History 6 PDF

CHAPTER 1 WHAT, WHERE, HO WHAT W AND WHEN? HOW Rasheeda’s question Rasheeda sat reading the newspaper. Suddenly, her eyes fell on a small headline: “One Hundred Years Ago.” How, she wondered, could anyone know what had happened so many years ago? Finding out what hap...

CHAPTER 1 WHAT, WHERE, HO WHAT W AND WHEN? HOW Rasheeda’s question Rasheeda sat reading the newspaper. Suddenly, her eyes fell on a small headline: “One Hundred Years Ago.” How, she wondered, could anyone know what had happened so many years ago? Finding out what happened Yesterday: you could listen to the radio, watch television, read a newspaper. d he Last year: ask somebody who remembers. pu T But what about long, long ago? Let us see how it is re ER can be done. bl be NC What can w wee know about the past? know There are several things we can find out — what people ate, the kinds of clothes they wore, the © houses in which they lived. We can find out about the lives of hunters, herders, farmers, rulers, merchants, priests, crafts persons, artists, o tt musicians, and scientists. We can also find out about the games children played, the stories they no heard, the plays they saw, the songs they sang. Where did people live? Find the river Narmada on Map 1 (page 2). People have lived along the banks of this river for several hundred thousand years. Some of the earliest people who lived here were skilled gatherers, — that is, people who gathered their food. They knew about the vast wealth of plants in the surrounding forests, and collected roots, fruits and other forest 1n produce for their food. They also hunted animals. WHAT, WHERE, HOW AND WHEN? 2020-21  Now find the Sulaiman and Kirthar hills to the northwest. Some of the areas where women and men first began to grow crops such as wheat and barley about 8000 years ago are located here. People also began rearing animals like sheep, goat, and cattle, and lived in villages. Locate the Garo hills to the north-east and the Vindhyas in central India. These were some of the other areas where MAP : 1 Physical Map of the Subcontinent d he pu T is re ER bl be NC © o tt no n2 OUR PASTS–I 2020-21 agriculture developed. The places where rice was Facing Page: This is a first grown are to the north of the Vindhyas. map of South Asia (including the present Trace the river Indus and its tributaries countries of India, (tributaries are smaller rivers that flow into a Pakistan, Bangladesh, larger river). About 4700 years ago, some of the Nepal, Bhutan and Sri earliest cities flourished on the banks of these Lanka) and the rivers. Later, about 2500 years ago, cities neighbouring countries of Afghanistan, Iran, developed on the banks of the Ganga and its China and Myanmar. tributaries, and along the sea coasts. South Asia is often Locate the Ganga and its tributary called the called a subcontinent Son. In ancient times the area along these rivers because although it is to the south of the Ganga was known as Magadha smaller than a continent, it is very large, and is now lying in the state of Bihar. Its rulers were very separated from the rest powerful, and set up a large kingdom. Kingdoms of Asia by seas, hills and d were set up in other parts of the country as well. mountains. he Throughout, people travelled from one part of pu T the subcontinent to another. The hills and high is re ER mountains including the Himalayas, deserts, rivers bl and seas made journeys dangerous at times, but be NC never impossible. So, men and women moved in search of livelihood, as also to escape from natural disasters like floods or droughts. Sometimes men © marched in armies, conquering others’ lands. Besides, merchants travelled with caravans or o ships, carrying valuable goods from place to place. tt And religious teachers walked from village to no village, town to town, stopping to offer instruction and advice on the way. Finally, some people perhaps travelled driven by a spirit of adventure, wanting to discover new and exciting places. All these led to the sharing of ideas between people. Why do people travel nowadays? Look at Map 1 once more. Hills, mountains and seas form the natural frontiers of the subcontinent. While it was difficult to cross these frontiers, those who wanted could and did scale the mountains and cross the seas. People from across the frontiers 3n also came into the subcontinent and settled here. WHAT, WHERE, HOW AND WHEN? 2020-21  These movements of people enriched our cultural traditions. People have shared new ways of carving stone, composing music, and even cooking food over several hundreds of years. Names of the land Two of the words we often use for our country are India and Bharat. The word India comes from the Indus, called Sindhu in Sanskrit. Find Iran and Greece in your atlas. The Iranians and the Greeks who came through the northwest about 2500 years ago and were familiar with the Indus, called it the Hindos or the Indos, and the land to the east of the river was called India. The name Bharata was d used for a group of people who lived in the north- he pu T west, and who are mentioned in the Rigveda, the is re ER earliest composition in Sanskrit (dated to about bl 3500 years ago). Later it was used for the country. be NC Finding out about the past There are several ways of finding out about the © A page from a palm leaf past. One is to search for and read books that manuscript. were written long ago. These are called This manuscript was manuscripts, because they were written by hand o written about a thousand tt (this comes from the Latin word ‘manu’, meaning years ago. The palm hand). These were usually written on palm leaf, no leaves were cut into pages and tied together to or on the specially prepared bark of a tree known make books. To see a as the birch, which grows in the Himalayas. birch bark manuscript, Over the years, many manuscripts were eaten turn to page 37. away by insects, some were destroyed, but many n4 OUR PASTS–I 2020-21 have survived, often preserved in temples and monasteries. These books dealt with all kinds of subjects: religious beliefs and practices, the lives of kings, medicine and science. Besides, there were epics, poems, plays. Many of these were written in Sanskrit, others were in Prakrit (languages used by ordinary people) and Tamil. We can also study inscriptions. These are writings on relatively hard surfaces such as stone or metal. Sometimes, kings got their orders inscribed so that people could see, read and obey them. There are other kinds of inscriptions as well, where men and women (including kings and queens) recorded what they did. For example, An old inscription. d This inscription dates kings often kept records of victories in battle. he to about 2250 years Can you think of pu T ago, and was found in the advantages of is re ER Kandahar, present-day writing on a hard Afghanistan. It was bl surface? And what inscribed on the orders be NC of a ruler named could have been Ashoka. You will read the difficulties? about him in Chapter There were © 8. When we write many other anything, we use a things that were script. Scripts consist o of letters or signs. made and used in tt When we read what is the past. Those written, or speak, we no who study these use a language. This objects are called inscription was archaeologists. inscribed in two different scripts and They study the languages, Greek (top) remains of buildings made of stone and brick, and Aramaic (below), paintings and sculpture. They also explore and which were used in this excavate (dig under the surface of the earth) to area. find tools, weapons, pots, pans, ornaments and coins. Some of these objects may be made of stone, others of bone, baked clay or metal. Objects that are made of hard, imperishable substances usually 5n survive for a long time. WHAT, WHERE, HOW AND WHEN? 2020-21 Left : A pot from an old city. Pots like these were used about 4700 years ago. Right : An old silver coin. Coins such as this one were in use from about 2500 years ago. In what ways is the coin different from the ones we use today? Archaeologists also look for bones — of animals, d birds, and fish — to find out what people ate in the he pu T past. Plant remains survive far more rarely — if is re ER seeds of grain or pieces of wood have been burnt, bl they survive in a charred form. Do you think cloth be NC is found frequently by archaeologists? Historians, that is, scholars who study the past, often use the word source to refer to the information © found from manuscripts, inscriptions and archaeology. Once sources are found, learning about the past becomes an adventure, as we o reconstruct it bit by bit. So historians and tt archaeologists are like detectives, who use all these no sources like clues to find out about our pasts. One past or many? many? Did you notice the title of this book, Our Pasts? We have used the word ‘pasts’ in plural to draw attention to the fact that the past was different for different groups of people. For example, the lives of herders or farmers were different from those of kings and queens, the lives of merchants were different from those of crafts persons, and so on. n6 Also, as is true even today, people followed OUR PASTS–I different practices and customs in different parts 2020-21 of the country. For example, today most people living in the Andaman Islands get their own food by fishing, hunting, and collecting forest produce. By contrast, most people living in cities depend on others for supplies of food. Differences such as these existed in the past as well. Besides, there is another kind of difference. We know a great deal about kings and the battles they fought because they kept records of their victories. Generally, ordinary people such as hunters, fishing folk, gatherers, farmers or herders did not keep records of what they did. While archaeology helps us to find out about their lives, there is much that remains unknown. d he What do dates mean? pu T is re ER If somebody asks you the date, you will probably bl mention the day, month and year, 2000 and be NC something. These years are counted from the date generally assigned to the birth of Jesus Christ, the founder of Christianity. So, 2000 © means 2000 years after the birth of Christ. All dates before the birth of Christ are counted backwards and usually have the letters BC (Before o Christ) added on. In this book, we will refer to tt dates going back from the present, using 2000 as no our starting point. 7n WHAT, WHERE, HOW AND WHEN? 2020-21  Letters with dates BC, we have seen stands for ‘Before Christ.’ You will sometimes find AD before dates. This stands for two Latin words, ‘Anno Domini’, meaning ‘in the year of the Lord’ (i.e. Christ). So 2012 can also be written as AD 2012. Sometimes CE is used instead of AD and BCE instead of BC. The letters CE stand for ‘Common Era’ and BCE for ‘Before Common Era’. We use these terms because the Christian Era is now used in most countries of the world. In India we began using this form of dating from about two hundred years ago. And sometimes, the letters BP meaning ‘Before Present’ are used. d Find two dates mentioned on page 3. Which set he of letters would you use for them? pu T is re ER bl Elsewhere be NC We have seen that inscriptions are inscribed on hard surfaces. Many of these were inscribed several hundreds of years ago. All inscriptions contain © both scripts and languages. Languages which were used, as well as scripts, have changed over time. So how do scholars understand what was inscribed? This can be done through a process known as decipherment. o tt no P T O L M I I S K L I O P A D (T) R A n8 OUR PASTS–I OUR PASTS 2020-21  One of the most famous stories of decipherment comes from Egypt, a country in north Africa where there were kings and queens about 5000 years ago. Rosetta is a town on the north coast of Egypt, and here an inscribed stone was found, which contained inscriptions in three different languages and scripts (Greek, and two forms of Egyptian). Scholars who could read Greek figured out that the names of kings and queens were enclosed in a little frame, called a cartouche. They then placed the Greek and the Egyptian signs side by side, and identified the sounds for which the Egyptian letters stood. As you can see, a lion stood for L, and a bird for A. Once they knew what the letters stood for, they could read other inscriptions as well. Imagine d You have to interview an archaeologist. Prepare a list he of five questions that you would like to ask her/him. pu T is re ER Let’s recall bl be NC 1. Match the following: Narmada Valley The first big kingdom © KEYWORDS Magadha Hunting and gathering travelling Garo hills Cities about 2500 manuscript o years ago tt inscription archaeolog y no Indus and its tributaries Early agriculture historian Ganga Valley The first cities source 2. List one major difference between manuscripts and decipherment inscriptions. Let’s discuss 3. Return to Rasheeda’s question. Can you think of some answers to it? 9n WHAT, WHERE, HOW AND WHEN? 2020-21  SOME IMPORTANT 4. Make a list of all the objects that archaeologists may DATES find. Which of these could be made of stone? u the beginning of 5. Why do you think ordinary men and women did not agriculture (8000 generally keep records of what they did? years ago) u the first cities on the 6. Describe at least two ways in which you think the lives of kings would have been different from those Indus (4700 years of farmers. ago) u cities in the Ganga valley, a big kingdom Let’s do in Magadha (2500 years ago) 7. Find the word crafts persons on page 1. List at least u the present (about five different crafts that you know about today. Are d 2000 AD/CE) the crafts persons — (a) men (b) women (c) both men he and women? pu T is re ER 8. What were the subjects on which books were written bl in the past? Which of these would you like to read? be NC © o tt no n 10 OUR PASTS–I 2020-21  CHAPTER 2 FROM HUNTIN FROM HUNTING G – GATHERING T GATHERING O TO GR GROOWING FFOOD OOD Tushar’s train journe train journeyy Tushar was going from Delhi to Chennai for his cousin’s wedding. They were travelling by train and he had managed to squeeze into the window seat, his nose glued to the glass pane. As he watched trees and houses fly past, his uncle tapped his shoulder and said: “Do you know that trains were first used about 150 years ago, and that people began using buses a few decades later?” Tushar wondered, when people couldn’t travel quickly d from one place to another, did they spend their entire he lives wherever they were born? Not quite. pu T is re ER The earliest people: wh whyy w er wer theyy on the eree the bl mo movv e? be NC We know about people who lived in the subcontinent as early as two million years ago. Today, we describe them as hunter-gatherers. The © name comes from the way in which they got their food. Generally, they hunted wild animals, caught fish and birds, gathered fruits, roots, nuts, seeds, o leaves, stalks and eggs. tt Hunter-gatherers moved from place to place. no There are many reasons for this. First, if they had stayed at one place for a long time, they would have eaten up all the available plant and animal resources. Therefore, they would have had to go elsewhere in search of food. Second, animals move from place to place — either in search of smaller prey, or, in the case of deer and wild cattle, in search of grass and leaves. That is why those who hunted them had to follow their movements. 11 n FROM HUNTING–GATHERING TO GROWING FOOD 2020-21  Third, plants and trees bear fruit in different seasons. So, people may have moved from season to season in search of different kinds of plants. Fourth, people, plants and animals need water to survive. Water is found in lakes, streams and rivers. While many rivers and lakes are perennial (with water throughout the year) others are seasonal. People living on their banks would have had to go in search of water during the dry seasons (winter and summer). w do w How Ho wee know about these people? know Archaeologists have found some of the things d hunter -gatherers made and used. It is likely he that people made and used tools of stone, pu T wood and bone, of which stone tools have is re ER survived best. bl Some of these stone tools were used to cut be NC meat and bone, scrape bark (from trees) and hides (animal skins), chop fruit and roots. Some may have been attached to handles of bone or © wood, to make spears and arrows for hunting. Other tools were used to chop wood, which was used as firewood. Wood was also used to make o huts and tools. tt no Stone tools may also have been used for : Left : Digging the ground to collect edible roots. Right : Stitching clothes made out of animal skin. n 12 OUR PASTS–I 2020-21 Choosing a place to live in Look at Map 2 below. All the places marked with red triangles are sites from which archaeologists have found evidence of hunter-gatherers. (Hunter- gatherers lived in many more places. Only some are shown on the map). Many sites were located near sources of water, such as rivers and lakes. MAP : 2 Some Important Archaeological Sites d he pu T is re ER bl be NC © o tt no 13 n FROM HUNTING–GATHERING TO GROWING FOOD 2020-21 Bhimbetka (in present- As stone tools were important, people tried to day Madhya Pradesh). find places where good quality stone was easily This is an old site with caves and rock shelters. available. People chose these natural caves because Rock paintings and what the theyy tell us they provided shelter from the rain, heat and wind. These rock shelters are close to the Narmada valley. Can A painting from a rock shelter. you think of why people Describe the painting. chose to live here? Many of the caves in which these early people lived have paintings on the walls. Some of the best examples are from Madhya Pradesh and southern Uttar Pradesh. These paintings show d he wild animals, drawn with great accuracy and skill. pu T is re ER bl be NC © o tt no n 14 OUR PASTS–I 2020-21  Sites are places where the remains of things (tools, pots, buildings etc.) were found. These were made, used and left behind by people. These may be found on the surface of the earth, buried under the earth, or sometimes even under water. You will learn more about different sites in later chapters. Finding out about f ir iree Find the Kurnool caves on Map 2 (page13). Traces of ash have been found here. This suggests that people were familiar with the use of fire. Fire could d have been used for many things: as a source of he light, to roast meat, and to scare away animals. pu T What do we use fire for today? is re ER bl Names and dates be NC Archaeologists have given lengthy names for the time that we are studying. They call the earliest period the Palaeolithic. This comes from two Greek words, ‘palaeo’, meaning old, and ‘lithos’, meaning stone. The name points to the importance of finds of stone tools. The Palaeolithic period extends © from 2 million years ago to about 12,000 years ago. This long stretch of time is divided into the Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic. This long span of time covers 99% of human history. o The period when we find environmental changes, beginning about tt 12,000 years ago till about 10,000 years ago is called the Mesolithic (middle no stone). Stone tools found during this period are generally tiny, and are called microliths. Microliths were probably stuck on to handles of bone or wood to make tools such as saws and sickles. At the same time, older varieties of tools continued to be in use. The next stage, from about 10,000 years ago, is known as the Neolithic. What do you think the term Neolithic means? We have also mentioned the names of some places. You will find the names of many more places in later chapters. Very often, we use present- day names of the places where people lived in the past, because we do not know what they called them. 15 n FROM HUNTING–GATHERING TO GROWING FOOD 2020-21  A changing envir envir onment vironment Around 12,000 years ago, there were major changes in the climate of the world, with a shift to relatively warm conditions. In many areas, this led to the development of grasslands. This in turn led to an increase in the number of deer, antelope, goat, sheep and cattle, i.e. animals that survived on grass. Those who hunted these animals now followed them, learning about their food habits and their breeding seasons. It is likely that this helped people to start thinking about herding and rearing these animals themselves. Fishing also became d important. he pu T The beginning of ffarming arming and her ding herding is re ER This was also a time when several grain bearing bl grasses, including wheat, barley and rice grew be NC naturally in different parts of the subcontinent. Men, women and children probably collected these grains as food, and learnt where they grew, © and when they ripened. This may have led them to think about growing plants on their own. In this way people became farmers. o People could also attract and then tame animals tt by leaving food for them near their shelters. The no first animal to be tamed was the wild ancestor of the dog. Later, people encouraged animals that were relatively gentle to come near the camps where they lived. These animals such as sheep, goat, cattle and also the pig lived in herds, and most of them ate grass. Often, people protected these animals from attacks by other wild animals. This is how they became herders. Can you think of any reasons why the dog was perhaps the first animal to be tamed? n 16 OUR PASTS–I 2020-21  Domestication is the name given to the process in which people grow plants and look after animals. Very often, plants and animals that are tended by people become different from wild plants and animals. This is because people select plants and animals for domestication. For example, they select those plants and animals that are not prone to disease. They also select plants that yield large-size grain, and have strong stalks, capable of bearing the weight of the ripe grain. Seeds from selected plants are preserved and sown to ensure that new plants (and seeds) will have the same qualities. Amongst animals, those that are relatively gentle are selected for d breeding. As a result, gradually, he domesticated animals and plants pu T become different from wild animals and plants. For example, the teeth is re ER and horns of wild animals are usually much larger than those of bl domesticated animals. be NC Look at these two sets of teeth. Which do you think belongs to a wild pig and which to a domesticated one? Domestication was a gradual process that took place in many parts of the world. It began about 12,000 years ago. Virtually all the plant and © animal produce that we use as food today is a result of domestication. Some of the earliest plants to be domesticated were wheat and barley. The earliest domesticated animals include sheep and goat. o tt WAYS IN WHICH no A ne new waay of lif w w lifee GRAIN WAS USED If you plant a seed, you will notice that it takes some time to grow. This may be for several days, weeks, months and in some cases years. When people began growing plants, it meant that they had to stay in the same place for a long time looking after the plants, watering, weeding, AS SEED driving away animals and birds — till the AS FOOD grain ripened. And then, the grain had to be used carefully. AS GIFTS 17 n STORED FOR FOOD 2020-21  As grain had to be stored for both food and seed, people had to think of ways of storing it. In many areas, they began making large clay pots, or wove baskets, or dug pits into the ground. Do you think hunter-gatherers would have made and used pots? Give reasons for your answer. ‘Storing’ animals Animals multiply naturally. Besides, if they are looked after carefully, they provide milk, which is an important source of food, and meat, whenever required. In other words, animals that are reared can be used as a ‘store’ of food. Apart from food, what are the other things that d he could have been obtained from animals? pu T What are animals used for today? is re ER Finding out about the ffirst armers and her irst ffarmers ders herders bl be NC Turn to Map 2 (page13). You will notice a number of blue squares. Each marks a site from where archaeologists have found evidence of early farmers and herders. These are found all over the © subcontinent. Some of the most important ones are in the north-west, in present-day Kashmir, o and in east and south India. tt To find out whether these sites were settlements of farmers and herders, scientists study evidence no of plants and animal bones. One of the most exciting finds includes remains of burnt grain. (These may have been burnt accidentally or on purpose). Scientists can identify these grains, and so we know that a number of crops were grown in different parts of the subcontinent. They can also identify the bones of different animals. Towar ds a settled lif ards lifee Archaeologists have found traces of huts or houses n 18 at some sites. For instance, in Burzahom (in OUR PASTS–I 2020-21 present-day Kashmir) people built pit-houses, which were dug into the ground, with steps leading into them. These may have provided shelter in cold weather. Archaeologists have also found cooking hearths both inside and outside the huts, which suggests that, depending on the weather, people could cook food either indoors or outdoors. Draw a pit house. Stone tools have been found from many sites as well. Many of these are different from the earlier Palaeolithic tools and that is why they are called Neolithic. These include tools that were polished to give a fine cutting edge, and mortars and pestles used for grinding grain and other plant produce. d Mortars and pestles are used for grinding grain he pu T even today, several thousand years later. At the is re ER same time, tools of the Palaeolithic types bl continued to be made and used, and remember, some tools were also made of bone. be NC © New stone tools. o tt no Many kinds of earthen pots have also been found. These were sometimes decorated, and were used for storing things. People began using pots for cooking food, especially grains like rice, wheat 19 n and lentils that now became an important part of FROM HUNTING–GATHERING TO GROWING FOOD 2020-21  the diet. Besides, they began weaving cloth, using different kinds of materials, for example cotton, that could now be grown. Did things change everywhere and all at once? Not quite. In many areas, men and women still continued to hunt and gather food, and elsewhere people adopted farming and herding slowly, over several thousand years. Besides, in some cases people tried to combine these activities, doing What do you think different things during different seasons. could have been stored in this jar? A closer look — Living and dying in Mehrgarh Find Mehrgarh on Map 2 (page13). This site is located in a fertile plain, near the Bolan Pass, d which is one of the most important routes into he Iran. Mehrgarh was probably one of the places pu T where people learnt to grow barley and wheat, is re ER and rear sheep and goats for the first time in this bl area. It is one of the earliest villages that we know be NC about. At this site many animal bones were found. Bones of wild animals such as the deer and pig, and also bones of sheep and goat were found. © Other finds at Mehrgarh include remains of square or rectangular houses. Each house had four or more compartments, some of which may o have been used for storage. tt When people die, their relatives and friends no generally pay respect to them. People look after A house in Mehrgarh. This is what a house in Mehrgarh may have looked like. In what ways is this house similar to the one in which you live? A burial from Mehrgarh. Can you identify the n 20 skeletons of the goats? OUR PASTS–I 2020-21 them, perhaps in the belief that there is some form of life after death. Burial is one such arrangement. Several burial sites have been found at Mehrgarh. In one instance, the dead person was buried with goats, which were probably meant to serve as food in the next world. Elsewhere Ca Cavve paintings in France France Find France in your atlas. The painting below is from a cave in France. This site was discovered by four school children more than a hundred years d ago. Paintings like this were made between 20,000 he and 10,000 years ago. Many of these were of pu T animals, such as wild horses, aurochs (an older, is re ER wild form of cattle), bison, woolly rhinoceros, reindeer and bear, painted in bright colours. bl These colours were made from minerals like be NC ochre or iron ore, and charcoal. It is possible that these paintings were done on ceremonial occasions. Or perhaps they were made for special rituals, © performed by hunters before they went in search of prey? Can you think of any other reasons? o tt no 21 n FROM HUNTING–GATHERING TO GROWING FOOD 2020-21  KEYWORDS Elsewhere hunter-gatherer A Neolitchic site site Find Turkey in your atlas. One of the most famous habitation Neolithic sites, Catal Huyuk, was found in Turkey. factory Several things were brought from great distances Palaeolithic —flint from Syria, cowries from the Red Sea, shells from the Mediterranean Sea — and used in the Mesolithic settlement. Remember, there were no carts — most microliths things would have been carried on the backs of domestication pack animals such as cattle or by people. farmers What do you think cowries and shells would herders have been used for? Neolithic d burials he pu T Imagine You live in a rock shelter like the one shown on page14 is re ER about 12,000 years ago. Your uncle is painting one of bl the inner walls of the cave and you want to help him. be NC Will you mix the colours, draw the lines, fill in the colours? What are the stories he might tell you? © Let’s recall o 1. Complete the sentences: tt (a) Hunter-gatherers chose to live in caves and rock no shelters because ————————. (b) Grasslands developed around ———————— years ago. 2. Why do people who grow crops have to stay in the same place for a long time? 3. Why do archaeologists think that many people who lived in Mehrgarh were hunters to start with and that herding became more important later? n 22 OUR PASTS–I 2020-21  SOME IMPORTANT Let’s discuss DATES 4. Why did the hunter-gatherers travel from place to u the Mesolithic period place? In what ways are these similar to/different from (12,000-10,000 years the reasons for which we travel today? ago) u Beginnings of 5. List three ways in which hunter-gatherers used fire domestication (see page15). Would you use fire for any of these (about 12,000 years purposes today? ago) 6. List three ways in which the lives of farmers and u Beginning of herders would have been different from that of hunter- settlement at gatherers. Mehrgarh (about 8000 years ago) d he u the beginning of the Let’s do pu T Neolithic is (10,000 years ago) re ER 7. List two tasks that are performed by both men and bl women at present. List another two that are performed be NC only by women, and two that are performed only by men. Compare your list with that of any two of your classmates. Do you notice any similarities/differences in your lists? © 8. List the cereals that you eat. Do you grow the cereals you eat. If yes, draw a chart to show the stages in o growing them. If not, draw a chart to show how these tt cereals reach you from the farmers who grow them. no 23 n FROM HUNTING–GATHERING TO GROWING FOOD 2020-21 CHAPTER 3 IN THE EARLIEST CITIES Saving an old building Saving Jaspal and Harpreet were playing cricket in the lane outside their home when they noticed the people who were admiring the dilapidated old building that the children called the haunted house. “Look at the architecture!” said one of the men. “Have you seen the fine wood carving?” asked one of the women. “We must write to the Minister so that she makes arrangements to repair and preserve this beautiful house.” d Why, they wondered, would anybody be interested in he the old, run down house? pu T is re ER The stor appa Harappa storyy of Har bl be NC Very often, old buildings have a story to tell. Nearly a hundred and fifty years ago, when railway lines were being laid down for the first time in the Punjab, engineers stumbled upon the site of © Harappa in present-day Pakistan. To them, it seemed like a mound that was a rich source of o ready made, high quality bricks. So they carried tt off thousands of bricks from the walls of the old buildings of the city to build railway lines. Many no buildings were completely destroyed. Then, about eighty years ago, archaeologists found the site, and realised that this was one of the oldest cities in the subcontinent. As this was the first city to be discovered, all other sites from where similar buildings (and other things) were found were described as Harappan. These cities developed about 4700 years ago. Very often, old buildings are pulled down to make way for new construction. Do you think it n 24 is important to preserve old buildings? OUR PASTS–I 2020-21 What w as special about these cities? was These cities were found in the Punjab and Sind in Many of these cities were divided into two or more Pakistan, and in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and parts. Usually, the part to the west was smaller the Punjab in India. but higher. Archaeologists describe this as the Archaeologists have found citadel. Generally, the part to the east was larger a set of unique objects in but lower. This is called the lower town. Very often almost all these cities: red pottery painted with walls of baked brick were built around each part. designs in black, stone The bricks were so well baked that they have weights, seals, special lasted for thousands of years. The bricks were beads, copper tools, and paralleled sided long stone laid in an interlocking pattern and that made the blades. walls strong. In some cities, special buildings were constructed d on the citadel. For example, he in Mohenjodaro, a very pu T MAP : 3 special tank, which The Earliest Cities is re ER in the Subcontinent archaeologists call the Great bl Bath, was built in this area. be NC This was lined with bricks, coated with plaster, and made water-tight with a layer © of natural tar. There were steps leading down to it from two sides, while there were o rooms on all sides. Water was tt probably brought in from a no well, and drained out after use. Perhaps important people took a dip in this tank on special occasions. Other cities, such as Kalibangan and Lothal had fire altars, where sacrifices may have been performed. And some cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Lothal had elaborate store 25 n houses. 2020-21  The Great Bath d he Houses, dr ains and str drains pu T eets streets is re ER Generally, houses were either one or two storeys bl high, with rooms built around a courtyard. Most be NC houses had a separate bathing area, and some How bricks were had wells to supply water. arranged to build walls Many of these cities had covered drains. Notice in Harappan cities how carefully these were laid out, © in straight lines. Although you cannot see it, each drain had a o gentle slope so that water could flow tt through it. Very often, drains in houses were connected to those on no the streets and smaller drains led into bigger ones. As the drains were covered, inspection holes were provided at intervals to clean them. All three — houses, drains and streets — were probably planned and built at the same time. List at least two dif ferences between the houses described here and those that you studied about n 26 in Chapter 2. OUR PASTS–I 2020-21 Life in the city A Harappan city was a very busy place. There were people who planned the construction of special buildings in the city. These were probably the rulers. It is likely that the rulers sent people to distant lands to get metal, precious stones, and other things that they wanted. They may have kept the most valuable objects, such as ornaments of gold and silver, or beautiful beads, for themselves. And there were scribes, people who knew how to write, who helped prepare the seals, and perhaps d wrote on other materials that have not he survived. pu T Besides, there were men and women, is re ER crafts persons, making all kinds of things bl — either in their own homes, or in special be NC workshops. People were travelling to distant lands or retur ning with raw materials and, perhaps, stories. Many © terracotta toys have been found and children must have played with these. Top : A street in Make a list of the people who lived in the city. Mohenjodaro with a o drain. Were any of these people listed as living in tt Above : A well. villages such as Mehrgarh? no Far Left : A Harappan seal. The signs on the top of the seal are part of a script. This is the earliest form of writing known in the subcontinent. Scholars have tried to read these signs but we still do not know exactly what they mean. Left : Terracotta toys. 27 n IN THE EARLIEST CITIES 2020-21  New Ne afts in the city crafts w cr Let us look at some of the objects that were made and found in Harappan cities. Most of the things that have been found by archaeologists are made of stone, shell and metal, including copper, bronze, gold and silver. Copper and bronze were used to Top : Stone weights. make tools, weapons, ornaments and vessels. Notice how carefully and precisely these weights Gold and silver were used to make ornaments are shaped. These were and vessels. made of chert, a kind of Perhaps the most striking finds are those of stone. These were beads, weights, and blades. probably used to weigh precious stones or metals. d he Right : Beads. pu T Many of these were is made out of carnelian, a re ER beautiful red stone. The bl stone was cut, shaped, be NC polished and finally a hole was bored through the centre so that a The Harappans also made seals out of stone. string could be passed These are generally rectangular (See illustration © through it. on page 27) and usually have an animal carved Far right : Stone blades. on them. Bottom Right : The Harappans also made pots with beautiful o Embroidered cloth. black designs, such as the one tt A stone statue of an shown on page 6. no important man found Was metal used in the villages from Mohenjodaro you learnt about in Chapter 2? shows him wearing an embroidered garment. Was stone used to make weights? Cotton was probably grown at Mehrgarh from about 7000 years ago. Actual pieces of cloth were found attached to the lid of a silver vase and some copper objects at Mohenjodaro. Archaeologists n 28 have also found spindle whorls, OUR PASTS–I 2020-21  Faience Unlike stone or shell, that are found naturally, faience is a material that is artificially produced. A gum was used to shape sand or powdered quartz into an object. The objects were then glazed, resulting in a shiny, glassy surface. The colours of the glaze were usually blue or sea green. Faience was used to make beads, bangles, earrings, and tiny vessels. made of terracotta and faience. These were used to spin thread. Many of the things that were produced were probably the work of specialists. A specialist is a d person who is trained to do only one kind of work, he pu T for example, cutting stone, or polishing beads, or is re ER carving seals. Look at the illustration (page 28) bl and see how well the face is carved and how carefully the beard is shown. This must have been be NC the work of an expert crafts person. Not everybody could have been a specialist. We do not know whether only men were specialists © or only women were specialists. Perhaps some women and men may have been specialists. o tt In sear ch of rraaw materials search no Raw materials are substances that are either found naturally (such as wood, or ores of metals) or produced by farmers or herders. These are then processed to produce finished goods. For example, cotton, produced by farmers, is a raw material that may be processed to make cloth. While some of the raw materials that the Harappans used were available locally, many items such as copper, tin, gold, silver and precious stones had to be brought from distant places. The Harappans probably got copper from 29 n IN THE EARLIEST present-day Rajasthan, and even from Oman in CITIES 2020-21  West Asia. Tin, which was mixed with copper to produce bronze, may have been brought from present-day Afghanistan and Iran. Gold could have come all the way from present-day Karnataka, and precious stones from present-day Gujarat, Iran and Afghanistan. How were goods carried from one place to another? Look at the illustrations. One shows a toy and the other is a seal. d Can you suggest what he the modes of transport used by the Harappans Food ffor or people in the cities pu T is re ER were? Did you come While many people lived in the cities, others living across illustrations of bl in the countryside grew crops and reared animals. wheeled vehicles in be NC earlier lessons? These farmers and herders supplied food to crafts persons, scribes and rulers in the cities. We know from remains of plants that the Harappans grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed © and mustard. A new tool, the plough, was used to dig the o earth for turning the soil and planting seeds. While tt A toy plough. real ploughs, which were probably made of wood, Today, in many farming have not survived, toy models have been found. no communities, only men use the plough. We do As this region does not receive heavy rainfall, some not know whether the form of irrigation may have been used. This means Harappans followed that water was stored and such customs or not. supplied to the fields when the plants were growing. The Harappans reared cattle, sheep, goat and buffalo. Water and pastures were available around settlements. However, in the dry summer months large herds of animals were probably taken to greater distances in search of n 30 grass and water. They also collected fruits like OUR PASTS–I 2020-21 ber, caught fish and hunted wild animals like the antelope. A closer look — Har Harappan wns in Gujar towns appan to at Gujarat The city of Dholavira was located on Khadir Beyt (also spelled as Bet) in the Rann of Kutch, where there was fresh water and fertile soil. Unlike some of the other Harappan cities, which were divided into two parts, Dholavira was divided into three parts, and each part was surrounded with massive stone walls, with entrances through gateways. There was also a large open area in the settlement, where public ceremonies could be held. Other d finds include large letters of the Harappan script he that were carved out of white stone and perhaps pu T inlaid in wood. This is a unique find as generally is re ER Harappan writing has been found on small bl objects such as seals. be NC The city of Lothal stood beside a tributary of the Sabarmati, in Gujarat, close to the Gulf of Khambat. It was situated near areas where raw A dockyard at Lothal. © materials such as semi-precious stones were This huge tank may have been a dockyard, where easily available. This was an important centre for boats and ships came in making objects out of stone, shell and metal. from the sea and through o There was also a store house in the city. Many the river channel. Goods tt seals and sealings (the impression of seals on were probably loaded no clay) were found in this storehouse. and unloaded here. 31 n 2020-21  A building that was found here was probably a workshop for making beads: pieces of stone, half made beads, tools for bead making, and finished beads have all been found here. Seals and sealings Seals may have been used to stamp bags or packets containing goods that were sent from one place to another. After a bag was closed or tied, a layer of wet clay was applied on the knot, and the seal was pressed on it. The impression of the seal is known as a sealing. If the sealing was intact, one could be sure that d the goods had arrived safely. he Seals are used even today. Find out what they pu T are used for. is re ER bl myyster The m steryy of the end be NC Around 3900 years ago we find the beginning of a major change. People stopped living in many of © KEYWORDS the cities. Writing, seals and weights were no city longer used. Raw materials brought from long citadel distances became rare. In Mohenjodaro, we find o ruler that garbage piled up on the streets, the drainage tt scribe system broke down, and new, less impressive no crafts person houses were built, even over the streets. metal Why did all this happen? We are not sure. Some scholars suggest that the rivers dried up. Others seal suggest that there was deforestation. This could specialist have happened because fuel was required for raw material baking bricks, and for smelting copper ores. plough Besides, grazing by large herds of cattle, sheep irrigation and goat may have destroyed the green cover. In some areas there were floods. But none of these reasons can explain the end of all the cities. Flooding, or a river drying up would have had an n 32 effect in only some areas. OUR PASTS–I 2020-21  It appears as if the rulers lost control. In any case, the effects of the change are quite clear. Sites in Sind and west Punjab (present-day Pakistan) were abandoned, while many people moved into newer, smaller settlements to the east and the south. New cities emerged about 1400 years later. You will read about them in Chapters 5 and 8. Elsewhere Find Egypt in your atlas. Most of Egypt is a dry desert, except for the lands along the river Nile. d Around 5000 years ago, kings ruled over Egypt. These kings sent armies he to distant lands to get pu T gold, silver, ivory, is re ER timber, and precious bl stones. They also be NC built huge tombs, known as pyramids. When they died, the bodies of kings © were preserved and buried in these pyramids. These o carefully preserved tt bodies are known as no ‘mummies’. A large number of objects were also buried with them. These included food and drink, clothes, ornaments, utensils, musical instruments, weapons and animals. Sometimes even serving men and women were buried with the rulers. These are amongst the most elaborate burials known in world history. Do you think kings would have needed these things after death? Imagine You are travelling with your parents, about 4000 years ago, from Lothal to Mohenjodaro. Describe how you would travel, what your parents might carry with them, 33 n IN THE EARLIEST and what you would see in Mohenjodaro. CITIES 2020-21  SOME IMPORTANT DATES Let’s recall u Cotton cultivation at 1. How do archaeologists know that cloth was used in Mehrgarh (about 7000 the Harappan civilisation? years ago) 2. Match the columns u Beginning of cities (about 4700 years Copper Gujarat ago) Gold Afghanistan u Beginning of the end Tin Rajasthan of these cities (about 3900 years ago) Precious stones Karnataka u The emergence of 3. Why were metals, writing, the wheel, and the plough d other cities (about important for the Harappans? he 2500 years ago) pu T is re ER Let’s discuss bl be NC 4. Make a list of all the terracotta toys shown in the lesson. Which do you think children would have enjoyed playing with the most? © 5. Make a list of what the Harappans ate, and put a tick mark against the things you eat today. o 6. Do you think that the life of farmers and herders who tt supplied food to the Harappan cities was different from no that of the farmers and herders you read about in Chapter 2? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Describe three important buildings in your city or village. Are they located in a special part of the settlement (e.g. the centre)? What are the activities that take place in these buildings? 8. Are there any old buildings in your locality? Find out n 34 how old they are and who looks after them. OUR PASTS–I 2020-21  Sanskrit and other languages Sanskrit is part of a family of languages known as Indo-European. Some Indian languages such as Assamese, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri and Sindhi; Asian languages such as Persian and many European languages such as English, French, German, Greek, Italian and Spanish belong to this family. They are called a family because they originally had words in common. Take the words ‘matr’ (Sanskrit), ‘ma’ (Hindi) and ‘mother’ (English). Do you notice any similarities? Other languages used in the subcontinent belong to different families. For instance, those used in the north-east belong to the Tibeto-Burman family; Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam belong to the Dravidian family; and the languages spoken in Jharkhand and d parts of central India belong to the Austro-Asiatic family. he List the languages you have heard about and try and identify the pu T families to which they belong. is re ER bl be NC The books we use are written and printed. The Rigveda was recited and heard rather than read. It was written down several centuries after it was first composed, and printed less than 200 years © ago. o How historians study the Rigv How eda Rigveda tt Historians, like archaeologists, find out about the no past, but, in addition to material remains, they examine written sources as well. Let us see how they study the Rigveda. Some of the hymns in the Rigveda are in the form of dialogues. This is part of one such hymn, a dialogue between a sage named Vishvamitra, and two rivers, (Beas and Sutlej) that were worshipped as goddesses. Find the rivers on Map 1 (page 2), then read on: n 36 OUR PASTS–I 2020-21  A page from a manuscript of the Rigveda. This manuscript of the Rigveda, on birch bark, was found in Kashmir. About 150 years ago, it was used to prepare one of the earliest printed texts of the Rigveda, as well as an English translation. It is now preserved in a library in Pune, Maharashtra. d Vishvvamitr Vish amitraa and the Riv ers Rivers he pu T Vishvamitra: O rivers, come down from the mountains like two swift horses, like is re ER two shining cows that lick their calves. You move like chariots to the sea, through the power of Indra. You are full of bl water and wish to unite with one another. be NC The rivers: We, who are full of water, move along the path the gods have made for us. Once we start flowing, we cannot be stopped. Why do you pray to us, o sage? Vishvamitra: O sisters, please listen to me, the singer who has come from a © distance with his chariots and carts. Let your waters not rise above our axles, so that we can cross safely. The rivers: We will listen to your prayers so that you can cross safely. o Historians point out that this hymn was composed in the area where tt these rivers flow. They also suggest that the sage lived in a society where no horses and cows were valued animals. That is why the rivers are compared to horses and cows. Do you think chariots were also important? Give reasons for your answer. Read the verses and find out what are the modes of transport that are mentioned. Other rivers, especially the Indus and its other tributaries, and the Sarasvati, are also named in the hymns. The Ganga and Yamuna are named only once. Look at Map 1 (page 2) and list 5 rivers that are not mentioned in the Rigveda. 37 n WHAT BOOKS AND BURIALS TELL US 2020-21  Cattle, horses and chariots There are many prayers in the Rigveda for cattle, children (especially sons), and horses. Horses were yoked to chariots that were used in battles, which were fought to capture cattle. Battles were also fought for land, which was important for pasture, and for growing hardy crops that ripened quickly, such as barley. Some battles were fought for water, and to capture people. Some of the wealth that was obtained was kept by the leaders, some was given to the priests and the rest was distributed amongst the people. Some wealth was used for the performance of yajnas or d sacrifices in which offerings were made into the he fire. These were meant for gods and goddesses. pu T is Offerings could include ghee, grain, and in some re ER cases, animals. bl Most men took part in these wars. There was be NC no regular army, but there were assemblies where people met and discussed matters of war and peace. They also chose leaders, who were often © brave and skilful warriors. Wor ds to describe people ords o tt There are several ways of describing people — in terms of the work they do, the language they no speak, the place they belong to, their family, their communities and cultural practices. Let us see some of the words used to describe people found in the Rigveda. There are two groups who are described in terms of their work — the priests, sometimes called brahmins, who performed various rituals, and the rajas. These rajas were not like the ones you will be learning about later. They did not have capital n 38 cities, palaces or armies, nor did they collect taxes. OUR PASTS–I 2020-21 Generally, sons did not automatically succeed fathers as rajas. Read the previous section once more and see whether you can find out what the rajas did. Two words were used to describe the people or the community as a whole. One was the word jana, which we still use in Hindi and other languages. The other was vish. The word vaishya comes from vish. You will learn more about this in Chapter 5. Several vish or jana are mentioned by name. So we find reference to the Puru jana or vish, the Bharata jana or vish, the Yadu jana or vish, and so on. d Do any of these names sound familiar? he Sometimes, the people who composed the pu T hymns described themselves as Aryas and called is re ER their opponents Dasas or Dasyus. These were bl people who did not perform sacrifices, and be NC probably spoke different languages. Later, the term dasa (and the feminine dasi) came to mean slave. Slaves were women and men who were often captured in war. They were treated as the property © of their owners, who could make them do whatever work they wanted. o While the Rigveda was being composed in the tt north-west of the subcontinent, there were other developments elsewhere. Let us look at some of no these. Silent sentinels—the story of the megaliths Look at the illustration on the next page. These stone boulders are known as megaliths (literally big stones). These were carefully arranged by people, and were used to mark burial sites. The practice of erecting megaliths began about 3000 years ago, and was prevalent throughout the Deccan, south India, in the north-east and 39 n Kashmir. WHAT BOOKS AND BURIALS TELL US 2020-21  Some important megalithic sites are shown on Map 2 (page13). While some megaliths can be seen on the sur face, other megalithic burials are often underground. Sometimes, archaeologists find a circle of stone boulders or a single large stone standing on the ground. These are the only indications that there are burials beneath. There were several things Top : This type of that people did to make megaliths. We have made d megalith is known as a a list here. Try and arrange them in the correct he cist. Some cists, like the pu T one shown here, have order: digging pits in the earth, transporting is re ER port-holes which could stones, breaking boulders, placing stones in bl be used as an entrance. position, finding suitable stone, shaping stones, burying the dead. be NC All these burials have some common features. Generally, the dead were buried with distinctive pots, which are called Black and Red Ware. Also © found are tools and weapons of iron and sometimes, skeletons of horses, horse equipment and ornaments of stone and gold. o tt Was iron used in the Harappan cities? no Iron equipment found from megalithic burials. Left top : Horse equipment. Left below : Axes. Below : A dagger. n 40 OUR PASTS–I 2020-21 Finding out about social differences Archaeologists think that objects found with a skeleton probably belonged to the dead person. Sometimes, more objects are found in one grave than in another. Find Brahmagiri on Map 2 (page 13). Here, one skeleton was buried with 33 gold beads, 2 stone beads, 4 copper bangles, and one conch shell. Other skeletons have only a few pots. These finds suggest that there was some difference in status amongst the people who were buried. Some were rich, others poor, some chiefs, others followers. d Wer eree some burial spo ts meant ffor spots or cer tain certain he families? pu T is re ER Sometimes, megaliths contain more than one skeleton. These indicate that people, perhaps bl belonging to the same family, were buried in the be NC same place though not at the same time. The bodies of those who died later were brought into the grave through the portholes. Stone circles or boulders © placed on the surface probably served as signposts to find the burial site, so that people could return to the same place whenever they wanted to. o tt A special burial at Inamgaon no Find Inamgaon on Map 2 (page13). It is a site on the river Ghod, a tributary of the Bhima. It was occupied between 3600 and 2700 years ago. Here, adults were generally buried in the ground, laid out straight, with the head towards the north. Sometimes burials were within the houses. Vessels that probably contained food and water were placed with the dead. One man was found buried in a large, four legged clay jar in the courtyard of a five-roomed 41 n house (one of the largest houses at the site), in WHAT BOOKS AND BURIALS TELL US 2020-21  the centre of the settlement. This house also had a granary. The body was placed in a cross- legged position. Do you think this was the body of a chief? Give reasons for your answer. What skeletal studies tell us skeletal It is easy to make out the skeleton of a child from its small size. However, there are no major differences in the bones of a girl and a boy. Can we make out whether a skeleton was that of a man or a woman? Sometimes, people decide on the basis of what is found with the skeleton. For instance, if a skeleton is found with jewellery, it is d sometimes thought to be that of a woman. However, there are he problems with this. Often, men also wore ornaments. pu T A better way of figuring out the sex of a skeleton is to look at the is re ER bone structure. The hip or the pelvic area of women is generally larger to enable child bearing. bl These distinctions are based on modern skeletal studies. be NC About 2000 years ago, there was a famous physician named Charaka who wrote a book on medicine known as the Charaka Samhita. There he states that the human body has 360 bones. This is a much larger number than the 200 bones that are recognised in © modern anatomy. Charaka arrived at this figure by counting the teeth, joints and cartilage. How do you think he found out about the human body in such o great detail? tt no Occupations at Inamgaon Archaeologists have found seeds of wheat, barley, rice, pulses, millets, peas and sesame. Bones of a number of animals, many bearing cut marks that show they may have been used as food, have also been found. These include cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, dog, horse, ass, pig, sambhar, spotted deer, blackbuck, antelope, hare, and mongoose, besides birds, crocodile, turtle, crab and fish. There is n 42 evidence that fruits such as ber, amla, jamun, dates OUR PASTS–I and a variety of berries were collected. 2020-21  Use this evidence to list the possible occupations of the people at Inamgaon. Elsewhere Find China in your atlas. Around 3500 years ago, we find some of the first evidence of writing in China. These writings were on animal bones. These are called oracle bones, because they were used to predict the future. Kings got scribes to write questions on the bones — would they win battles? Would the harvest be good? Would they have sons? The bones were then put into the fire, and they cracked because of the heat. Then fortunetellers d studied these cracks, and tried to predict the future. he As you may expect, they sometimes made mistakes. pu T These kings lived in palaces in cities. They is re ER amassed vast quantities of wealth, including large, elaborately decorated bronze vessels. However, they bl did not know the use of iron. be NC List one difference between the raja of the Rigveda and these kings. © Imagine You live in Inamgaon, 3000 years ago, and the chief o has died last night. Today, your parents are preparing KEYWORDS tt for the burial. Describe the scene, including how food Veda is being prepared for the funeral. What do you think no language would be offered? hymn chariot sacrifice raja slave megalith burial skeletal 43 n iron 2020-21  SOME IMPORTANT Let’s recall DATES u Beginning of the 1. Match the columns composition of the Sukta Stone boulder Vedas (about 3500 years ago) Chariots Sacrifice u Beginning of the Yajna Well-said building of megaliths (about 3000 years Dasa Used in battles ago) Megalith Slave u Settlement at Inamgaon (between 2. Complete th