Historical Perspectives Exam 3 Review - Fall 2024 PDF

Topical Study Guide for Exam #3 Date: December 2nd, 2024 History of Psychology – Fall 2024 Materials: Lectures 10-16, & Chaps. 8-10, & 13-14. Chapter 10 – Psychology Comes to America: William James and G. Sta...

Topical Study Guide for Exam #3 Date: December 2nd, 2024 History of Psychology – Fall 2024 Materials: Lectures 10-16, & Chaps. 8-10, & 13-14. Chapter 10 – Psychology Comes to America: William James and G. Stanley Hall James and Hall What were the American research universities in the 1800s? ○ John Hopkins University - (1st research univ. Previously, univs are only teaching) Who was the founding president of John Hopkins University? ○ Daniel Coit Gillman ○ Based on the German model What were three important changes Daniel Gillman made to research universities? ○ Previous grad school requirement ○ Fellowship offered ○ Academic departments Be able to summarize psychology’s development in America. ○ 1.) In the middle of 19th century, “psych” was unknown ○ 2.) William James at Harvard = one of the fathers of psychology. First to teach a course on psychology ○ 3.) Wilhelm Wundt (another father of psych) = studied in Germany and returned to America ○ 4.) Hall and Catell returned to America and created labs to develop Wundt’s ideas ○ 5.) Three schools were debated Structuralism: (basis of this lecture): Comes from Europe structure of conscious experience. Analyze basic elements of thoughts and sensation. First school of thought in psychology established in Germany by Wundt. William James tho Edward Tichener  Functionalism: mental processes are more systematic, developed from Charles Darwin Behaviorism Who were the scholars of the 19th-20th century? (James and Hall) Summarize biographical information about James. ○ Lifestyle of William James: Born in New York, NY Rich dad, godfather is Ralph Waldo Emmerson Traveled Europe and received trans-Atlantic education. Fluent in French and German Studied art Anxiety and depression Medicine at Harvard in 1864-1872; interrupted by a trip to Brazil in Amazon river with Agassiz; got sick; interrupted by studying with von Helmholtz in Uni of Berlin; never practiced medicine Neighbor who’s president of Harvard gave him job teaching comparative A&P ○ What was America like in the 1840s-early 1900s? Climate: little ice age ends in 1950, less crops, 100 degrees in LA. Temperature increase Government: 20 different presidents. John Tyler -> Woodrow Wilson. Economy: 1840, pre-industrial, most grew what they ate. 1915, economy was volatile, boom to bust Jobs: 1840, agriculture. Indoor planning was rate. Mass immigration to west coast, gold rush; 1915 increase of white collar jobs Transportation: 1840, horseback or river boat; 1915, walked, street car if in cities Activities: 1840, spent Friday nights dancing to player pianos; 1915, Vaudeville/variety shows, Buffalo Bill Cody travelled around world for entertainment Where did James set up his lab? ○ Harvard, at the same time Wundt was experimenting in Germany What book did James write? ○ Principles of Psychology at textbook, 1890 ○ 12 years to write, not well-received at the time ○ James and the Jimmy  Which university was James a professor at? ○ 1989 first Professor of Psychology at Harvard What are James’ contributions to psychology from his famous textbook in 1890 (9)? ○ Space perception (maybe from studying Art) ○ James-Lange theory of Emotion ○ Importance of instinct ○ Habits ○ Use of psychopathology to explain normal behavior ○ Self-psychology ○ Memory model, which anticipated the Atkinson-Shiffrin information processing ○ Understanding of the importance of physiological inhabitation ○ Attempts to understand vague, transitory, or mystical states Define functionalism. Who was it inspired by? ○ James was inspired by Darwin’s work of evolution ○ Recognized imprtotance of empirical, rational thought, purpose of consciousness, psychological states, and behavior ○ First avocate of functionalism as school of thought Summarize biographical information about Hall ○ Lifestyle: Born in Ashfield, MA No money. Father is farmer Father brought him a draft exemption from Civil War; he was guilty 1863, student at Williams College (philosophy and theory of evolution, influenced by Darwin’s theory) Student at Uni of Bonn and Berlin, then returned to America Taught English at Harvard while in grad school. Studied with Wilhelm James Who was the first American to receive a PhD in a psychological topic? ○ Hall, ○ Eventually returned to Germany and worked with Wundt. He learned lab work Who did Hall prefer to work with? ○ Fechner, roomie Where was Hall a faculty member?  ○ John Hopkins Univeristy Summarize the discoveries of Hall. What book did he write? What were his contributions to psychology? ○ Hall set up laboratory focused on research psychology, while James laboratory was about teaching psych. ○ Book: Adolescence (1904) Identified the topic as a sub-division of development psychology ○ Identified adolescents sexuality as an area of research (ahead of its time), Kinsey moved this investigation forward for adults in late 1930s. ○ Wrote first book on the psychology of religion and aging ○ Creative! Monthly journals and National American society for psychology (APA). ○ Hall sunk the roots of psychology deep into American soil SUMMARY ○ James contributed 9 ideas and practices to psych ○ Principles of Psychology at textbook, 1890 ○ 1989 first Professor of Psychology at Harvard ○ James Showed importance of a multidisciplinary perspective to understanding the human mind ○ James propelled American psychology forward with his writings, teachings, and findings ○ James: Functionalism ○ Hall founded APA in his own living room and was the first president ○ Hall founded American Journal of Psychology ○ Hall started Amercas first research laboratory at Harvard ○ Hall translate Freud’s work into English ○ Hall studied child and adolescent psychology ○ Hall mentored over 81 students to their PhD.= students spread the word in America, “sunk roots deep in American soil.” ○ Hall’s students: James Catell, John Dewey, Henry Goddard, Lewis Terman Another one, Francis Cecil Sumner Graduated from Clark University First African American to earn PhD Sumner was a leader in education reform Sumner referred to as the “Father of Black Psychology” Howard University, an independent psychology program Chapter 11 – Functionalism - Thorndike and Dewey Understand how functionalism developed from structuralism. ○ Functionalism (William James) emphasize mental process. Stucturalism (Titchener) emphasize structure Who coined the movement of Functionalism psychology? ○ William James Understand that Functionalism is from James and Structuralism is from Titchener. Understand the three key aspects of Functionalism. ○ Functionalists wanted to know how the mind works ○ Functionalism paved the way for Behaviorism as a movement within psychology ○ Functionalism was not long lasting (but they are progressives who gave psychology an American imprint following the German and English development of psychology as a discipline). Who were the Functionalists? (e.g., James) Who were the transitionals? (e.g., Witmer) ○ Functionalists: William James Charles Snders Peirce ○ Transitionals: Hugo Munsterberg Lighter Witmer William McDougall G. Stanley Hall Edward A. Pace America Unviersities contribution to Functionalism: ○ Univeristy of Chicago (John Dewey) and Columbia University (Thorndike) Who were some of the women and African Americans who contributed to American psychology? ○ Women: Mary Whiton  Christine Ladd-Franklin Maragaret Flow Washburn ○ African Americans Francis Cecil Sumner Kennet Bancroft Clark Mamie Phipps Clark Who were the scholars of the 19th-20th century in this lecture. Be sure to know their biography, contributions to psychology, and discoveries. (Thorndike and Dewey) What was America like in the 1850s-1950s. What are some major historical events? ○ Government: Fillmore was president - Harry Truman was president Civil war;1910 so many race riots US joined WWI ○ Economy 1900s America is a great country. WWI women worked ○ Jobs Lied on fars and grew own food in 1850. 1900 America was an Urban Industrilized power. Men on war and women worked ○ Activities 1850s people of US in Civil War; Political debates were common 1910 movie theaters. Dance halls nad penny arcades How did the Civil War and WWI impact education? ○ Impact of civil war on education: No endowments. Facutly and Students were fighting or working for the war. Universities were being use dfor the war effort ○ Imapct of WWI: Decline of enrollments. 1917, men 18 and older needed to register and serve in WWI ○ Benefit of WWI to psychology Resulted in validation of psychology as a science and removed it from philosophy, establishing it as a credible scientific field What was the attitude to education like in the United States during Thorndike and Dewey’s time?  ○ Spirit of moral and economic superiority found in American Academia ○ At the end of 19th century, Americans went to Europe to get quality sci and research education ○ The President of Harvard, Charles Eliot upgraded the medical school in 1870 ○ Doctoral programs were available for the 1st time in America in late 19th cent. What lifestyle events influenced Thorndike? ○ Thorndike Born in WIlliamsburg, MA the son of a Methodist minister Grew up in many New England towns, due to dad’s work At 17, discovered that he liked WIlliam James approach to psychology Went to Harvard for grad school to study English and French -> changed to Psych Conducted animal learning experiments with chickens (could they differentiate sweet and bad corn kernels) Transferred to University of Columbia NY for graduate fellowship at the invitation of James McKeen Cattell Established an animal laboratory in the attic at University of Columbia. Cats What is a puzzle box? ○ Thorndike ○ Cat inside the box and have to figure out through trial and error how to get out ○ If get out, then get a fod for positive reinforcement ○ Trial and Error Learning ○ Reaction time ○ Insight learning in problem solving What are the three laws of Functionalism (learning) according to Thorndike? ○ 1.) Law of Readiness - we learn best from necessary background ○ 2.) Law of Exercise - more frequently a stimulus and a response are associated with each other, the more likely we’re going to be able to complete ○ 3.) Law of Effect - positive effect. Getting reward What were Thorndike’s contributions to modern day psychology?  ○ Thorndike Functionalism: Thorndike impacted functionalism The influence was not long lasting and was taken over by behaviorism Different styles of learning but also overlap between humans and animals How to be educated to be most successful in retaining the information Developed human intelligence tests Published 50 psychological works What lifestyle events influenced Dewey? ○ Born in Burlington, Vermont ○ Growing up the 3 of 4 sons in a family focused on New England middle class values ○ Father is grocer, who wants his boys to college, but poor ○ Dewey felt he learned more exploring and having adventures than school ○ Graduated from University of Vermont ○ Teaching school convinced him that education reform was needed ○ Hall was his graduate advisor and he graduated from John Hopkins in 1884 ○ Dewey becomes the chairman of Dept. Philosophy in 1894 in Uni Chicago What were Dewey’s contributions to modern day psychology? ○ Formal beginning of Functionalism in his classic psychology paper, published in 1896 - The Psychological Review Wrote down his experiences, not research Set the stage for functionalism ○ Education reform - the student should be involved in learning - applied education Summary: ○ Thorndike Most remembered for his trial-and-error learning with animals (Cats and chickens) Law of Effect associated with learning (3 laws, but this is the strongest) ○ Dewey Founder of American psychology and the functionalist school of psychology. Important educational innovator ○ Functionalism no longer exits as a formal school of psychology, but nearly all psychologists are functionalists.  ○ Chapter 12 – Behaviorism and Neo-Behaviorism Sechenov, Bekkhterev, Pavlov, Watson, Skinner What is behaviorism? ○ 20th century in America. Well-received ○ Brought by Watson Published Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it (1915) Proposed that psychology move away from inner consciousness as proposed by Freud and Jung His perspective evolved with the influence of other researchers and turned into applied behaviorism in schools, homes, and business ○ Historical trail that inspired Watson’s core of behaviorism Hippocrates explain that human activity is due to biological and physical causes Before 20th century, French Sensationalist tradition rejected Descartes views, instead believed that humans have mechanical system that responds to stimuli Locke had stated that the mind is dependent on the environment for its content Understand the three acts of Behaviorism. ○ 1.) Russian Physiologist Looked at respondent behavior ○ 2.) In Europe and America (1920-50s)  focused on learned association ○ 3.) Gestalt Psychologist influenced Tolman’s work on Behaviorism Behaviorist scholars ○ Sechenov, Bekkhterev, Pavlov, Watson, Skinner ○ First three are all Russians ○ All physiologists and interested in the brain and basis of behavior ○ Have measurable components ○ B.F. Skinner identified Learned Association (operant conditioning) What was Russia like in 1829-mid 1930s? What were the economy and government like? ○ Serf uprisings. They cannot leave their land Russia of Sechenov, Bekkhterev, Pavlov ○ Government 1829-1936 Emperor Nicholas I ruled Russia, education only for the gentry Nicholas engaged in 3 wars during his reign (Crimean War and Turkey) Nicholas wanted more land and lost the Siege of Sevastopol Turkey, France and Britain - dies Emperor Alexander II ruled Russia, Poland, Finland Emancipated Serfs Industrialization started Tsar Alexander III Nicholas II, then Grand Duke Michael Economy Thrived under Emperor Alexander II - industrialization By 1860-70, Russian Socialist were Marxist and did not support industrialization Inner struggles and war Activities Peasants/Serfs Lifestyle of Sechenov ○ Born in village of Russia ○ Sone of nobleman and a peasant mother ○ Spoke Russian, German, French ○ Attending St. Petersburg Military Engineering school ○ Studied medicine at Moscow University Discoveries and contributions of Sechenov ○ Hypothesized that all activities including thinking and langage are reflexes ○ Behavior is the result of responses to environment stimuli, mediated at the cortical level ○ Defined reflexology: e.g. fight/flight response  Lifestyle of Bekkhterev ○ Went to school at Vyataka gymnasium in 1867 ○ Attended Military medical academy in St. Petersburg ○ Neurologist, and Father of Objective Psychology ○ Studied at St. Petersburg in Russia ○ Left Russia and was supervised by Wilhelm Wundt (one of the father of psychology) in Germany ○ Later supervised by Jean Martin Charcot (neurologist developed hypnotism) in France. Discoveries and Contributions of Bekkhterev ○ Reflex ○ Brain as being connected to conditional reflexes ○ Wrote extensively and publicised reflexology ○ Confliced with Pavlov for who discovered conditional reflexes Lifestyle of Pavlov ○ Father is a Russian Orthodox priest and poor ○ Worked as a tutor to pay for Uni St. Petersburg. Awarded Fellowship in 1879. Graduated medical school ○ Pavlov Institue of Physiology of the Russian Academy of Sciences was established in 1930s ○ Received Noble Prize in 1904 Discoveries and contributions of Pavlov ○ Behavior as a result of responses to environmental stimuli, mediated at the cortical level (took Bekkhterev’s idea further and connected to Learning) ○ Conditioning Reflexology - Experiments with dog ○ Connected physiology to behavior ○ Identified the process of reflexes or reflexology of the process of conditioning a response ○ Idetified classical conditioning ○ Identified 4 Acquisition and Extinction processes: Unconditional stimulus, conditioned stimulus, unconditional response, conditional response (the samvating is conditional to the stimuli)  · What is reflexology? · How did the scholars agree and disagree over reflexes? (e.g., Bekkhterev conflicted with Pavlov who discovered conditional reflexes.) · What is conditioning reflexology? (Pavlov) · According to Pavlov, what is behavior the result of? · Be able to describe Pavlov’s classical conditioning. America for Watson and Skinner ○ Government Rutherford B. Hayes - Harry Truman Post Civil War, 1910 many race riots WWI, WWII, Korean War Brain Drain - loss of lives, lost knowledge Psychologists can assign troops to president Wilson (believed in Psychology) ○ Economy Increased ○ Education Schools in America were harder since few facilities nad inadequate Discrimination, sexism, racism -> only few subjects Only 1.5% women in education Wealth was and continues to divide education Brown v. Board 1954 Lifestyle of Watson ○ South carolina ○ Mother was pious, opped to drinking, dancing ○ Father was opposite and violent ○ Watson was a bad kid ○ Undergrad in Furman College and taught at Batesburg Institution for a year - wanted to be in a real University ○ In 1900 with Fellowship, started PhD in University of Chicago ○ Comparative psychology ○ Chair of Psychology at John Hopkins University ○ Watson’s Experiments Taught rats to run through a maze for reward Observed the failings of Structuralism & Functionalism Conditoned emotional response to Fears (Little Albert) Detached parenting style - was later eliminated for poor child outcomes  Contributions of Watson ○ Behaviorism proposed 1915 ○ Expansion of the stimulus thought theory ○ Contributed to applied psychology ○ Moved psychology away from philosophy towards biology ○ Popularized psychology and behaviorism through popular books vs. academic papers = pop psychology -> because he was fired from John Hopkins Neobehaviorsm 1930-60s ○ Neobehaviorism scholars Edward Tolman: latent learning and pruposive behaviorism; “animals are goal-oriented” Clark Hull: mechanistic behaviorism; “animals are not goal-directed, they are mechanistic” BF Skinner: Operant conditioning ○ Focus of Neobehaviorism Mediational: unobservable or intervening variable accepted if operationally defined (Tolman and Hull) Radical: Reinforcers of behaviors and punishers (Skinner) Lifestyle of Skinner ○ Known as Fred ○ Pennsylvania ○ Father is lawyer and mother a SAHM, brother died at 16 ○ Majored in English in Hamilton College; read Watson and Pavlov’s research and became a psychologist ○ Earned PhD at Harvard in psychology. 1931 & met philosopher Alfred Whitehead who influenced his work on scientific study of language ○ Faculty positions at 2 universities, before he returns to Harvard in 1948 until end of life Discoveries of Skinner ○ Built animal learning boxes - known by a variety of names (operant chamber, Scare box, lever box). Purpose was to understand animal behaviorism and response to conditioning ○ Operant conditioning chambers, extension of Thordike’s puzzle box  ○ Law of effect is the basis of operant conditioning ○ Identified response rate ○ Further uncovered Contribution to psychology by Skinner ○ Operant conditioning chamber or Skinner box to understand animal learning ○ Behavior is continued is rewarded and stops if punished ○ Introduced the word Reinforcement into Thorndike’s law of effect ○ Cumulative Recroder - could help determine what the animal did ○ Learning Association What were the major contributions to Behaviorism from Watson and Skinner? How are they different from previous behaviorist contributions? What is Neo-Behaviorism? Who were the primary scholars? What was the focus? What are Skinner boxes? Summarize the contributions to psychology today from the behaviorists and neo-behaviorists? Sechenov, Bekkhterev, Pavlov, Watson, Skinner ○ Behaviorists Sechenov identified the brain behaviorism connection Sechenov defined reflexology Bekkhterev identified the role and purpose of reflexes Bekkhterev wrote extensively and publicized reflexology Bekkhterev had similar idea as Pavlov’s to conditional response (Pavlov’s ideas made more sense to people and more precise) Pavlov made connection between the souce of behavior, physiology, and the response Pavlov identified classical conditioning Pavlov identified 4 Aquisition and Extinction processes in behavior Watson is the Father of Behaviorism Watson’s prolific pop psychology books were essential to the spread of behaviorism  Watson influenced Skinner to be a psychologist through his books ○ NeoBehaviorists Skinner develope the Radical form of Neobehaviorism Skinner built technology for studying animals learning behavior and a cumulative recorder for recording it Skinner developed Skinner boxes, operant conditing boxes Skinner said Reinforcement was important for learning Skinner’s Neobehaviorism had Behavior Analysis as an outcropping Used for autism, ADHD, Skinner’s learing association with langauge inspired Chomsky (language and cognitive psychology) Chapter 13 – Social Psychology - Lewin, Blau, Sherif, Milgram, Elliot What are the three primary focal areas of social psychology? ○ Social thinking ○ Social influence ○ Social relations (e.g. Conformity) Which historical events impacted the development of social psychology? ○ WWI and WWII (especially) ○ Walther Moede (1888-1958) was conducting important research, but WWI disrupted ○ But WWII helped understand Hitler -> conformity ○ Kurt Lewin was interested in social psychology and became father of social Psych in America Understand the timeline of social psychology ○ 100BC: Plato (crowd mind) 100BC. Said Socrates was influenced to drink the hemlock ○ 1766: Anton Mesmer investigation was what is now called social influence processes 1766, where the word “mesmerized” came from. Social contagion. Social facilitation ○ 1841: Gustave Le Bon published book: The Psychology of Crowds, 1841, religious leaders ○ 1864: Social psychology was coined by the Italian journalist & politician Carlo Cattaneo, 1864 ○ 1890: Kurt Lewin (gestalt psych) investigated group dynamics and the impact on the individual, 1890 ○ 1898: Norman Triplet Social Facilitation. Experiment with children. Being observed would improve performance 3 in a team, fish faster Cyclists: first sports psychology ○ 1908: two textbooks were published on the topic of social psychology by a psychologist (McDougal) and sociologist (Ross) Behavior is a response either to the stimuli OR evoked by the stimuli  ○ 1919: Floyd Alport’s thesis extended Triplet’s work on social facilitation American He included mental process impacted by a group Added “Abnormal and SOCIAL psychology” journal ○ 1950: Solomon Asch Social conformity influenced by Gestalt psychology 1 and 2 lines. They would really agree with others Holocaust ○ 1957: Leon Festinger Cognitive Dissonance: Who is Leon Festinger (Social Thinking) and what is cognitive dissonance? ○ 1960s ○ A belief is professed by an individual and is coupled to some action that goes against the belief ○ Because you did it (action), just alter the belief. “I must believe this because I did that” ○ Counter-attitudinal Essay study (Festinger -1960s) Change of belief after writing an essay about it. e.g. Write an essay about benefits of tuition increase, after writing their rating of the idea went up ○ Zana and Cooper study Offer money to write essay $ one group was paid $10 and one group only 25 cents Checked how much professed belief occured Results: ○ group that was paid more barely changed belief “since they were paid to do it” ○ group that was paid only 25 cents, changed belief since its hard to explain why you went through the trouble to write one Placebo Pill One group just told it was placebo One group was told it would cause anxiety Group who knew got placebo resulted in changed of belief ○ Belief - Action (against belief) = change belief ○ Anxiety was seen as a key factor within this theory  There were many events in the USA from 1890-1988. ○ WWII strongly influenced Social Psychologist Researchers! ○ History Books state civil rights tool place between 1950-1960 ○ 1958- Explorer 1, first American Satellite launched ○ 1959- Alaska became 49th state and Hawaii became 50th ○ 1964- President Johnson signs Civil Rights Act ○ 1982-Deadline for ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution passes ○ 1987- in Berlin, President Reagan challenges Soviet leader to tear down wall and open Eastern Europe to olitical nad economic reform. Lewin (social influence) ○ German scholar and gestal psychologist, but moved to US ○ Field Theory emphasized importance of individual personality Human behavior is the direct result of both the individual characterisitcs and the environment they live in. ○ Father of Social Psychology ○ Gathered scholars and inspired them to study the topic of Social Psychology -> Festinger ○ 1945 Established The Research Center for Group Dynamics (RCGD) in MIT which later moved to University of Michigan Blau (social influence) ○ Social Exchange Theory ○  ○ Kitty Genovese died stabbed in 1964, but people just watched We exchange help for social good (love, money); but what would their benefits be? We avoid negatives of costs e.g. getting killed Lalane and Darley (social influence) ○ Bystander Effect A response to Kitty’s death Altruism (1 person, idea was developed by Comte and French philisopher) or Diffusion of responsibility Sherif and Sherif (social influence) ○ Robbers Cave Experiment (1950) in-group, out-group Intergroup Hostility Competition tasks let to hostility Conflict theory if we have shared goals (cooperative task), then we resolve group tension Milgram (social influence) ○ Obedience to the extent of harm ○ What makes people compile? Emotional distance from the victim. They dont know them Authority is hard to go against with Institutional authority (e.g. government and Nazi) What is the Social Exchange Theory? Who created it? ○ Blau What is the Field Theory? Who created it? ○ Lewin What is the Bystander Effect? Who developed it? ○ Lalane and Darley Describe the Robbers Cave experiment. Who conducted it? ○ Sherif and Sherif Elliot (Social Relations) ○ Brown-eyed Blue-eyed study  gave experience to white people (3rd grader) of discrimination based on physical characteristics “Low class if you dont have brown/blue eyes” when someone feels superior, their grades increased ○ Jane Elliot interviewed by Jimmy Fallon said that people must not say “i dont see colors” ○ A teacher ○ In time, researchers investigated the effect of prejudice - reduction simulation on attitude ○ Diversity training What is the Brown-Eyed, Blue-Eyed study? Who came up with it? What was it used for? ○ Elliot What is self-efficacy? ○ By Albert Bandura Bandura (Social Thinking) ○ Self-efficacy ○ the optimistic belief in our ability ○ Someone with high self-efficacy tend to have more positive outlook and experience lower stress Summary of Social Psychology ○ Social Influence: Lewin Blau Lalane and Darley Mesmer Triplet Alport Sherfs Milgram ○ Social Relations Elliot Comte ○ Social Thinking  Festinger Bandura ○ Disputed Results of Social Psychology cannot replicate the “intelligence priming” study cannot replicate study where reading old-related words make you walk slower It’s hard to replicate social priming ○ Now, Loftus False memory, car crash, lost in a mall Reduction of bias. IAT (Implicit association test) to reveal subconscious bias Social neuroscience - when we reject someone it hurts them physically Social media behavior Chapter 14 – Dropped Chapter 15 – Foundational Thinkers Piaget and Vygotsky Piaget Lifestyle ○ Switzerland, father wrote on local history and medieval lit ○ Piaget’s temperament was best fit with dad since mom has anxiety ○ Piaget wrote to relieve stress. ○ He studied animals and humans -> more stress -> merged ideas with biology (wanted something applied and grounded) ○ Studied hard science ○ Post grad, studied with Jung in Zurich ○ Went to Paris to find what hard science to study. Worked with Theodore Simon in a lab on intelligence testing in children. Piaget Discoveries ○ Cogntive development Infancy to Adolescents Identified the name Genetic Epistemology Developed Stage Theory of cognitive development ○ Process of Cognitive development (how we learn new information) Assimilation -> Equilibriation -> New Situation -> Disequilibrium -> Accommodation E.g. “new situation” there’s two books -> need to “accommodate” that there are two types of books -> you can either “assimilate” it into your book category and have “equilibrium” OR as we get older you can have more categories (schemas) ○ We develop schemas  ○ Theory of Cognitive Development ○ Sensorimotor: (0-2): object permanence, recognition of the ability to control object ○ Preoperational (2-7): Sub-stage 1 language use, Egocentric thinking and Centration classified obejcts by single feature (e.g. color) Sub-stage 2 Animism: feed teddy bear, give human qualities to stuffed toys ○ Concrete operational (7-11) conservation task A family tree of 4 generations: can classify the members vertically, horizontally, and obliquely (up,down,across) ○ Formal operation (11->) adolescents Pendulum task - can you hypothesize how much they would swing Rational thought Hypothetical deductive reasoning Abstract thinking Critical analysis Perspective-taking Focused on themselves (Elkland - adolescent’s egocentrism) Piaget’s contribution ○ Scientific and replicable ○ Identified the process of retaining information in schemas (organization and adaption) ○ Impacted education and when children are ready to learn  ○ Contributions to understanding the development of children’s minds and how children think Who were the scholars? (Piaget and Vygotsky) Be sure to know about their biographical history and how their lifestyle influenced their ideas. ○ Vygotsky is Russian, but it took a while to be in English ○ Piaget is Switzerland ○ Vygotsky was into education, but not Piaget What is Genetic Epistemology? ○ Humans develops cognitively from birth; developemnt of knowledge overtime Vygotsky lifestyle ○ During Bolshevik Revolution in Russia ○ did not have a formal degree but began teaching psychology in his local town ○ 1924, went to Leningrad for national neurpsych conference ○ Invited to become a research fellow in Moscow Psychological Institute. Wrote paper on psychology of art awared a doctoral degree based on his paper ○ Did not do experimental work, colleagues gathered to discuss “Vygotsky circle” and he published papers from these discussions ○ Struggled with TB and died Discoveries of Vygotsky ○ Social Constructiviest Approach Emphasizes the social contexts of learning E.g. Students are in circle tables ○ Close with Lewin and Zeigarnik (gestalt) ○ Asserts that knowledge is mutually built and constructed ○ How tools of intellectual adaptation - children acquire cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solcing strategies through collaborative dialogues with wise people of their world ○ Social Origins of Learning  Collaborative (or guided) learning Zone of ZPD Closely linke to scaffolding (scaffolding is a milestone at 18-17 mo.) Private Speech ○ while learning, they will repeat phrases that they heard ○ they are thinking through the process Contributions of Vygotsky ○ Sociocultural theory offered new lense to view human development Social process matter as children talk with wiser humans Inner speech of child: using language culture’s way to communicate; think and problem solving Developemnt is not a process of set stages, but there are wide variations across cultures in development. Summary of Piaget and Vygotsky ○ Piaget: ideitified name of Genetic Epistemology Identified process of retaining information in schemas — orgnaization and adaptation developed states of cognitive development impacted education and when children are ready to learn ○ Vygotsky contributed to the development of a new social cognition social and personality development are linked to cognitive development Importnace of culture gave children higher esteem by being educators of each other ”we all have something to share” Chapter 16 – Cognition and AI Skinner vs Chomsky ○ BF Skinner (behaviorist) Language Book All langauge learned by reinforcement e.g. Mom gives response to baby’s noises (but was not liked by other researchers) Mand Functions: “more” with parental nod ○ Chomsky’s Rebuttal Behaviorists cannot explain novelty of language ”Sophomores are limiculous” What is the mind-computer analogy? ○ 1. Mental process can be understood in terms of similarity to a computer ○ 2. Mental process can be understood as a information processing throuhg a system in a step-by-step fashion Describe the Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory. ○ Example of mind-computer analogy ○ What is the Chase and Simon experiment? ○ Viwed board for 5 sec, then had to rebuild it from memory ○ A “trial” consisted of one attempted to rebuild board ○ Measured number of trials to get board correct ○ 2 sets Middle Games (pieces made sense): Master, Mid-Level, Beginner (Master have an advantage due to long-term memory) Random Middle Games (pieces did not made sense, random): Master and Mid-Level the same, they all defualted to “short-term memory”  What is mental modeling and how does it relate to problem solving? ○ Johnson-Laird Mental models are built to solve spatial problems Who were Rumelhart and McClelland? Describe Parallel-Distributed Processing? ○ Cognitive modeling became more explicit -> actually running computer stimulations ○ Helped move cognitive psychology to AI ○ Primitive processors (+)(-) on/off, binary code, excitatory/inhibitory ○ Can be stacked in layers ○ The layers connect ○ ”energy” is transmitted through the connections ○ Iterations can simulate information processing (learning) ○ BRAIN! Similar process  What was cognitive modeling like in the 1970s? What were the advantages and disadvantages? ○ Information processing “box” models (Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model) ○ Progressed to include computer simulations ○ PDP “connectionist” model ○ Mathematical models What is cognitive science? ○ Congitive psychology, neuroscience, anthroplogy, computer science, AI, robotocs, linguistic Understand why AI is attempting to model a mind. Review what a computer is and what AI is. See slides on the technological evolution. ○ Different than cognitive psychology AI strives to produce goal-oriented behavior in a most effcient way Human and animal cognition is not always extremely efficient ○ Early computers use a vaccum tube and use binary process -> transistors -> microchip ○ Computers downsized What is the promise of AI? ○ Machines will outperform humans intelligence meant to perform differently than biological systems - more optimized to a task, but otherwise often limited Understand what reasoning and chess thinking are. ○ Chase and Simon’s studies of Experts Memory test for chess boards ”in game” chess boards: experts have advantage scrambled chess boards ○ Chess thinking Adversarial Reasoning Reasoning in a dynamic context with many variables Two methods solution: 1. Algorithm method, analyze all possible moves (what computer would do in chess) 2. Heuristic method: efficiently analyze best case scenarios and minimize time spent on proabable dead-end scenarios (humans)  Look at the slide and understand who wins – the computer or the person in AI chess games. ○ For many years, Heuristic Approach was more effective than Algorithm approach ○ Deep Blue IBM WON vs Gary Kasparov ○ Human emotion and self-doubt could affected Kasparov Semantic memory ○ Humans vs Animalschimpanzees can learn from a behaviorist manner ○ ○ IBM Watson plays Jeopardy! Watson can look up for semantics People cannot defeat Watson Watson handles both structured and unstructured data Unstructured data is key to Watson’s abiltiies, it breaks down Relations, Grammar, Structure GO ○ What is the game Go? How is it different than chess? How are AI and computers involved? ○ ○ What is Alphago? Google’s Alphago won match again Lee Sedol ○