History 348 Notes - Week 2 PDF

RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES Theme Two - Rising Nationalisms: Raids, Rebellion and Resistance Sometimes we are too focused on the obvious forms of Resistance – but Resistance happened every day – SANC used constitutional forms of resistance to incite uprising all the way up to WW2 Th...

RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES Theme Two - Rising Nationalisms: Raids, Rebellion and Resistance Sometimes we are too focused on the obvious forms of Resistance – but Resistance happened every day – SANC used constitutional forms of resistance to incite uprising all the way up to WW2 The Caribbean the cape, Mauritius, Australia and India – anything that happens in the southern African region, is also occurring in these nations India had a lot of success in their resistance which resulted in their independence in 1947 – the first British colony to gain independence Nationalism: Basic definition: The strong belief that the interests of a particular nation-state are of primary importance. Also, the belief that a people who share a common language, history, and culture should constitute an independent nation, free of foreign domination What is a Nation? ▪ Nation: self-identified cultural group, regards itself as distinctive in a fundamental and significant way; language, ethnicity and culture (including religion and history) ▪ Nationality: an aspect of identity that derives from membership to a nation. Members imagine a shared common history that binds them to one another and territory. Mutual attachment feels natural even if bases are exaggerated or invented ▪ Nationality: universal component of identity i.e.: everyone belongs to a nation ▪ State: fundamental mode of political organisation ▪ “All nationalisms are gendered, all are invented, and all are dangerous. Nations are not the natural flowering into time of the organic essence of a people, borne unscathed through the ages” (Anne McClintock, “No Longer A Future Haven: Women and Nationalism in South Africa”, Transition, 1991 (51): 104) Nationalism and War: ▪ Creation of particular racial identities based on stereotypes → become ostracised ▪ Black service in the war did a disservice to black nationalism = united with Britain and derailed nationalist movement 1 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ Historical Interpretations = argue for both and give examples: 1. Marxist interpretation (economic/material desire) → not one causal effect of war = different debates (subjective observations) 2. Cultural interpretation (objective observations) Key attributes that can help determine a nationalist group’s predisposition towards the use of violence: ▪ Statehood status ▪ Stance towards legitimacy of other states ▪ Existence of a diaspora ▪ State suppression of an internal minority nationalist group Nationalism and Imperialism: ▪ “As experienced by nationalists and imperialists, they were opposites: for nationalists, imperialism was the enemy to be overthrown; for imperialists, nationalism was the false creed of a small group of political agitators. Nonetheless, analytically, they are opposite sides of the same coin” (James Mayall: “Nationalism and imperialism” in The Cambridge History of Twentieth-century Political Thought, T. Ball & R. Bellamy (eds.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003: 108) The New Imperialism: ▪ New Imperialism characterizes a period of colonial expansion by European powers (as well as the United States and Japan) during the late 19th and early 20th centuries ▪ Unprecedented pursuit of overseas territorial acquisitions ▪ Focused on building their empires with new technological advances and developments ▪ Expanding territory through conquest, and exploiting their resources ▪ Reflected ongoing rivalries among the great powers, the economic desire for new resources and markets = Having an empire abroad increased prestige South Africa’s Nationalisms: Cape Afrikaner African 2 Nationalism Nationalism Nationalism RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES Cape Nationalism: ▪ Citizens of Cape Colony began ever more to turn to Cape as home rather than Britain or Europe ▪ Economic expansion due to wool boom and diamonds; Granting of responsible government in 1872; Positioned Cape Colony as significant territory in British Imperial network ▪ Growing English middle-class saw signs of strength of Cape’s economic and political potential = though nationalism could promote interests and prosperity of Cape above that of Empire → certain people felt excluded ▪ People who met franchise requirements had rights despite racial differences ▪ Described initially as an “inclusive nationalism” – not based on ethnicity, race or origins, but membership to Cape/ Colonial citizenry (in theory included black Capetonians) ▪ Alongside growth of colonial nationalism, see development of stricter segregation ▪ Primarily urban phenomenon, generally supported by English-speakers Afrikaner Nationalism: ▪ 1870s saw emergence of distinct Afrikaner consciousness in the Cape = self-identification as “Afrikaner” ▪ Rooted in rural wheat and wine farming region – had not benefitted from Cape economic expansion as much as Cape Nationalists ▪ Initially drawn from educated, middle-classes whose political participation in Cape politics had been limited before granting of responsible government ▪ 1870s-1880s: Afrikaners coalesced into collection of organizations that represented (Afrikaner) farmers’ interests, initially around Cape, but ideas would soon spread to interior: ✓ Genootschap van Regte Afrikaners (GRA, 1875) ✓ Zuidafrikaanse Boeren Beschermings Vereniging (BBV, 1878) The Volk and Nationalist Mythology: 3 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES African Nationalism: ▪ Context of ever-growing segregation and racial oppression saw rise of resistance to white domination in late 19thC ▪ Westernised, mission-educated, middle class black elite started to develop style of agitation in 1880s: belonged to minority of blacks on Cape voters’ roll ▪ In the early 1880s the first African political association was formed in the Eastern Cape, the Imbumba-ya-Manyama ▪ Hoped that their petitions, their political action and their evident respectability would safeguard and extend their political rights ▪ African Nationalism would rise to full potential in 20th Century Different historical interpretations: 1. Economic Theory - ▪ Broad social and political response to uneven development of capitalism in South Africa 2. Social Theory - ▪ Purely a social and political phenomenon brought about through intense ideological labour Fascism: ▪ “Fascism may be defined as a form of organic revolutionary ultra-nationalism seeking national rebirth, based on a primarily vitalist and non-rationalist philosophy, structured on a seemingly contradictory combination of extreme elitism and mass mobilisation, emphasising hierarchy and the leadership principle, positively valuing violence to some extent as end as well as means, and tending to normalise war and/or military virtues” ▪ Fascism - is a far-right, authoritarian ultranationalist political ideology and movement, characterized by dictatorial power, militarism, forcible suppression of opposition, belief in a natural social hierarchy, subordination of individual interests for the good of the nation 4 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES Raids, Rebellion and Resistance: ▪ Rebellion = an act of armed resistance to an established government or leader/ the action or process of resisting authority, control or convention ▪ Revolt = take violent action against an established government or ruler; rebel/ refusal to acknowledge someone or something as having authority ▪ Resistance = the refusal to accept or comply with something ▪ Raid = a rapid surprise attack on an enemy by troops, aircraft, or other armed forces Raids, Resistance and Rebellion in the South African war – Boer Resistance to British Domination (Lecture 6): ▪ As discussed previously there are several key attributes that can help determine a nationalist group’s predisposition towards the use of violence: 1. Statehood status 2. Stance towards legitimacy of other states 3. Existence of a diaspora 4. State suppression of an internal minority nationalist group ▪ Diaspora – a diaspora is a scattered population whose origin lies in a separate geographical location Jameson Raid (1895): ▪ Key conspirators – (almost) all British imperialists ▪ Cecil John Rhodes: Prime Minister of Cape Colony (1890); principal sponsor of the “Cape-to- Cairo” dream; main shareholder in gold and diamond mines; wanted to extend influence - felt that Uitlander rebellion would cause trouble for Britain if not controlled by him ▪ Cape to Cairo – creating a connection of the north and South of Africa through a railway – which would in turn give imperialists greater access to Africa 5 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ Alfred, Lord Milner: Governor of Cape Colony (1897); hostile views towards the Afrikaners; prominent voice pushing for war with the Boer republics to secure British control; attempted to Anglicise the Transvaal during the Anglo-Boer war (“Milner Schools”) ▪ Joseph Chamberlain (British Secretary of State for the Colonies) ▪ Jan C. Smuts wrote in 1906 of the Raid, "The Jameson Raid was the real declaration of war... And that is so in spite of the four years of truce that followed... [the] aggressors consolidated their alliance... the defenders on the other hand silently and grimly prepared for the inevitable." South African War and Afrikaner Nationalism? ▪ Argue both yes and no Yes - Godfrey le May ▪ Commemoration of the war comes from one side and becomes a part of national curriculum and becomes part of the national narrative → narrative changes post-1994 to include black participants ▪ “In the event, the memory of the war, carefully nurtured as it was, did more to unite Afrikanerdom than Kruger had ever succeeded in doing. The war gave to Afrikaners throughout South Africa common victims to mourn, common injuries upon which to brood, a common cause in the restoration of republicanism…” No - Shula Marks ▪ “…In the early years after of the century, Afrikaners were fratricidally divided [brother against brother]. The war and its settlement were not an automatic forcing ground for Afrikaner nationalism…the need to create a new ‘imagined’ community arose at the moment of greatest external challenge and internal disintegration” ▪ Benedict Anderson = created the idea of “imagined” communities ▪ DF Malan = consolidated Afrikaner Nationalism and made it tighter knit 6 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES Raids and Rebellions in 1906: The Ferreria Raid (1906): ▪ Natives in Namibia = Nama and Herero → squash resistance (considered a genocide = large amounts of the population were exterminated) ▪ Discontent amongst Afrikaner citizens in the republics = allied with GSWA ▪ New imperial expansion from Germany in GSWA → out to pursue more land for Germany ▪ Rising of nationalist organisations i.e.: APO ▪ 5 November 1906: John Hendrik Ferreira and 3 companions abscond from German army in German South-West Africa ▪ 6 November 1906: Armed gang crossed the South-West African border into the Colony & attacked 2 police camps ▪ 9 November 1906: Ranks increased to about fifteen (Most lied to or forced to join the rebels at gunpoint) ▪ Believed would gain support from Afrikaner pop. in N. Cape; true motives unclear ▪ Colonial police dispatched to hunt down “invaders” ▪ Ferreira Raid reflected the tensions among the British, Boers and Germans, which were to erupt even more spectacularly in the Afrikaner Rebellion in 1914 ▪ This raid had an impact on Afrikaner Nationalism: 1. Overlapping issues: already tense Anglo-German relations & Boer-British relations 2. At the same time = turmoil 3. Shows existence of Boer “die-hards” that threatened Transvaal & OFS self-govt. 4. Today = largely forgotten BUT spark that would grow into 1914 Boer Rebellion Black Resistance to White Domination: Black, Coloured & Indian Responses to SA War: ▪ Many black people had supported the British during the war - believed that political rights for Black people would be extended to them if they played their part in the war 7 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ Hardened post-war opposition to the black population = new black political parties emerged to counter the impending union of white-ruled provinces by ethnically and regionally uniting blacks ▪ 1902: African Political (later People’s) Organization, founded in Cape Town led by Abdullah Abdurahman, lobbied for Coloured rights, had links with other black political groups ▪ Indians in the Transvaal, led by Mohandas K. Gandhi, also resisted discriminatory legislation ▪ 8 January 1912: South African Native National Congress (1923 = African National Congress; ANC) Bambatha Rebellion 1906: ▪ British employers in Natal had difficulty recruiting Black farm workers -increased competition from gold mines ▪ Introduced £1 poll tax in addition to existing hut tax → done by Shepstone ▪ Constant pressure by white proletariat to increase black taxes ▪ Strategically chose chiefs (paramount) to ensure compliance to British rule → creates cleavages amongst Zulu entities ▪ Tax increases pushed black men to go work in the agricultural sector in Natal → fragments old familiar ways of the Zulu cultural work order = some went to work on the mines in urban areas (causes family tension on the home front) ▪ Zulu refused to pay the tax, the British took control of Zululand ▪ Bambatha fled north to ask Dinizulu, the king of the Zulu, for advice. When he returned, attacked British troops = initially successful ▪ But by April traditional Zulu weapons no match for modern British guns - 3,000-4,000 Zulu (including Bambatha *?) were killed, 7,000 were imprisoned, and 4,000 flogged. The war cost the Natal government £883,576 ▪ Material argument (increases taxes when they can’t afford it) and cultural argument ▪ Killing white animals = symbolic → understand supernatural (ancestors) ▪ In this oppression, there is also a growth of a common/tribal/ethnic identity Impact ▪ On colonial authorities: Supported by Cape Colony AND Transvaal Boers = affected Natal’s decision to join Union 3 years later 8 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ On Africans: Last armed resistance against white rule in before the formation of the Union of South Africa in 1910 Zulu pop. pushed deeper into poverty = source of cheap labour (agriculture & mining) Bambatha became a source of pride and inspiration → symbolically becomes the person who resisted Bloodstained Poll Tax and the Bambatha Rebellion – Redding ▪ Thus, the Bambatha revolt was not, as other historians have suggested, a final, hopeless attempt to strike a blow against the colonial state and die; rather, it was an armed revolt that was seriously intended to overthrow the colonial state both by force of arms and by the power of supernatural ▪ The lead up to the Bambatha Revolt can be seen in the events of January 1906 – when Natal officials began to collect a poll tax (head tax) from adult unmarried men ▪ The African people strongly opposed this, and it was rumoured among both Black and white society that an uprising was coming ▪ Africans even began to kill their white chickens and pigs, believing that they were a symbol of coming chaos (coming thunder and lightning would destroy them) – the white people saw this as a direct threat to themselves ▪ It must be noted that although the African people did not agree with the poll tax, it was not the sole reason for their rebellion rather → rebels (and non-rebels) saw the effects of colonial rule and the new tax through their own cultural lens, and decided to revolt (or not) based upon their own interpretation of events ▪ While collecting the poll tax there were several issues that arose with resistance, one which resulted in the death of 2 police officers ▪ For 2 months after their death, Natal forces (mainly white) burned African crops, razed their homes, and stole their cattle in retaliation ▪ Elsewhere in the Umvoti district in Natal, Bambatha (whose name would later personify the revolt) had his own troubles with the law (was in debt), and single handedly reignited the war and raised a small army of his own ▪ But on June 10 at Mome Gorge in Nkandla Forest, Bambatha, most of his fellow leaders, and a good deal of the army were killed by Natal troops, and the disturbances again were over 9 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ However, a week later other rebellions arose – by 1907 all resistance was over, and the administration was busy court-martialling rebels and taking their land ▪ The Bambatha Revolt is one of the best-known examples of resistance to colonial rule in Africa ▪ How the white population viewed the revolt was stated by Stuart – “wed it: "Such conflict was, of course, between a race of savages on the one hand, and a number of Europeans or representatives of Western Civilization on the other” ▪ However, the defeat, in Binns's view, was not so much a consequence of the military conquest as it was a result of the post war actions of the Natal administration that humbled Dinuzulu personally, as well as denying the status of the Zulu as a unified people. ▪ The best known of all analyses of the Bambatha revolt has been Shula Marks's “Reluctant Rebellion” ▪ She stated that the Africans were not eager to rebel, but the history of colonialism, which culminated in the imposition of the poll tax, combined with the heavy- handed actions on the part of Natal officials in stamping out the early phases of the revolt, forced many Africans into revolt as a defence measure ▪ The tax was such an issue because it went against the agreement made with Shepstone ▪ The new tax reneged on the promise made by Theophilus Shepstone in 1875. ▪ The new tax was not simply a breach of contract; rather, it marked a palpable change between two ideologies of white rule. ▪ White rule of Africans under the "Shepstone system" had been the epitome of paternalism: Africans were to submit to white colonial rule and offset the costs of that rule by paying taxes, and, in return, the government would ensure peace and stability, and would allow individuals to have access to farm and grazing Raids, Rebellion & Resistance during WW1: The 1909 South Africa Act: ▪ Britain re-annexed the South African Republic (Transvaal Colony) and the Orange Free State (Orange River Colony) ▪ 1908 National Convention, settled on the terms and constitution of a governmental, legislative, and economic Union ▪ 20 September 1909: bill passed by British parliament ▪ Union of South Africa established 31 May 1910 with Louis Botha as PM 10 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES Growing Segregation: 1911 1923 1936 Mines and Works Act Urban Areas Act (segregated Black people in Cape were (reserved skilled and semi- urban ‘locations’) removed from the common skilled jobs for whites only) voters’ roll the ‘Civilised Labour Policy’ Land Act (relegated only 7% of (encourage the employment for the land for black people, white labour in public sector at increased to 13% in 1936) a higher wage level) 1913 1924 The Emergence of Black Political Parties: 1902: African Political (or People’s) Organisation (APO) ▪ Founded by Dr Abdullah Abdurahman to advance the interests of Coloured people ▪ Campaigned to have the Cape Qualified Franchise extended to all black South Africans ▪ Rallied South African coloureds against the South Africa Act 1909 ▪ reached out to African and Indian political movements in an attempt to resist the rising tide of racism ▪ December 1914: called for the enlistment of Coloured soldiers, organized 10,000 potential volunteers 1912: South African Native National Congress (SANNC) ▪ First country-wide western-style African political organization, mostly elite members engaged in legal campaigns against racial discrimination ▪ "Forget all the past differences among Africans and unite in one national organisation" Pixley ka Isaka Seme, 1911 ▪ Protested against Land Act ▪ August 1914, the SANNC suspended protest against the Union’s Native Land Act & pledged patriotic support for the war effort 1914 Boer Rebellion: Main reasons for the Rebellion – 11 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES 1. Many Boer fighters were still bitter about the outcome of the Sa war, especially the scorched earth policy and the concentration camps 2. All former Boer combatants were required to sign a peace pledge, but some exiled Boers who returned from overseas wanted to continue to fight 3. The British Government did not allow the reestablishment of a South African Boer Republic in the Transvaal, instead the Union of South Africa was formed under British rule 4. The Union of SA was required to annex German colonies for the Allies as part of operations in WW1 5. The death of General Koos de la Rey The Revolt Begins – ▪ Rumours that civilians would be conscripted for SWA campaign = increased resistance to WW1 from Afrikaners ▪ 15 Sept 1914: General Koos de la Rey killed at police road block = sparked a rebellion led by former Boer generals, who held high-ranking positions in the UDF ▪ By October, tension has reached a breaking point, with mass protests and meetings held – began to turn into an open, armed rebellion against the government ▪ Maritz declares himself, and other notable generals, as the new leaders of this government; occupy Keimoes near Upington The Revolt Ends – ▪ Govt. sent 32,000 troops to suppress uprising & martial law declared 12 Oct 1914 ▪ 12 Nov.: De Wet defeated; 16 Nov: Beyers defeated; 2 Feb 1915: Maritz defeated & flees to SWA ▪ Many rebels imprisoned; strict fines were imposed (often much more than the average commando could ever hope to pay) Why did the common folk join? ▪ Desperation brought about by post-war poverty; Loss of land lead to loss of identity for many ▪ Many wealthier farmers preferred Black sharecroppers to Boers as sharecroppers were cheaper to maintain and fewer laws protected them ▪ The patriarchal, nationalistic rhetoric from Maritz promised a return to earlier, wealthier, British- free days and hope for the destitute, not to mention fewer Black rights and land ownership 12 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ Leadership of rebellion drawn from wealthy and influential, wanting to return to and/or expand power and influence ▪ Smuts and Botha government weren’t in favour by many poorer farmers as their efforts to address these issues had not amounted to much ▪ Rank and file made up primarily of poor, desperate farmers Why was Rebellion so important in building of Afrikaner Nationalism? ▪ More than just mass disenchantment with government’s war policy = appealed to regaining of republican, Boer independence ▪ the rebellion turned people into Nationalists who had not been Nationalists before” (Noel Garson) ▪ Organisations (Helpmekaar) brought disenfranchised ‘poor white’ Afrikaners together as a group (looking after their own) ▪ Essentially sparked off a ‘re-awakening’ of Afrikaner Nationalism Post-WW1 Afrikaner Politics: Divisions: The liberals (SAP): Botha & Smuts ▪ Sought reconciliation between Afrikaners and English-speakers ▪ Mutual trust, harmony prerequisites for unified SA ▪ Aimed for commonwealth The Nationalists (NP): Steyn & Hertzog ▪ Minimum interference from London; maximum powers short of independence ▪ Sought separateness and autonomy above all ▪ Strongly republican Political Mobilisation of the Afrikaner: ▪ Cultural and economic organisations and efforts went far in mobilising popular perceptions, got more Afrikaners to stand together as a group, but political mobilisation not easy ▪ Afrikaners became ever more politically active but majority were not included in this political growth 13 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ 1919: Smuts became PM: but was seen as being out of touch with political trends (modified policies to suit pro-British Unionists = seen as betraying own people) Mid-1920s: SAP was losing power to Nationalists, spoke the “language of food, clothing and shelter” Rise of the National Party: ▪ J.B.M. Hertzog founded the National Party in 1914; 30% of vote in 1915 general election ▪ 1919: after Botha’s death, Smuts became PM: Soon blamed for dire economic situation ▪ NP wins majority of seats in 1920, platform of republicanism and separate school systems for Afrikaans- and English-speaking whites ▪ June 1924 election: Hertzog becomes PM, coalition between NP & SAP (Pact govt.) ▪ Nationalist government faced challenges of Great Depression: hard to afford main export products = Nationalists weakening ▪ 1934: Fusion Govt = turning point Raids, Rebellion & Resistance During WW2 (Lecture 8): Inter-War Afrikaner Politics: ▪ After end of SA War and in wake of Union, Afrikaners (especially middle-class) became ever more politically active (to point where first Union parliament was dominated by Afrikaners) = but the greatest majority were not included in this political growth ▪ Language and cultural organisations and the various efforts to ‘save’ the poor whites went far in mobilising popular perceptions, got ever more Afrikaners to stand together as a group, but political mobilisation not easy ▪ Divisions of wealth and class were still persistent ▪ By the 1930s, the Union’s political arena was “as divided as only South African […] politicians could be” Fusion Government (1934): ▪ Marks turning point: conscious effort made to capture power across region and class 14 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ Hertzog’s National Party (NP) and Smuts’ South African Party (SAP) fused in 1933, to form the United South African National Party (UP). ▪ The new party was “born out of a common desire to settle the constitutional relationship within the Empire and to pull South Africa out of economic crisis”. ▪ Afrikaners flourished in relative economic prosperity and political stability. New government made it clear that their concerns lay with the white population ▪ These changes not welcomed by (right-wing) fringes of white political spectrum… D.F. Malan and the Purified NP: ▪ DF Malan (Cape NP) resigned from cabinet to form “Purified” National Party (GNP) ▪ GNP focused on “failure” of UP to introduce legislation that would “protect” white South Africans from threats to the purity of their volk ▪ The GNP put themselves forward as the party that would ‘save’ white women from mixed-race marriages and restore ‘correct’ racial boundaries ▪ By 1934, GNP was official opposition ▪ After1948 = political power become concentrated in Afrikaner hands through GNP ▪ GNP won 1948 election and the Nationalists would remain in power for almost 50 years The Rise of Afrikaner Nationalism: Ideological Building Blocks: ▪ While 1914 Rebellion was a key event in bringing many Afrikaners together under one cause, did not reach all – this would be achieved over time, with the help of several key ideological building blocks of nationalism 15 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ Promotion of common language (Purification of Afrikaans) ▪ Emphasis on common past/ shared history (through 1938 Great Trek Centenary celebrations) ▪ Unity of shared sense of religion – cultural cornerstone (the Dutch Reformed Church) ▪ NB: No deeply rooted, organic Afrikaner identity, united as monolithic volk = artificial & manufactured ▪ Cultural revolution → change at a grass roots level ▪ Idea that Afrikaners were God’s chosen people = won Anglo-Boer war ▪ Commemoration of the Anglo-Boer War = frames British brutality and relies on the notion of concentration camps → builds Afrikaner nationhood despite fractures within Afrikaans groups 1938 Trek: Powerful Glue – ▪ Afrikaners by late 1930s felt disenfranchised (majority were poor, had been forced into cities to find employment, here competed for jobs and space with blacks) ▪ Longing for ‘good old days’ when they had full power ▪ Centenary celebrations were the “spark point for the renaissance of extreme Afrikaner political nationalism” ▪ Centenary Trek rooted in idealised, heroic past gave rise to longing for better, more prosperous future – fast-eroding rural social order ▪ Men grew beards and women donned Vortrekker dress: street after street in hamlet after hamlet was renamed after one or other Trek hero; babies were baptised in the shade of the wagons – one was christened Eufeesia [best translated Centennalia] – and young couples were married in full trekker regalia on the village green before the wagons. With tearful eyes old men and women climbed onto the wagons - “Lord now lettest thy servant depart in peace”, said one old man – and the young ones jostled with one another in their efforts to rub grease from the wagon axles onto their handkerchiefs. Monuments were raised up and the wagons were pulled through freshly laid concrete so that the imprint of their tracks could be preserved forever - Dunbar Moodie The Two-Front War: ▪ ‘We are now ceaselessly on the road to our goal: the Republic of South Africa – the only status under which we can truly exercise the right to self-determination as a country’ - D.F. Malan on 6 September 1939 at the on-set of the Second World War. 16 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ the home front and the international front ▪ Home front = sabotage to show aggrievement of participation The Ossewabrandwag: ▪ Anti-British and pro-Nazi German organization formed in Bloemfontein on 4 February 1939 = OB opposed South African participation in the war ▪ Refused to enlist in the South African armed forces and sometimes harassed servicemen ▪ Johannes Van Rensburg: “The Ossewabrandwag regards itself as the soldiery of the (South African) Republic... the Ossewabrandwag is the political action front of Afrikanerdom.” ▪ Used to create a hegemonic Afrikaans nation ▪ Originally no political purpose = started with a cultural purpose ▪ Virtues created and passed on throughout generations = historical consciousness ▪ OB was strategic by putting out their message through popular media = historiography (more tangible history that people can relate to) ▪ Pre-scientific phase of Afrikaner Nationalism = use raw articles, diaries etc. ▪ OB becomes attached to more radical Afrikaner Nationalism in 1941 → start to lose popularity and Smut’s places a restriction that no government officials couldn’t be a part of the radical group Stormjaers: ▪ Paramilitary wing = Stormjaers - deployed in variety of “military” operations ranging from the defence of Nationalist political platforms to pure sabotage ▪ Oath sworn by new recruits: “As ek omdraai, skiet my. As ek val, wreek my. As ek storm, volg my” (If I retreat, shoot me. If I die, avenge me. If I charge, follow me “ ▪ Sabotage campaigns: dynamited power lines, railroads and cut telegraph and telephone lines ▪ Initially supported by Malan & NP, but sabotage campaign in 1942 “too much for most Afrikaners” – NP “broke ties” Was the OB Fascist? ▪ “Hitler’s ‘Mein Kampf’ shows the way to greatness – the path of South Africa. Hitler gave the Germans a calling. He gave them a fanaticism which causes them to stand back for no one. We must follow this 17 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES example because only by such holy fanaticism can the Afrikaner nation achieve its calling.” – Ds. Koot Voster, high-ranking OB leader ▪ “We thought [Hitler] might rejuvenate western civilization…against the communist-socialist trends that were creeping in from the east. We thought it was the dawn of a new era.” – Kowie Marais, OB member South African Gentile National Socialist Movement: ▪ 1932: The NSDAP/AO arrived in South Africa; number of groups sympathetic to Nazism emerged ▪ “Greyshirts”: founded by Louis Weichart, 1933 (AKA: South African Christian National Socialist Movement), 2 000 members ▪ 1930s: Growing Jewish immigrants escaping Nazi Germany come to South Africa = Greyshirts launched a campaign calling for an end to Jewish migration and even arranged mass protests in Cape Town ▪ Activities monitored during World War 2, Disbanded 1948 Robey Leibbrandt: ▪ Heavyweight Boxer – Represented SA in 1936 Berlin Olympics = Had been “deeply impressed” by Hitler & Nazi Party ▪ Joined Wehrmacht 1939: sabotage training course for irregular warfare; joined Abwehr ▪ 1941: Operation Weissdorn – planned coup d'état against Smut’s govt. ▪ Assembled a paramilitary force of less than 60 men (many from OB); launched a series of small-scale guerrilla operations against infrastructure targets, dynamiting power lines and railway tracks, and cutting telephone and telegraph cables ▪ Captured: December 1942 –death sentence commuted to life imprisonment (BUT granted amnesty under Malan’s govt.) 18