. Archaeologists and Anthropologists have worked to find clues about early human life. Only a small part is studied of these events and deeds of the past. This small part, which is studied, is also called history. Unlike prehistory, however, the subject of history mainly deals with the past, beginning from when writing and recording started. Therefore, historians are people who study and write about the human past. However, the other disciplines do it in the present. Man interacts with the natural environment to produce his primary needs, such as food, shelter, and cloth. In the production process, human beings improved the production tools and the quality and quantity of the produce. 2 | Unit 1 The Discipline of History and Human Evolution  1. How do you differentiate prehistory from history? 2. Explain the term ‘Istoria’. 3. Referring to different history books or exploring the internet, write a half-page essay describing the relationship between man and the natural environment and present it to your class. History as a body of knowledge is an account of the past based on historical facts and evidence. Historical fact refers to information or statement about the past that is known or proven to be true. History is all about providing an interpretation of what happened, why it happened, and how it happened based on sources. Therefore, history is both the facts of the past and inquiry made into the past facts. Thus, history is not an opinion or novel writing. Identifying historical facts from opinion requires critical thinking. Distinguishing between fact and opinion is one of the most important skills you can learn from studying history. A fact is a statement that can be proved with supporting information. On the other hand, an opinion is what a writer believes based on his or her viewpoint. History writers can keep their opinions with facts, but an opinion is something that cannot be proved.  1. How can you distinguish facts from opinion? Explain it by giving an example. 1.2 The Discipline of History Lesson learning outcomes At the end of this lesson, learners will be able to: describe the importance of learning history. identify different sources of history. examine pieces of historical sources closely. appreciate the role of history in understanding societal development. discuss the level of accuracy of data obtained from other sources. 3 History Grade 9 Student Textbook Brainstorming How can we study history? As a body of knowledge, History is a branch of social science that deals with what human beings did in the past. It studies changes in the development of past societies’ political, economic, social, and cultural life. 1.2.1 The importance of History History helps us know about the past, understand the present, and foresee future developments. It also allows us to understand national and international issues, including democratic principles and nationalism. History can also help us develop the necessary skill for collecting and analysing information to reach conclusions. So, it helps us live our lives as conscious citizens actively participating in shaping our future. History teaches us critical skills. Studying History helps students to develop essential research skills. History helps us understand the present better and provides a sense of identity. 1.2.2 Historiography and Historical Interpretations A. Historiography Historiography is studying how knowledge of the past is attained and transmitted. The world’s oldest written History comes from China. Archaeologists have discovered records of Chinesee History written before 1000BC. Ancient Greek historians, notably Herodotus and Thucydides, introduced the organized study and narration of the past. The term’s first use is attributed to Herodotus (c. 484-425BC), who is often the “father of history. ” Thucydides wrote critically and accurately. History emerged as an academic discipline in the second half of the 19th century, first in Europe and then other parts of the world. Leopold Von Ranke (1795-1886), the German historian, established History as an independent discipline. Ranke is considered the “father of modern historiography” for his effort to the scientific study of the past. Ethiopia had an indigenous tradition of history writing. It made some changes from the chronicle tradition in the early 20th century. History emerged as an academic discipline in the 1960s. This decade is vital in the growth of Ethiopian historiography. B. Historical Interpretation What happened in the past is endless. Thus, historians select topics or problems they desire to study. History is a systematic and objective study of the past as a field of 4 | Unit 1 The Discipline of History and Human Evolution discipline. It is a systematic study because historical study follows established rules, procedures, and standards. Historians use specific basic methods in writing History. The study of History also refers to the objective pursuit of truth. In principle, historians are expected to avoid bias though it is difficult in practice. Historical interpretation is the process by which we describe, analyse, evaluate, and create an explanation of past events. We base our interpretation on primary or secondary, or both sources. 1.2.3 Sources of History History is the study of the past supported by evidence arising from sources. Where there are no sources, there is no history. Sources are, therefore, key to the study and writing of History. Most commonly, historians divide sources into two broad groups. These are primary and secondary. Primary sources are those that are contemporary with the events under study. They are original materials that have direct relations to the events they describe. Examples of primary sources are Monuments, tools, ornaments, artefacts (coins, fossils, inscriptions, weapons, utensils, and ruins of buildings), written materials (manuscripts or handwritten materials, chronicles, diaries, letters, minutes, codes of laws, court records and administrative files, travel documents), photographs, maps, video and audiovisual materials. a) b) Figure 1.1 a) Silver Coins of Enudybis, b) Archives Secondary sources are sources that contain information that is derived from primary sources. In addition, they provide us with second-hand or indirect information. Examples of secondary sources are articles, books, textbooks, biographies, oral traditions and published stories or movies about historical events.Oral traditions are historical sources transmitted by word of mouth from one generation to the next. Oral data can qualify the position of primary or secondary sources based on the nature of informants. 5 History Grade 9 Student Textbook History can only be written based on data collected from the abovementioned sources. However, whatever the source of information, it should be subjected to critical evaluation before being used as evidence. Primary sources have to be verified for originality and authenticity to avoid forgery. Secondary sources have to be examined for the reliability of their reconstructions. Oral data should be cross-checked with other sources such as written documents to determine its truth; because it may lose its authenticity due to distortion through time.  1. Explain why we bother about the past while living in the present and anticipate what is yet to come. 2. In a group, search the importance of learning history from the internet and present it to the class. 3. Answer the following question based on the below case study. A case study on car accident Assume yourself as a judge entitled to administer a traffic accident in which a teenager was a victim and died 13 months ago. You were provided with information about it from the following sources. The first is the driver of the car and a passenger who was in the vehicle during the car accident. The second is parents of whom a victim had talked to them just before death and a police report with possible details. A. Which ones do you believe are primary, and which is secondary sources? 1.2.4 Dating in History In recording the past, historians try to determine the exact time when events occurred. That is what we call it dating. Dating is figures or numerical statements that express the time of historical events or processes. The duration in time could be short or long. There- fore, historians describe the period of events by using certain subdivisions or units of time. Hence, the figurative expression expresses the exact dates on which events occurred. For example: the battle of Adwa took place on March 1, 1896 Ethiopian Renaissance Dam was initiated on April 2 2011 6 | Unit 1 The Discipline of History and Human Evolution Dating in history is expressed in numerical statements such as a decade, century, and millennium. A decade refers to a period of ten years. A century is one hundred years, whereas a millennium refers to a thousand years. For example: The years from 1900 to 1909 is the first decade of the twentieth century The years from 1900 to 1999 is the twentieth century The years from 1000 to 1999 the is the second millennium The primary purpose of dating in history is to organise past events according to their sequence of occurrence by using calendars. This is what we call chronology. The two widely used calendars worldwide are the Gregorian and Islamic. According to the Gregorian calendar, time is counted forward and backwards from the time of the birth of Jesus Christ. The time before the birth of Christ is referred to as BC. (Before Christ), whereas the time after the birth of Jesus Christ is expressed in AD (anno Domini), a Latin term meaning “The Year of the Lord”. Ethiopia uses its calendar, which began on September 11, of the Gregorian calendar. The Ethiopian Calendar is seven to eight years behind the Gregorian calendar. The Islamic Calendar follows the event called the Hijra to count time forwards and backwards. The Hijra was the flight of the prophet Mohammed and his early followers from the town of Mecca to Medina in 622AD. Hence, BH stands for the years before the Hijra, and AH refers to the years after the Hijra.  1. Discuss in pairs and explain the difference between decade, century and millennium. 2. Referring to a primary or secondary sources, write a paragraph about the arrival of Christianity and Islam in Ethiopia and present it to your class. Historians sometimes use a timeline. A timeline is a graphic representation of events in chronological order or periods of history. It is a horizontal or a vertical lineup of historical events. Historical timeline enables quick visualisation and forms a clear idea of the passage of time about events. 7 History Grade 9 Student Textbook In addition, the timeline shows you when and where events happened during the discus- sion period. See the timeline below. Figure 1.2 Historical timeline Because of the length of time, historians organise the human past into separate periods after identifying significant developments and giving a label to each period. This is what we call periodisation in history. Accordingly, history is conventionally divided into ancient, medieval and modern history. 1. Working in pairs or small groups, read the following events. Then put  them in chronological order and show it on a historical timeline. A. Cities built on Indus valley B. Democracy evolved C. Pyramid Age begins D. Rise of Chinesee Civilisation E. Romans set up a Republic F. Sumerians developed cuneiform 2. Explain why the Ethiopian calendar lags 7 or 8 years behind the Gregorian calendar. 8 | Unit 1 The Discipline of History and Human Evolution 1.3 The Evolution of Human Beings Lesson learning outcomes At the end of this lesson, learners will be able to: appraise the major theories of human evolution. draw a chart showing major stages of human evolution. debate on the theories of the origin of mankind. Brainstorming What do you know about human evolution? According to evolutionist theory, all human beings now living in the world belong to the species Homo sapiens, which descended from a common ancestor or a genus known as Homo. That is why it is said that humans belong to the Hominid family. Hominids are humans and other creatures that walk upright. Although hominids family no longer exist, we know that their representatives lived in the past. We know this from the discovery of many fossils that represent them. All hominids are characterised by what is known as bipedalism, i.e., walking on two feet with an upright position. The earliest hominid to be found in Ethiopia is named Ardipithecus ramidus. It was discovered at Aramis in the Middle Awash of the Afar Regional State. It is described by a team of Paleontologists led by Tim White, and it is dated to around 4.4 million years ago. This species was followed by another fossil called Australopithecus afarensis. Finally, in 1974, Donald Johanson found the oldest complete human skeleton in Ethiopia. He named his find ‘Lucy’ after a Beatles’ song. The second stage in early human development occurred with the appearance of Homo erectus (“upright human being”), a species that emerged around 2 million years ago. Homo erectus made use of larger and more varied tools. These hominids were the first to leave Africa and move into Europe and Asia. They could do so because they learned to use fire to keep warm in colder areas. The three different species that belong to the genus Homo are: Homo habilis, Homo erectus and Homo sapiens. Homo habilis is a handy human being and is considered the oldest human being. Fossils of Homo habilis were found in the Omo valley in Ethiopia. Homo erectus is an upright 9 History Grade 9 Student Textbook walking human who appeared about 1 million years ago. Fossils of this species were found in the Omo Basin, Melka-Kunture, Konso – Gardula, and Middle Awash in Ethiopia. Homo sapiens were wise human beings and very similar to modern human beings. Fossils of this species were found in the Awash and Omo valleys and the areas near Dire Dawa. Therefore, Ethiopia is proved to be the land where these species were discovered. Modern Human beings (Homo sapiens sapiens) appeared about 40,000 years ago. They are different in many ways from their ancestors. They have large brains, are bipedal and walk upright. They think and execute complicated ideas. They use language, develop culture, invent tools and use them effectively. They transmit knowledge from generation to generation. It is noteworthy that the region of Ethiopia and the Horn has sites illustrating all the three sub-species of the Homo family that appeared in succession: Homo habilis, Homo erectus and Homo sapiens. These successive stages marked the progressive refinement in making tools and the mastery of the technology of making a fire that Homo erectus accomplished. 10 | Unit 1 The Discipline of History and Human Evolution Time and again, the hominids that have been found so far were found in Ethiopia. Thus, these areas have continued to attract archaeologists. Map 1.1 Hominids’ sites in Ethiopia Afar region 1.4 Theories of Human Evolution There are two major opposing theories on the origin of human beings. These are the creationist and the evolutionist (scientific) theories. The creationist view advocates the notion that man, including all living things, was created by GOD or a supernatural being. The scientific theory explains that all living things, including humans, result from a gradual succession process and variation from earlier forms. This slow and natural process is called evolution. Thus this theory is called evolutionist. This theory was formulated by the English scientist Charles Darwin (1809 - 1882). Eventually, it was widely accepted by the scientific communities. 11 History Grade 9 Student Textbook Currently, though this theory dominates thinking about human origins in the scientific world, a large number of people across the globe believe in the creationist view. Figure 1.3 Stages of Human Evolution  1. What are the three sub-species of the Homo family that appeared in succession in the Horn of Africa? 2. Explain the differences between the creationist and evolutionist theories of Human Evolution. 3. Draw a map of Ethiopia and show the major archaeological sites. 1.5 Africa and Human Evolution Lesson learning outcomes At the end of this lesson, learners will be able to: draw a chart showing major stages of human evolution. show the different archaeological sites of Africa, including Ethiopia, using a map. The oldest Australopithecines, discovered in northern Chad in 2001, is Sahelian chadensis. It is estimated to be between 7 and 6 million years old. Fossils of Australopithecus ramidus, aged 4.4 million years, were discovered in the Afar region in Ethiopia in 1994. The fossil remains of Australopithecus afarensis, also known as Lucy (Dinkinesh), was found at Hadar in theAfar region in 1974. It is estimated to be 3.18 million years 12 | Unit 1 The Discipline of History and Human Evolution old. They were first described by an American scientist Donald Johanson and his colleagues. Lucy's fossils are the most complete so far found. Australopithecus afarensis was bipedal and appeared to have been the ancestor of human beings from among the Australopithecines. Figure 1.4 Picture of Lucy (Dinkinesh), (adopted from World history) Remains of Australopithecus africanus, aged 2.5 million years, were discovered in 1924 at Taung, South Africa. The East African Rift Valley seems to have been the home of human evolution due to its rich archaeological evidence. For instance, Fossils of Homo habilis were found at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania and Lake Turkana in Kenya. Map 1.2 Emergency of humans in East Africa and migration to other parts of the world,(source:Glencoe-World-History) 13 History Grade 9 Student Textbook  1. Explore the internet or refer to historical sources and write a half-page report explaining why East Africa is important for studying human origin. 2. Draw a map of Africa and show the major archaeological sites. 1.6 The Stone Age Lesson learning outcomes At the end of this lesson, learners will be able to: analyse stages of the Stone Age. discuss the achievements during the Stone Age. Brainstorming What is the Stone Age? One of the basic distinguishing features of the human species is the ability to make tools. The earliest tools were made of stone. In the transition from hunting and gathering to the period of civilisation, human beings passed through several stages of development. 14 | Unit 1 The Discipline of History and Human Evolution These stages include the time when tools were made of stone. This period took a long time. The Stone Age is divided into three periods: the Paleolithic Age, the Mesolithic Age, and the Neolithic Age. Figure 1.5 Stone tools, (adopted from Kevin Shillingiton 1995:7) Paleolithic is Greek for “old stone,” The Paleolithic Age is also called the Old Stone Age. The Paleolithic Age was the longest of the stone ages that began sometime around 2.6 million and lasted until about 300,000 years ago. During this period, early human beings made the first crude stone tools known as hand – axes lived in caves and discovered fire. They also began to use language. The Mesolithic age (Middle Stone Age) was a transitional period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages. It lasted from 300,000 to around 45,000 years ago. Stone tools were slightly improved and more adaptable to different uses during this age.  1. How did the making of simple tools change human life? 15 History Grade 9 Student Textbook The Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) started around 8,000BC and lasted until about 4,000BC. A great revolution took place during this age. The Neolithic Age has brought about the so-called Neolithic Revolution or Agricultural revolution. The real change in the Neolithic Revolution was the shift from the hunting of animals and gathering food to keeping animals and growing crops regularly, which we call systematic agriculture. The Neolithic agricultural revolution had far-reaching consequences. The prerequisites for civilisation were laid during this age. Agriculture was introduced and transformed the lives of Neolithic people. As a result, human beings began to produce food. This was followed by a sedentary way of life and a complex social organisation. Stone houses were built. Religious places and granaries were constructed. New and better tools like the hoe, the yoke, and the wheel appeared, and the use of animals in farming helped human beings produce more food. The change had such dramatic effects that historians call it the Neolithic Agricultural revolution. In short, the Neolithic Revolution made human beings food producers and community dwellers. The Neolithic revolution occurred at different times in various places. The earliest evidence of the Neolithic comes from the Middle East some 11,000 years ago. The major archaeological sites are found in Palestine, Mesopotamia, the Nile valley in Egypt, Tropical Africa, the Yangtze Kiang valley in China, the Indus valley in India, and parts of the Americas. Map 1.3 Principal archaeological sites in Ethiopia, (source: ResearachGate.net) 16 | Unit 1 The Discipline of History and Human Evolution It is believed that the Neolithic age took place in parts of Ethiopia about 7000 years ago. Then, agriculture began and among the domesticated plants were teff, dagussa, nug and enset. People also started making and using pottery. There are several archaeological sites in Ethiopia that are representative of the Neolithic age. These archaeological sites are found in Aksum, Lalibela, and near Chercher in Hararghe and Metehara.  1. Briefly describe the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic stone Ages. 2. Draw a map and show the major archaeological sites of the Neolithic Age in Ethiopia. 3. Explain the major changes that resulted from the development of systematic agriculture. 1.7 The Emergence of States Lesson learning outcomes At the end of this lesson, learners will be able to: identify features of the state. explain possible factors for the emergence of states. identify the major theories on the origin of the state. Brainstorming Could you guess how early states emerged? 17 History Grade 9 Student Textbook As discussed above, the Neolithic age led to sedentary ways of life among human communities. Through time, these communities would become enormous. However, human societies did exist in some simple forms of organisation before the emergence of complex societies, i.e. state. So, a state may be defined as a politically organised body of people occupying a defined territory with an organised legitimate government and free from all forms of external control to exercise its sovereignty within its area of rule. It must be noted that a state differs from a kingdom and an empire. For a state to exist, it must have the following features: population, territory, government, sovereignty and recognition. Regarding the emergence of states, scholars put forward different theories. One of these theories is related to religion. As religion developed, priests appeared in early societies. They began to play central roles in administrative spheres of society. Such early states were known as theocratic states. They were ruled by priests. Others say that agriculture was the major reason for the emergence of the state. As early society was divided economically into higher and lower classes, those who produced surplus became elites. Elites are rich people who had attained higher status in society due to their wealth. As a result, they would have control over others, thus leading to the emergence of the state. Others insist that control over trade and trade routes were the principal reason for the emergence of the state. As a result, village chiefs who controlled the trade gradually replaced priests with the emergence of markets. In addition, these chiefs had the power of collecting tributes and keeping the security of villages and the needs around them. This development marked the appearance of states. War or conflict might also have occurred when small villages combined to establish states under powerful local chiefs by force.  1. List the differences between state and society. 2. Write and explain the major theories of the origin of the state. 18 | Unit 1 The Discipline of History and Human Evolution Unit Summary  📝 Prehistory refers refers totothe thelong longperiod periodbefore before people people invented invented the system the system of writ- of ing. History writing. History refers refers to all to all thethe things thingsthat thathappened happenedininthethehuman humanpastpast after after the beginning of the art of writing. History helps us know about the past, understand the present, and foresee future developments. Historiography Historiography isis studying studyinghow howknowledge knowledge of the past past of the is attained and trans- is attained and mitted. The past signifies events that have taken place and the facts transmitted. The past signifies events that have taken place and the facts of the of the past, which are kept past, which areinkept writing. Sources in writing. are critical Sources to the study are critical to theand writing study of history. and writing of Most commonly, historians divide sources into two broad groups. history. Most commonly, historians divide sources into two broad groups. These These are primary andand are primary secondary secondary sources. sources. There are two major opposing theories on the origin of human beings. These are There are two major opposing theories on the origin of human beings. These are the creationist and the evolutionist theories. the creationist and the evolutionist theories. One of the basic distinguishing features of the human species is the ability to One of the basic distinguishing features of the human species is the ability to make tools. The earliest tools were made of stone. Before the technology of de- make tools. The earliest tools were made of stone. Before the technology of vices, human beings got their food by hunting wild animals and gathering wild devices, human beings got their food by hunting wild animals and gathering fruits. wild fruits. Human beings pass through several stages of development. These stages in- Human clude thebeings time when passtools through were several made of stages of development. stone. The Thesedivided Stone Age is further stages include into threetheperiods. time whenThesetools werePaleolithic are the made of Age,stone.the The Stone Age Mesolithic Ageis and further the divided Neolithicinto Age.three periods. These are the Paleolithic Age, the Mesolithic Age and the Neolithic Age. 19 History Grade 9 Student Textbook Unit Review Questionns ❓ Part I: Write true if the statement is correct and write false if the statement is in correct. 1. Prehistory refers to the long period before people invented the system of writing. 2. History is about everything that will happen in the human future. 3. Primary sources include original materials like manuscripts and artefacts. 4. Oral traditions are historical sources transmitted by written materials. 5. The scientific theory of human evolution argues that human being created by God. Part II: Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives. 1. The invention of_____________ is considered to be the period when human prehistory ends. A. Stone tools B. Art of writing C. Bronze wheels D. Iron Plough 2. During which period did human beings domesticate plants and animals? A. Mesolithic stone age B. Middle stone age C. Neolithic stone age D. Palaeolithic stone age 3. In human evolution, which species appeared first? A. Homo sapiens B. Homo erectus C. Homo habilis D. Modern human 4. All of the following included under Primary sources of artefacts, except A. chronicles B. inscriptions C. utensils D. ruins of buildings 5. Which one is not a characteristic of modern human beings? A. bi-pedal B. large brain C. large jaws D. use language 20 | Unit 1 The Discipline of History and Human Evolution 6. Which one of the following is a specific feature of state? A. Population B. Government C. Definite territory D. All of the above Part III: Give brief answers to the following. 1. Write the main objectives of studying history. 2. Explain the place of Africa and Ethiopia in human evolution shortly. 3. Discuss the major theories of the origin of the state. Part IV: Further Activities 1. Skim the unit and list the main key terms and concepts you have learnt. Write your answers in your exercise book. 2. Explain the difference between facts and opinions. Give examples. 21 2 History Grade 9 Student Textbook Unit 2 ANCIENT WORLD CIVILIZATIONS UP TO C. 500AD Unit Introduction This unit focuses on some of the In the last lesson, you will Unit most important civilisations of the learn about the civilisations ancient world that developed in of Greece and Rome and their Africa, Asia, America and Europe. achievements. The students will also It consists of three lessons. In learn about the rise and spread of lesson one, you will study two Christianity. Major points old civilisations of Africa, Egypt and arguments are illus- and Nubia and their economic, trated with examples and social and political features and images to facilitate your learning enduring achievements. In and make it attractive to you. The lesson two, you will examine the unit closes with a summary of the civilisation of Mesopotamia, India main points of each lesson, followed and China in Asia. In lesson three, by review questions that enable you will examine the civilisation of you to measure your achievements Inca, Maya and Aztecs in America. of the objectives of the unit. Unit learning outcomes At the end of this unit, learners will be able to: explain the major ancient world civilisation with their major achievements. compare and contrast the ancient civilisation of Africa with the ancient world civilisation of Asia. discuss how the ideas of civilisations were disseminated all over the world. examine how ancient civilisations shaped the life of humankind. write about the rise and spread of Christianity into different parts of the world. 22 | 🔑 Unit 2 Ancient World Civilizations up to c. 500AD Key Terms Pyramid Confucianism Cuneiform Democracy Buddhism Republic Monotheism 2.1 Ancient Civilisations of Africa Lesson learning outcomes At the end of this lesson, learners will be able to: outline the major achievements of ancient African civilisation. analyse major achievements of ancient African civilisations. evaluate the impact of the ancient African civilisations on modern society. appreciate the ways in which ancient African civilisations shaped the life of mankind. appreciate the importance of the ancient African civilisations to modern society, as this will develop the learner’s spirit of working hard. Brainstorming What do you know about ancient African civilisation? 2.1.1 Ancient Egypt The civilisation of Ancient Egypt began at about 3000BC. It flourished in the Nile Valley. According to tradition, Upper and Lower Egypt were unified by Menes around 3200BC. Agriculture was the basis of the Egyptian economy. The silt from the Nile replenished the fertility of the soil and allowed the production of large amounts of crops. The Egyptian peasantry produced wheat and barley. Livestock also formed an integral part of the economy. Trade was another important economic activity in the empire. The Egyptian empire was a large state ruled by an absolute king called a pharaoh. The king ruled Egypt through officials named Viziers. The Viziers acted as mayors, tax collectors and judges. The pharaohs were regarded as kings and gods. He was believed to be an incarnated god and would indeed be a god after death, watching over Egypt’s welfare. The Egyptians were polytheists. They worshipped many gods. Ancient Egyptians believe in life after death. The process of preserving the body is called mummification. Mummification later developed into skilled art. As a result, ancient Egyptians also advanced in medicine. 23 History Grade 9 Student Textbook Egyptian society was structured hierarchically. Figure 2.1 Ancient Egyptian Social Hierarchy Peasants undertook irrigational activities. They also constructed palaces, massive temples and tombs for the Pharaohs. These tombs are known as pyramids. Ancient Egyptians developed the art of writing known as hieroglyphics around 3000BC. It was a combination of pictograms, ideograms, phonograms and determinatives. Next, Egyptians introduced papyrus which was a paper-like substance. Map 2.1 Map of ancient Egypt, showing the major cities and archaeological sites, (source: worldhistory.org) 24 | Unit 2 Ancient World Civilizations up to c. 500AD  1. In groups, discuss the contribution of the ancient Egyptian civilisation 2.1.2 Nubia Kush was a kingdom along the Nile River in what is now northeastern Sudan. It existed as early as 2000 BC and lasted until about 350AD. Agriculture was an important basis for social differentiation and stratification. The Nubians cultivated cereals, vegetables and dates fruit. In addition, pastoralism formed another important base of the subsistence economy. Finally, trade was another important source of wealth and power for Nubian states. At different times, Egypt conquered and ruled lower Nubia. Absolute kings and queens ruled the Nubian states. Nubian kings and queens were considered like the Egyptian pharaohs as divine rulers. Nubia was also known for its metal technology. Meroe was an important center of metal products such as gold, copper, silver, and iron. This indicates that Meroe had a flourishing iron industry. The Kushites conquered Egypt about the eighth century BC. Then, at about 350AD, the Aksumite king, Ezana, invaded and destroyed Meroe.  1. Sketch a map of Africa and locate major centers of ancient Egyptian and Nubian civilization. 2. Describe the impacts of the ancient African civilisations on modern society. 2.2 Civilisations in Asia Lesson learning outcomes At the end of this lesson, learners will be able to: outline the major achievements of ancient Asian civilisation. analyse major achievements of ancient Asian civilisations. evaluate the impact of the ancient Asian civilisations on modern society. appreciate how ancient Asian civilisations shaped the life of mankind. 25 History Grade 9 Student Textbook appreciate the importance of the ancient Asian civilisations to modern society, as this will develop the learner’s spirit of working hard. Brainstorming What do you know about ancient Asia civilisation? 2.2.1 Mesopotamia Mesopotamia included the area now eastern Syria, Southern Turkey and Most Parts of Iraq. The earliest of the great river valley civilisations was the civilisation of Sumerian found between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. The Sumerians began to build the first cities in the world. Sumerians used mud bricks dried in the sun in their buildings. Large temples of this kind were called Ziggurats (stepped towers). Figure 2.2 The Ziggurat of Ur, (source: ResearchGate.net) The soil of southern Mesopotamia was very fertile, and with flood control and irrigation, large crops were possible. The Sumerian kings had divine authority. A king ruled as representative of his city’s major god. The Sumerians were Polytheists. The plough and the potter wheel first appeared in Mesopotamia. The Sumerians may have been the first to use bronze. The Sumerians developed a writing system around 3200 BC. Their writing system was known as cuneiform. Cuneiform was not an alphabet system. Instead, it was a highly complex system of ideographs. They also developed mathematics, astronomy, medicine and metal works. 2.1.1 Persia Persia was a land that included parts of the area now called Iran and Afghanistan. The Persians called the region the “Land of Aryans”, from which the name Iran is coined. The 26 | Unit 2 Ancient World Civilizations up to c. 500AD Persians called their language Aryan. They established a dynasty known as the Persian Empire, the largest empire in the ancient world. The first Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great around 550BC, became one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Europe’s Balkan Peninsula in the West to India’s Indus Valley in the East. It also included parts of North Africa. They made an important contribution to government, law and religion. They built many new roads and developed the world’s first postal service. Their religion was known as Zoroastrianism, founded by a prophet called Zoroaster.  1. In small groups, discuss the contribution of the ancient Mesopotamian civilisation. 2.2.2 India The first Indian Civilisation began in the Indus Valley in Pakistan and Western India at about 2500BC and reached its apex at about 1500BC. The people had their counting, measuring, weighing, and writing systems. They dug ditches and canals around the cities to irrigate their farms. The people traded with one another and also with other civilisations like Mesopotamia. The Indus artisans used copper and bronze to make tools, mirrors, pots, and pans and crafted gold ornaments. The ancient Indian society was hierarchically divided into different sociasocia according to their work and birth; it goes back some 3,000 years. Figure 2.3 Social hierarchy of ancient India 27 History Grade 9 Student Textbook Hindu religion was developed from the beliefs of the early Indo-Aryans. Buddhism emerged from Hinduism as a reform movement. It spread outside of India to South East Asia, China and Japan. 2.2.3 China The civilisation of ancient China first developed in the Yellow River Region of Northern China in the third millennia BC. Chinesee civilisation expanded over time to present-day China's central and southern parts. Ancient Chinesee civilisation reached its height about 3000 BC. in the Valley of Hwang Ho. The first dynasty in China was called the Shang dynasty (c. 1700-1122BC). Its achievements included the creation of bronze vessels, war chariots, and a writing system. At about 1122BC., the Chon dynasty overthrew the Shang dynasty and established its own rule over China until 256BC. As a result, Chinesee literary classics developed, and Chinesee philosophy emerged. Confucius (551-479BC) was the most influential and respected philosopher in Chinesee history, and his teaching was Confucianism. Confucianism teaches the impor- tance of a well-ordered society in which parents rule their children; men lead women and the educated judge ordinary people. The ancient Chinesee constructed the Great Wall of China to keep out invaders from central Asia. It extends about 7,400 Kilometers across southern China. Figure 2.4 The Great Wall of China, (source: arrajol.com) 28 | Unit 2 Ancient World Civilizations up to c. 500AD The Chinese developed their system of writing called logographic, which meant the use of pictorial symbols to represent words of the Chinesee language.  1. Explore the internet or other available sources that relate to Asian civilizations. Then, write a short report about their contributions to human society. 2. Why did the Chinese construct the Great Wall? Is there a tradition of constructing walls among your society? Discuss in a group. 2.3 Ancient Civilisation of Latin America Lesson learning outcomes At the end of this lesson, learners will be able to: outline the major achievements of Latin American civilisations. analyse major achievements of Latin American civilisations. evaluate the impact of the Latin American civilisations on modern society. appreciate how Latin American civilisations shaped the life of mankind. appreciate the importance of the Latin American civilisations to contemporary society. 2.3.1 Maya Brainstorming What do you know about ancient Maya civilisation? The Maya were Native American people who developed a magnificent civilisation in the western hemisphere before the coming of the Europeans. This civilisation was at its peak from about 250-900AD. The Maya produced remarkable architecture, painting, pottery, and sculpture. They made outstanding achievements in astronomy mathematics and developed an accurate yearly calendar. They developed an advanced form of writing. The Maya worshipped many gods and goddesses. The Maya built tall pyramids of limestone with small temples on top. The Spanish had captured the southern part of the area in the 16th Century. Spanish domination of the entire 29 History Grade 9 Student Textbook Maya region was completed in the late 17th Century. 2.3.2 Inca The Inca were a South American native people. They ruled one of the largest and richest empires in the Americas. The Inca Empire began to expand at about 1438. It included present-day Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina. Its capital was Cusco, in southern Peru. The Inca were skilled in engineering and crafts. For example, they built a network of roads. Inca craftworkers made fine artefacts from gold, silver and other materials. The Inca also wove fine cotton and woollen cloth. Spanish forces conquered the Inca Empire after 1532. 2.3.3 Aztecs The Aztecs were another Native American people who ruled a powerful empire in Mexico during the 15th and 16th centuries. The center of the Aztec civilisation was the valley of Mexico. The Aztecs empire included many cities and towns. The largest city was the capital Tenochtitlan, which stood on the site of present-day Mexico -City. Agriculture formed the basis of the Aztec economy. The Aztecs worshipped hundreds of gods and goddesses. They used a form of writing called pictographic writing. Unfortunately, their empire was destroyed by the Spaniards in 1521.  1. What are the major achievements of ancient American civilisations? 2. What arts did the Aztecs practice? 3. When did the Spanish destroy Mayan culture? 2.4 Civilisations in Europe Lesson learning outcomes At the end of this lesson, learners will be able to: outline the major achievements of ancient European civilisation. analyse major achievements of European civilisations. evaluate the impact of the ancient European civilisations on modern society. appreciate how ancient European civilisations shaped the life of humankind. 30 | Unit 2 Ancient World Civilizations up to c. 500AD Brainstorming What comes to your mind when you hear or read the word Greek? 2.4.1 Ancient Greek Civilisation Ancient Greece, which emerged about 2500 years ago, was the birthplace of western civilisation. Greeks' culture developed chiefly in small city-states called Polis. A city-state consists of a city or town and the surrounding villages and farmland. The best-known city-states were Athens and Sparta. The city-states never became united into a nation. However, they all had a common language, religion and culture. The Greeks called themselves Hellens and their land Hellas. Greek cultural achievements were outstanding in the classical period and were the ancient legacy to Europe and the world. Some of the accomplishments were: Architecture. The temple of Athena in Athens (the Parthenon) is the finest example. Literature and Drama. The Greeks invented drama (theatre). Sculptures. The Greeks made statues of gods and heroes in marble and bronze. History writing. The two great Greek historians were Herodotus and Thucydides. Herodotus wrote about countries and civilisations outside Greece but is also our best source for the Persian Wars. Thucydides wrote a good account of the Peloponnesian War, without bias though he was Athenian. Medicine. Hippocrates began the tradition of modern medicine in Europe. He identified symptoms, classified diseases and suggested sensible remedies (for example, fresh air and a good diet). “Democracy”, “Psychology”, “Olympic”, and “Marathon” all have Greek origin. Philosophy. The two greatest philosophers of ancient Greece, who taught in Athens, were Plato and later Aristotle. The modern philosopher Bertrand Russell stated, “Plato and Aristotle were the most influential of all philosophers, ancient, medieval or modern.” 31 History Grade 9 Student Textbook  1. Explain how the ancient Greece civilisations shaped the life of man kind. 2. Write the Greek city state that has the most historic contribution to the present world. List down the contributions. 2.4.2 Ancient Roman Civilisation Brainstorming What have you learned about ancient Rome in your lower grades? The Roman civilisation was started in present-day Italy around 753BC on the hills above the River Tiber. Ancient Rome had a significant influence on the development of western civilisation. Roman law had become the foundation for the legal systems of most countries in Western Europe and Latin America. Roman roads, bridges, and aqueducts served as a model for engineering. Ancient Romans built public baths and amphitheatres (outdoor arenas). The most famous theatre in the city of Rome was the Coliseum. Figure 2.5 The Coliseum (oval Amphitheatre in the center of the city of Rome), (source: Euro-royal.com) 32 | Unit 2 Ancient World Civilizations up to c. 500AD A series of kings ruled ancient Rome at the beginning. The Roman Republic was established in 509BC after the Roman nobles overthrew the king. Two elected officials called Consuls headed the government of the republic. A Consul served for only a year. The Senate was the most powerful government body of the Roman Republic, and senators served for life. The Roman Republic lasted nearly 500 years, until 27BC. The Roman Empire was established after the republic was destroyed by the twenty years of civil war. The empire lasted until Rome fell in 476AD.  1. How did the Romans law ensure that leaders would not place themselves above the law? Read secondary sources and write a half page report. Rome expanded beyond Italy in aggressive wars. The bloodiest wars of Rome were the repetitive Punic wars (264-146) fought against Carthage. Rome then extended its empire, step by step, all around the Mediterranean Sea and beyond (Gaul, which is modern France, Britain, Belgium and the Netherlands). The main difference between the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire was that the former was a democratic society, and the latter was run only by one man. Also, the Roman Republic was in an almost constant state of war, whereas the Roman Empire's first 200 years were relatively peaceful. Rome left behind an important legacy, which it passed on to the world in its culture and institutions. Some of the most important ones include the following: The Latin Language. Latin developed into the “Latin languages” of Europe and Latin America. Latin literature, authors like Cicero, Caesar (he wrote the history of his wars) and the poets Vergil, Horace and others. Roman law was revived in the European Middle Ages. The Julian calendar, introduced by Julius Caesar is the base for the current Gregorian calendar. 33 History Grade 9 Student Textbook  1. Identify the difference between the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. 2. Explain the contributions of ancient Roman civilisation. 2.5 The Rise and Spread of Christianity Lesson learning outcomes At the end of this lesson, learners will be able to: describe the origin of Christianity. explain spread of Christianity into different parts of the world. Brainstorming What do you know about the origin of Christianity? Christianity began in Palestine in the first century AD. It was a religion based on the teaching of Jesus Christ. Jesus was born in Bethlehem, in the Judea part of Palestine, under the Roman Empire. The Roman governments considered the Christians as a threat against the unity of the Empire and persecuted them. The Roman government began persecuting Christians during the reign of Nero (AD 54–68). 34 | Unit 2 Ancient World Civilizations up to c. 500AD In 312, Emperor Constantine became a Christian and made Christianity the favoured religion of the Roman Empire. So naturally, this made Christianity spread even faster. In the fourth century AD, Emperor Constantine ordered religious toleration in the Edict of Milan in 313AD. Thus, Christians gained freedom from persecution. Then, under Theodosius the Great, who ruled from 378 to 395, the Romans adopted Christianity as their official religion in 392AD. Map 2.2 Spread of Chirstianity, (source: Glencoe World-History) Christianity replaced the Roman Empire as a unifying force in Western Europe during the Middle Ages. During the early Christian era, Rome and Constantinople competed for religious power. The Pope or Bishop of Constantinople asserted authority over Church affairs in the East. They also had conflicting views on Church language and rituals. These disagreements finally created a split in the Christian Church. In 1054 the Church split into two distinct parts the Roman Catholic Church at Rome and Greek Orthodox Church at Constantinople. The Greek Orthodox Church was later divided into several Eastern Orthodox churches. The Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Churches retained separate identities today. In 1517, a Reformation movement began, and Western Christianity was divided into the Roman Catholic Church and Protestantism. 35 History Grade 9 Student Textbook  1. Explain the term monotheism. 2. Discuss the major reasons for the spread of Christianity. 36 | Unit 2 Ancient World Civilizations up to c. 500AD Unit Summary  This unit showed that Egypt had a long civilisation dating from the early 4th millennium BC. The civilisation was divided into Pre-dynastic and Old, Middle and New Kingdoms, during which successive Egyptian pharaohs supported by civilian officials ruled the kingdom. The Egyptians were polytheists; the pharaohs were themselves considered gods. The Egyptians made important contributions in the areas of building technology and writing. Nubia was also a vital kingdom ruled by powerful kings and queens. Like Egypt, its economy was dependent on agriculture, pastoralism and trade. In addition, Egypt and Nubia had influenced each other politically and culturally. Besides its building technology, Nubia was famous for its iron industry. Like Egypt, Sumerian civilisation developed in the fertile regions between the Euphrates and Tigris. Unlike Egypt, however, Sumerian civilisation was a civilisation of warring city-states rather than one unified kingdom. The Sumerians invented the plough, a writing system and the wheel. They were also skilled builders of temples using mud bricks. The unit also added to your knowledge of ancient Greece by learning about the wars of Greece against Persia, the Peloponnesian War and Greek culture in the classical and the Hellenistic Age. Many provincials, but not the Jews of Palestine, felt loyalty to Rome, and later, all free males became Roman citizens. Finally, the unit explained how Christianity rose, and its spread, especially after Constantine made it the Roman Empire's official religion. 37 History Grade 9 Student Textbook Unit Review Questionns ❓ Part I: Write true if the statement is correct and write false if the statement is in correct. 1. Ancient Egypt believed in life after death. 2. Hindu religion was developed from the beliefs of the early Chinese. 3. The Chinese constructed the Great Wall of China during the Shang dynasty. 4. The Roman Republic was established in 509BC after the king overthrew nobles. 5. Christianity began in Palestine in the first century AD. Part II: Match major achievements of world civilisation under column "A" with peoples or areas under column "B" A B 1. Made advanced iron tools and weapons A. Phoenicians of bronze B. China 2. Invented the system of writing called C. Greece cuneiform D. Egyptians 3. They developed an efficient system of E. Nubia postal service F. Romans 4. Their government declared Christianity G. Persians as a state religion H. Sumerians 5. Birthplace of Western Civilisation Part III: Choose the Correct Answer from the given Alternatives for the Questions 1. Mesopotamia used sun baked clay to write whereas Egyptians used A. Paper B. Papyrus C. Wall of caves D. Stone 2. The Roman Emperor who ordered religious toleration to stop the Christians’ persecution was: A. Theodosius B. Herodotus C. Nero D. Constantine 38 | Unit 2 Ancient World Civilizations up to c. 500AD 3. Which one of the following is not correct about ancient civilisation of the world? A. It began over the world at different time. B. Most of the ancient civilisations were found in southern hemisphere. C. Most of them were confined near and around river valleys. D. They had significant effect on current development. 4. Identify the wrong statement about the year 1054AD. It was: A.When the church split into two B. found in the 10th century C. found in the opening of second millennium D. found in the 11th century 5. Which one is a politico-religious creation of the ancient Egyptian civilisation? A.Hieroglyphics B. Papyrus C. Pharaohs D. Pyramids 6. The body of government that headed the Roman Republic for one year was: A. Senators B. Consuls C. Senate D. Noble Part IV: Further Activities 1. In group, list the important historical events that occurred during the ancient civlizations on historical timeline. (Hint: use 1000 years intervals to draw a timeline). 2. Draw a map of the world and mark the events you listed above. 3. Research several events on the historical timeline events from different regions and write a short description of each event and present it to the class. 39 3 History Grade 9 Student Textbook Unit PEOPLES AND STATES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF 13TH C. Unit Introduction The Region Ethiopia and the Horn ments. It also deals with the are referred to as the cradle of history of states that emerged in the humankind and a place where region up to the 13th century. This prerequisites for early civilisations period saw the emergence and took place. These developments fall of successive dynasties in contributed to the evolution of different parts of the region. socio-cultural, economic, and For instance, the Zagwe dynasty political settings. This unit briefly replaced the Aksumite dynasty in describes languages and peoples’ northern Ethiopia in 1270AD; in settlements and religious the mean time, in 1285AD, in backgrounds in Ethiopia. The the southern half of Ethiopia, the purpose is to show that Makhzumite dynasty of the Sultan- Ethiopia is home to diverse ate of Shewa was succeeded by the peoples and multicultural ele- Walsama dynasty of Ifat sultanate. Unit learning outcomes At the end of this unit, learners will be able to: differentiate the main language supper families of Ethiopia. list the major religions of Ethiopia. examine the nature of interaction among different peoples of Ethiopia to the end of the thirteenth century. analyse the major achievements of the Pre Aksumite and Aksumite kingdom. evaluate the main political-economic, social and cultural features of peoples and states of Ethiopia to the end of the thirteenth century. evaluate the success and failure of the Zaguwe Dynasty. 40 | 🔑 Unit 3 Peoples and States in Ethiopia and the Horn to the end of 13th C. Key Terms Dynasty Language Kingdom Religion 3.1 Languages, Religions and Peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn 3.1.1 Languages families Ethiopia and the Horn region is marked by ethnic and linguistic diversity. The Horn of Africa is inhabited by people who speak various languages and follow different religions. In addition, there are over 80 languages with many dialects. Yet, there is a strong unity beneath this cultural and linguistic diversity. Lesson learning outcomes At the end of this lesson, learners will be able to: analyse how language influenced Ethiopia’s relationship with neighbouring countries. draw a map showing the distribution pattern of the various languages of Ethiopia. show respect and tolerance to the different languages of Ethiopia. Brainstorming What do you know about the major language families of Ethiopia from your lower grade? 41 History Grade 9 Student Textbook Linguists classify the languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into two major superfamilies. These are Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan. Speakers of the Afro-Asiatic super-family are further divided into Cushitic, Omotic and Semitic language families. The speakers of the Nilo-Saharan super-family are also divided into Chari – Nile and Koman speaking families. Map 3.1 The distribution of language families in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa, (source: Encyclopaedia Britannica) I. Afro-Asiatic Super - Family This super-family covers the largest sector of Ethiopia’s population. It can be further divided into three linguistic families. These are Cushitic, Semitic and Omotic. A. Cushitic: – The vast majority speaks Cushitic language family in terms of both areal coverage and size of speakers. There is spillover into neighbouring countries. The Cushitic languages have sub-divisions: North Cushitic, Central Cushitic and Eastern Cushitic. Chart 3.1 Afro-Asiatic Language families spoken in Ethiopia and the Horn 42 | Unit 3 Peoples and States in Ethiopia and the Horn to the end of 13th C. In ancient times, Northern Cushitic was widely spread between the Red Sea and the Nile Valley. North Cushitic is represented only by the Beja people's language, spoken in what is today Northwestern Eritrea. Central Cushitic spread during ancient times and is represented by the Bilen in Eritrea and the Agaw languages, including Bilen, Agaw, Qimant, Himitagna and Awign in Ethiopia. Eastern Cushitic is both the largest and the most diverse branch of the Cushitic family languages in Ethiopia. For this reason, it has been subdivided into Highland and Lowland East Cushitic. People under Lowland Cushitic, for instance include: Oromo, Afar, Somali, Konso, Gidole, Erbore, Dassenech and Saho. They are called so because most of the speakers originally lived in the eastern lowlands of Ethiopia and the Horn. This language family has become one of the largest in the region following population movements in the 16th century. The speakers of Eastern Highland Cushitic people are: Hadiya, Kambata, Tambaro, Halaba, Sidama, Gedeo, and Burji live in the highlands of central Ethiopia. Thus, they have the collective name “Eastern Highland Cushitic”. B. Semitic: It is divided into Northern Semitic and Southern Semitic. Northern Semitic – Ge'ez is an ancient language of northern Ethiopia. Ge'ez is now confined to use in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Others are Tegra, found in the Eritrean lowlands and Tigrigna spoken in southern Eritrea and Tigray. Southern Semitic consists of Amharic, Argobba, Gafat (now extinct), Guraghigna, Silte, Harari and Zay languages. C. Omotic: Most of the Omotic speakers live in and around the Omo River basin. In earlier times, it had extended much further to the north. The Shinasha in the Benishangul-Gumuz region and Anfillo in Wallaga are good examples of this movement. There are as many as different Omotic languages spoken in Ethiopia today. Some examples of the Omotic language-speaking peoples are Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Dorze, Gamo, Ganza, Gayil, Gofa, Hamer, Hozo, Kachama Ganjule, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Nayi, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolaita, Yem, Zayse etc. Ometo includes Wolaita and Gamo among its groups, while the main Gonga is Keficho. Nilo - Saharan Super – Family: In Ethiopia, the Nilo-Saharan superfamily speakers mainly live on the Ethio-Sudanese border. But some of these peoples are living in the 43 History Grade 9 Student Textbook Abay gorge and along the banks of the tributaries of Abay in Wallaga. This superfamily has two families: A. Chari-Nile: this family includes the languages of the people of Anuak Nuer, Mi'en, Majang, Benishangul, Kunama, Mursi, Surma and Tirma. B. Koman: includes the peoples of Gumuz, Koma, Sese, Ma'o, and Komo. Chart 3.2 Nilo-Saharan Language families spoken in Ethiopia and the Horn Out of the significant number of the languages of Ethiopia, few have already disappeared, and some are close to death. This is because of the decreasing number of their speakers. Gafat is an example of a language that has disappeared.  1. Human race originated from the same species. Debate how language and cultural diversity of people came into existence. 2. List as many languages as possible that are spoken in your locality and draw a chart indicating the language families and super-families they belong to. 3. List some languages in danger of extinction in Ethiopia. Why do languages die out, and some are in danger of extinction? 3.1.2 Major Religions of Ethiopia Brainstorming What are the major religions of Ethiopia? 44 | Unit 3 Peoples and States in Ethiopia and the Horn to the end of 13th C. Ethiopia also has religious complexity, forming a competing platform for religious beliefs and practices. The major religions practised by diverse people of Ethiopia are indigenous religions, Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Lesson learning outcomes At the end of this lesson, learners will be able to: point out factors for the introduction and expansion of Christianity and Islam in Ethiopia. show respect and tolerance to the various religions in Ethiopia. 1. Indigenous Religion Indigenous religions are beliefs that are practiced only within a given culture. Since ancient times, they have been native to the region and followed by the local people. Sedentary settlement and agricultural development saw the emergence of priests who conduct praying for rainfall, thanksgiving and safety from natural hazards. Farmers paid tributes for the services of priests. They laid the foundation for indigenous religions. They either worship or provide sacrifices to them. People of Indigenous Religion also owe special reverence to their ancestors. Followers of traditional religions believe that their supreme deity is the creator. A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is belief in one Supreme Being, but special powers are attributed to natural phenomena considered sacred. Spiritual functionaries officiate over rituals, propitiate divinities, and are held in a lot of respect as intermediaries between society and spirits. For example, the Waqeffanna of the Oromo is based on the existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa. Waqa's power is manifested through the spirits called Ayyana. Revered experts, Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female), have maintained a link between the Ayyana and the believers. An exciting feature of indigenous religion is its practices and beliefs are fused with Christianity and Islam. This phenomenon of mixing of religions is known as syncretism.  1. Name the major Indigenous religions in your locality and tell your classmates how they are practiced. 45 History Grade 9 Student Textbook A. Judaism Sources indicate that Judaism has been followed in Ethiopia since early times. Today it is practiced by a community of people known as Bete-Israel (literally, house of Israel). Until their mass exodus to Israel in the 1980s and 1990s, they used to live in northwestern Ethiopia, to the north of Lake Tana in the provinces of Dembiya, Semen, and Wegera. The Bete-Israel accounts of origin assert that they stem from the tribes of Israel who arrived in Ethiopia during the Exodus in Israel. The Jews appear to have been isolated from mainstream Jewish for at least a millennium. Despite relentless pressure from their Christian neighbours, the Bete-Israel preserved their Judaic heritage for many centuries. Judaism is established in the teachings of the Old Testament part of the Bible and share common practices with the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Both follow the Old Testament practices and use Geez for liturgy. Their priests were likewise identical in dressing, symbolism, behaviour and hierarchy. Thus, they had a greater affinity. Nevertheless, the Bete Israel held on firmly to Judaic teachings and ceremonies. The religion was mainly confined to northern Ethiopia. Currently, a few Judaism practitioners remain in Ethiopia. B. Christianity Christianity was introduced to Ethiopia around 330AD by Frumentius (also known as Freminatos), who converted king Ezana (r.320 - 350AD) and his close associates. Consequently, Christianity secured royal support and became the state religion that later helped its expansion. With the coming of monks called the ‘Nine Saints’ towards the end of the fifth century, Christianity spread more among the broad masses. Churches were built, and monasteries were established, of which the first being the monastery of Debre-Damo. The Bible was translated into Ge’ez, and since then, Ge’ez began to serve as the language of the Church in Ethiopia.Ethiopia. Figure 3.1 Aksum Tsion Mariam, (source: UNESCO site) 46 | Unit 3 Peoples and States in Ethiopia and the Horn to the end of 13th C. The introduction of Christianity further reinforced the exposure of Aksum to the outside world. One significant development was the long-lasting relationship between Ethiopia and Egypt. Patriarch Atnatewos of Alexandria consecrated Freminatos as Abuna Salam, the first bishop of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. This tradition of consecrating and sending a bishop to Ethiopia continued until 1959 when Abune Baselios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch. Until that year, the head of the Church was always from Egyptian. The expansion of Christianity continued during the Zagwe period (1150-1270) and chiefly gained fresh momentum during the Early Medieval Period (1270-1527) when many churches and monasteries were constructed across the territories that were newly incorporated into the Christian highland kingdom. Some churches and monasteries played an essential role as centers of learning and launching pads for the expansion of the Church. One was the Monasteries of Debre Bizen in Eritrea, Debre Hayq in Amhara, and Debre Libanos in Shawa. Among the most prominent religious figures that played an outstanding role in expanding Christianity in the Ethiopian areas outside of the traditionally Christian regions of early medieval Ethiopia include Abba Iyesus Moa, Abba Giyorgis Zegasicha, and Abune Tekle-Haymanot. 47 History Grade 9 Student Textbook Because of the works of these and other religious leaders and their disciples, Christianity was able to spread into regions as far as Ennarya in southern Ethiopia. The expansion of Christianity was accompanied by the development of art, literature, architecture, and music in the country. Map 3.2 The Expansion of Orthodox Church (13th - 16th C), (adopted from Church and State, 1972) 48 | Unit 3 Peoples and States in Ethiopia and the Horn to the end of 13th C. At the end of the fifteenth century, Portuguese voyages of discovery opened the way for contacts between Catholicism and Ethiopia. From the mid-sixteenth to the early seventeenth centuries, the Catholics, namely the Jesuits, unsuccessfully tried to convert Ethiopian Orthodox Christians to Catholicism. In the mid-16th century, Ethiopian rulers allowed Jesuits to preach in the country. In 1622, Susneyos publicly announced his adherence to Catholicism, a strategy to reinforce his political power. The Portuguese Jesuit Afonso Mendes was appointed Patriarch of Ethiopia in 1622 by Pope Urban VII and imposed changes against the former Orthodox religious practices. These actions led to uprisings, social unrest and civil war in Gondar. It was concluded with the expulsion of the Jesuits from the country. As a result, Susneyos was forced to resign. His son, Emperor Fasilidas, expelled the Patriarch and the European missionaries in 1636. This action led to the complete closure of Ethiopia to further contact with Europeans until the early 19th century. At the opening of the 19th century, Catholic and Protestant missionaries started evangelisation activities in Ethiopia. The Catholic missionaries led by Giuseppe Sapeto, Giustino De Jacobis, and Cardinal Massaja, were active. Systematic approach by trained Protestants enabled them to win the confidence of local people. Protestant missions included the An

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