Color and Light Handout#3 PDF

Color and Light After the design element of space, color and light are probably two of an interior designer’s most powerful design tools. Color and light can alter the use and perception of a space, since they can be manipulated for effect or emotion. Color can be used to define form and give a...

Color and Light After the design element of space, color and light are probably two of an interior designer’s most powerful design tools. Color and light can alter the use and perception of a space, since they can be manipulated for effect or emotion. Color can be used to define form and give a sense of scale rather than merely provide a background. Color is an integral part of the world around us. Color can be used to create an illusion or to emphasize a dramatic architectural form. Color cannot be explained as just a scientific theory, an art, or an emotional reaction to our environment, because it is an integral part of all of these. The need for color is often a reaction to an otherwise drab world. Writings on color theories first appeared around the 1400s, and the subject was further developed in 1704 by Isaac Newton. As we shall see later in the chapter, there have been more developments on color theory since those early experiments to define exactly what color is, how to create it, and how to apply it. Color is usually associated with commonplace physical objects, such as brightly colored flowers, multicolored leaves in autumn, the sky at sunset, or a painting. In design, color is generally thought of in terms of objects and surfaces, such as walls, carpets, cars, and buildings. Color affects, and is crucial to the success of, the design of an environment (Figure 5.1). Color is a mood-setting and emotion-producing tool. Putting together a color scheme for an interior design project is a very pleasurable and rewarding aspect of design work. Working with color is a science as well as an art. Developing skill in using colors begins with the study of color systems, which are based on the scientific principles of light and color. Figure 5.1 Color makes a strong design statement in this neutral-colored showroom interior. Courtesy of Knoll, Inc.; © Paul Warchol 1  Color is not a physical part of objects we see, but rather is the effect of light waves bouncing off or passing through the objects. In fact, if there were no light, there would be no color. Therefore, light and color are inseparable. For a designer to use color, it is important to know first how light affects color. We perceive colors because of the way light strikes objects and the way our brains translate the messages our eyes receive (Figure 5.2). Other factors that determine how we perceive the color of a given object are the light source under which it is examined, the material the object is made of, and the physical condition of the viewer’s eyes. 2 Figure 5.2 Light and color perception are influenced by the many variables and factors categorized under one of the four columns in this illustration. 3  LIGHT SOURCES Light is a form of radiant energy that exists in the shape of repeating wave patterns emanating from a source in straight paths and in all directions. An example of this radiant energy is the sun and its projecting rays. Light is considered to be a radiant energy wave and a part of our larger wave spectrum, referred to as the electromagnetic spectrum (Figure 5.3). Figure 5.3 shows that the visible spectrum, which is responsible for color, is a very small part of the overall spectrum of radiant, electromagnetic energy. The eye distinguishes different wavelengths of this radiant energy and interprets them as different colors. The longest wavelength in the visible spectrum is red, followed in descending order by orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet, the shortest visible wavelength. Wavelengths are measured in nanometers, each one-millionth of a millimeter, and range from 380 to 760 nanometers. Wavelengths shorter or longer than this range, such as ultraviolet and infrared light, do not stimulate the receptors in our eyes; hence we cannot see them. Figure 5.3 The human eye responds to that very small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum known as the visible spectrum. However, it does not respond uniformly, as it senses the yellow-green region as the brightest and the red and blue regions as the darkest. CC-BY-SA-3.0/Philip Ronan In the 1600s, Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) demonstrated that color is a natural part of sunlight o white light. When he passed a beam of sunlight through a prism of transparent material, he found that as the light emerged from the prism it dispersed, separating the individual wavelengths into different colors. These colors arranged themselves according to the colors of a rainbow: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet (Figure 5.4). Newton carried his experiment one step further by utilizing a second prism to mix the waves back into sunlight. This verified the fact that color is basically made up of light and that when “colored” lights are mixed, the result is white light. Figure 5.4 The effect of passing rays of white light through a prism is to bend the shorter wavelengths more than the longer wavelengths, thus separating them into distinctly identifiable bands of color. 4  When a light source emits energy in relatively equal quantities over the entire visible spectrum, as in the case of the sun or a bright light bulb, the combination of the colored light will appear white to the human eye. However, if a light source emits energy over only a small section of the spectrum, it will produce that corresponding colored light. Examples can be seen in our electric light sources, such as the high-intensity discharge mercury lamp that produces a blue-green light or the deep yellow low-pressure sodium lamp. MODIFIERS OF LIGHT Indeed, color cannot exist without light, because colors are actually other names for various mixtures of radiant, electromagnetic energy. But how then do we explain colors in actual objects? The colors that we see in objects are the result of light waves that reach the eye after the object has selectively absorbed some of the wavelengths and either reflected or transmitted the others. In other words, the color, or pigmentation, of an object absorbs all colors of light except its own color, which is either reflected or transmitted to the eye. For example, if white light falls on a red surface, that surface will absorb all the wavelengths except the red ones, which are reflected back to the eye, allowing us to perceive the color red, as illustrated in Figure 5.5. Figure 5.5 Only red light waves are reflected back to the eye after all other wavelengths are absorbed by the red surface. 5  Similarly, if a white light is passed through a transparent surface, such as a piece of green glass, the transmitted wavelengths will appear green because the other wavelengths have been absorbed. An object or surface will appear black when light is totally absorbed. The material or texture of an object will also influence how much light is absorbed, reflected, or transmitted. When light falls on an unpolished (diffuse) surface, light waves are reflected in all directions (Figure 5.6) because of the overall even surface. Smooth, shiny surfaces reflect more light, and dull or matte surfaces absorb most of the light waves, thus modifying the visual appearance. Figure 5.6 Selective spectral reflectance occurs when light falls on matte or diffuse surfaces such as sandstone (a). Spectral transmission occurs when a light falls on a transparent surface or object. 6  HUMAN VISION AND PERCEPTION Because light and color are related to vision, it is necessary to understand how the human eye works. The human eye is a delicate and complex instrument that functions in many ways like a camera. Both the eye and the camera have a light-sensitive plane on which a lens focuses an image; in the eye this plane is the retina, and in the camera it is the film. In each, the amount of light entering the lens can be controlled by the iris in the eye and by the diaphragm in the camera (Figure 5.7). Figure 5.7 Comparison of a human eye to a camera. 7  For light to be visible, it enters the eye through the pupil, whose size is controlled by the iris. The pupil expands or contracts in response to the stimulus of the optic nerve to control the amount of light entering. The light then passes through the lens and focuses to form an image on the retina. The optic nerve then transmits the visual message by electric impulses to the brain to create the mental picture we see. The image perceived is dependent on the central portion of the eye, which is located near the fovea and contains light-sensitive cells called cones because of their shape. These cones are responsible for the ability to see color and to discriminate fine detail. There are three kinds of cones in our eyes, each of which is sensitive to a certain wavelength area. The peaks of the three spectral sensitivity curves in Figure 5.8 correspond to the spectrum’s short, middle, and long wavelength areas, which respectively give us the color sensations blue, green, and red. Cones discriminate detail primarily because they are connected to their own nerve ends. The muscles allow the eyeball to rotate until the image is focused and falls on the fovea. Cone vision is referred to as photopic, or daytime, vision. Figure 5.8 The relative sensitivities of the cone mechanisms within the eye correspond to the blue, green, and red wavelength areas of the visible spectrum. The sensitivities of the three receptor peaks are not necessarily equal, as the eye perceives the yellow-green region as the brightest. 8  The rod, a second type of cell within the eye structure, is also named after its shape. These cells are extremely sensitive to low levels of light, enabling the eye to see at night or under extremely low lighting conditions. However, rods lack color sensitivity, which accounts for the fact that in very dim light (rod vision), we have no color perception. Also, since several rods are connected to a single nerve end that provides a general picture of the field of view, rod cells cannot discriminate fine detail. Rod vision is referred to as scotopic, or night, vision. As the eye focuses on individual objects, what it actually sees depends on the quantity and quality of light available. As light bounces off objects and is reflected back to the eye, variations in brightness, color, size, shape, distance, and texture are recorded on the retina and then translated into a picture that we learn to understand as the appearance of whatever we are viewing. Human vision and the perception of color and light vary widely according to factors such as aging, experience, and behavioral perceptions. These concerns are addressed in Chapter 12 under “Lighting Needs and Application.” COLOR THEORY AND SYSTEMS To understand the effects, relationships, and applications of color, it is helpful to organize color into a systematic classification or theory. Before any of the color systems can be described, however, it is essential to understand the relationship between the primary colors of light and the primary colors of pigments, and how these are mixed to produce other colors. Additive Method of Mixing Light The first method of mixing light is called the RGB color model and is an additive process (Figure 5.9) dealing with light. The three primary colors of light are red, green, and blue (RGB). When two of these are added together, they produce secondary colors of light-magenta (red plus blue), cyan (blue 9  plus green), and yellow (green plus red). If a secondary color of light is mixed with its opposite primary, white light will be produced. For example, a mixture of cyan and red light will result in white light. Thus, cyan and red are complementary colors of light. Other complementary colors of light are yellow and blue, and magenta and green. When all three colors are overlapped, white light is produced from the three additive primaries. This process of mixing light consists of adding “energy” on top of “energy,” thus creating lighter colors. Figure 5.9 Additive mixtures of the primary colors of light. The main purpose of the RGB color model is for the representation of colored images in electronic systems, such as televisions, computers, cell phones, and video projectors. The mixing of colored light is also used in theaters for stage lighting. However, it has also been used in some interior spaces, such as retail and restaurant environments, to create similar stage effects. Care should be taken in the use of colored lights, especially where color selections are important, because these lights can distort real color and cause eye fatigue or irritation. Subtractive Method of Mixing Light The other method of mixing color through light is a subtractive process and is related to pigments (Figure 5.10). Pigments are materials that change the color of transmitted or reflected light as a result of selective absorption. That is, when light hits a pigment surface it only reflects some wavelengths, thus producing the appearance of a color to our eye. The other wavelengths have been absorbed, or subtracted. For example, a blue pigment appears blue because it doesn’t reflect red or green light. This method involves mixing transparent colorants, such as dyes, inks, stained glass, and water 10  colors. In the subtractive method, the primary colors are magenta, yellow, and cyan (the secondary colors of light). When overlapped, magenta and yellow produce red, yellow and cyan produce green, and cyan and magenta produce blue. When the three subtractive primary colors are overlapped, all color is absorbed or subtracted from white light, producing black. Figure 5.10 Subtractive mixtures of the secondary colors of light The CMYK (cyan, magenta, yellow, and black) color model is a subtractive model that is used i color printing. It is subtractive because inks, used in the printing process, subtract brightness from white. A majority of the world’s printed material is produced by this method of color mixing. Paint-Color Mixing When dealing with opaque pigments, such as paint, the theories of mixing light do not apply. However, mixing paint colors is closely related to the subtractive method of mixing light. The color of an object or a material absorbs, or subtracts, all the colors of light except the color of the object, which is reflected to the eye. The three primary colors of opaque pigments are red, yellow, and blue. When two primaries are mixed—that is, yellow plus blue, red plus blue, and red plus yellow—they produce secondary colors of green, violet, and orange, respectively. When the three primaries are mixed, they produce black (Figure 5.11). Figure 5.11 Paint-mixing method of combining primary and secondary colors 11  Harald Küppers (1928– ) recognized that the additive and subtractive mixtures of light did not apply to paint or opaque pigments and came up with a new law of mixtures called the “integrated mixture.” In his book Color: Origin, Systems, Uses, published in 1972, Küppers identifies eight “integrated” primary colors: white, yellow, magenta, cyan, blue, green, red, and black. He feels that these are “pure” colors and cannot be produced by any other colors. His complete color system will be discussed later. Color Properties To describe a color with reasonable accuracy, three basic properties have been designated to identify the dimensions, or qualities, of color: hue, the name of a color; value, the lightness or darkness of a color; and intensity, or chroma, the degree of purity or strength of a color. Hue Hue is one of the primary properties of a color, its name, such as red, blue, or yellow, which is given to each color to distinguish it from the other colors. It refers to the color in its purest form—that is, with no blacks or whites added. The color (hue) is the function of light wavelengths as discernible by the human eye. For example, the color red generally lies within the light wavelengths of 630– 748 nanometers (nm). Green would be found within 520–570 nm. See Figure 5.12 for all the visible colors and their related wavelengths. Figure 5.12 Colors of the visible light spectrum as arranged from the lowest to the highest energy. The order can be remembered using the mnemonic name “ROY G. BIV.” 12  Value Value designates the darkness or lightness of a color. Figure 5.13 shows the values between black and white, that is, all the gray values in between. This gray scale of values can be broken down into perhaps more than 100 gradations. However, in most color systems, the gray scale is usually expressed in approximately nine steps, often called the achromatic scale. This means it is free of any color, consisting of only black and white. Figure 5.13 Seven graduations of a gray value scale between white and black. The dots (all of a middle value) appear darker against a light background and lighter against a dark one. Values can be expressed by shades, tints, and tones (Figure 5.14). Shades are produced by the addition of black to a color, which will darken the hue; tints are determined by how much white is added to a hue, which lightens the color; and tones are produced by adding gray to a hue. 13  Figure 5.14 Tints, tones, and shades can be produced by adding white, gray, or black to a pure hue. 14  Chroma The chroma of a color is the purity, saturation, or amount of pigment it exhibits. Colors that exhibit a high degree of chroma are those that are not grayed, but rather are at their ultimate degree of vividness and seem more intense. Adding black or white to a color can lower its intensity, or vividness, making it more muted and closer to gray (Figure 5.15). Adding a complementary color can also lower the saturation of a color. Figure 5.15 If black is added to an original hue, the chroma is decreased, and the color appears more muted and closer to black. 15  Color Systems As Sir Isaac Newton continued his experiments with light and the color spectrum, he recognized that a relationship formed between each color and its adjacent color. By joining the end colors, red and violet, to form a circle, he found that the bands of color flowed together in a continuous spectrum. From these early experiments, the color circle, or color wheel, was developed and further refined into color systems. Several color systems have evolved since Newton’s early experiments, each one based on a different group of basic, or primary, colors. We will look at some of the most commonly used systems. 12- Part Color System The most familiar and simplest color system is based on the work of Johannes Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832). His color circle (Figure 5.16) was made up of the three primary colors of red, yellow, and blue and the three secondary colors of orange, green, and purple. Goethe’s theory was expanded to the common 12-part color wheel (Figure 5.17), often credited to Herbert E. Ives, David Brewster and Louis Prang. It is often referred to as the RYB color system or the “standard color wheel.” Thi system is based on paint- color mixing properties and the belief that the three primary colors cannot be mixed from other colors or be broken down into component pigments. Secondary colors are formed when two of the primary colors are mixed in equal parts: red and yellow mixed together will produce 16  orange; yellow and blue will produce green; and blue and red will form violet. This process can be expanded by mixing equal parts of a primary color and a secondary color to create six tertiary, or intermediate, hues. These resulting colors are yellow-green, blue- green, blue-violet, red-violet, red- orange, and yellow-orange. Figure 5.16 Goethe’s color wheel of 1793 had six equal color designations. Figure 5.17 The traditional RYB color wheel is composed of the primary colors red, yellow, and blue. Secondary colors of orange, green, and violet are formed from these. Combining primary and secondary colors forms the tertiary colors. 17  The 12-part color system may appear too simplistic or limited to some people, but it is only a beginning. An infinite number of variations can be produced by combining adjacent hues or varying the proportions of other added colors, as well as by adding black, white, and gray. Also, the visual quality of a color can be further modified by the effects of background colors and light, to be discussed later. The Munsell Color System One of the most widely used systems of color notation is the Munsell color system. It was developed at the turn of the century, by Albert Munsell (1858–1918), an American artist and art teacher. His theory of color is based on five principal hues: red, yellow, green, blue, and purple, and five intermediate hues: yellow-red, green-yellow, blue-green, purple-blue, and red-purple (Figure 5.18). Each of these principal and intermediate hues is then subdivided into 10 equal parts, totaling 100 different hue variations. These hue variations are designated by capital letters, such as R for red, Y for yellow, and YR for yellow-red, preceded by a number. Each principal and intermediate hue is designated by the number 5, which signifies that it is the “pure” color of that particular hue family. In addition to the part numbered 5, each hue family is divided into three other equal parts, designated by 2.5, 7.5, and 10. When these numbers are combined with the letters symbolizing a particular color, such as 2.5R, that combination designates the exact hue variation. For example, 2.5R indicates a color toward red-purple, whereas 7.5R is toward yellow-red. Further gradation refinement is then 18  possible, to create the total 100 hue variations designated by the numbers on the outer circle. Figure 5.18 The Munsell color system divides the spectrum into five principal and five intermediate hues, which are indicated by a letter. These 10 are then divided into 10 additional hues indicated by a letter and a number, thus creating 100 hues in the circle. This two-dimensional circle of hues is then extended into a three-dimensional form where “value” is the vertical axis (Figure 5.19). Munsell’s value scale is divided into nine steps, ranging from 0 for black to 10 for white. Thus, a color can be identified according to its degree of lightness or darkness based on its position on the value scale. Figure 5.19 LEFT: Chroma (or saturation) scales radiate in equal steps from the neutral axis outward to the periphery of the color model. RIGHT: Increasing steps of chroma are indicated in Munsell notations by degree of departure from the neutral gray of the same value. 19  The horizontal axis of Munsell’s three-dimensional solid represents the chroma levels, or saturation possibilities, of each hue. The chroma levels extend from 0 for the neutral axis to 10 or more steps for the more vivid hues. As colors vary in saturation, some hues extend as far as 16, while others may only extend to 6, thus creating a solid that is not symmetrically balanced. Munsell also developed an intricate method of classification to further identify each color within his system. The letter-number combination exactly locating each hue on the 100-hue color wheel is followed by the value level and the chroma level written as a fraction. For example, 5R 5/10 designates “pure” red at the middle value level (5) and maximum chroma level (10). A very grayed (low value) yellow would be designated as 5Y 3/2. Based on this notation system, Munsell also developed a standardized way to “harmonize” colors. If two or more hues are to harmonize, they must be in the same hue family or at the same value or same chroma level. Thus, if a “pure” blue (5B) were to harmonize with “pure” red (5R 5/10), the selected blue would need to be at the fifth value level or the tenth chroma level, for example, 5B 5/8 or 5B 6/10. As a result, it becomes simple to plan a color scheme if the following relationships exist: 1. Any two colors of the same hue family will go together (harmonize). Example: 5R 5/10 2.5R 8/4 2. Any two colors of the same value level or with the same amount of “gray” in them will harmonize. Example: 5Y 6/8 5G 6/10 3. Any two colors at the same chroma level will harmonize. Example: 5B 3/6 5YR 5/6 The Ostwald Color System 20  Wilhelm Ostwald (1853–1932), a German physicist and chemist who won the Nobel Prize fo chemistry in 1909, also developed a color system. His system (Figure 5.20) is based on four primary colors: red, green, blue, and yellow, and four intermediate colors: orange, purple, green-blue 21  (turquoise), and yellow-green (leaf green). Each primary and intermediate hue has two auxiliary hues, one added to each side, for a total of 24 hues around his color wheel. Each hue is then designated by a number from 1 to 24. Figure 5.20 The Ostwald color wheel is based on four primary hues of sea green, yellow, red and ultramarine blue and four intermediate hues of orange, purple, turquoise, and leaf green. Similar to the Munsell system, Ostwald’s color system also takes the form of a three-dimensional solid, but it is shaped like a double cone rather than a sphere (Figure 5.21). In this system, the 24 pure hues are grouped around the equator, with the eight value steps from white to black in the form of a central vertical axis. Figure 5.21 Ostwald’s three-dimensional color system takes the form of a solid double cone (partially cut away here to illustrate relationships). The most saturated hues are at the equator of the cone and become neutralized as they move to the central axis of the gray scale. A triangle, at the right, illustrates how 28 variations of each hue are produced. 22  Ostwald’s system is based on the theory that any color can be mixed from combinations of black, white, and a pure hue. This system makes no distinction between value and chroma. Similar to the standard color triangle in arrangement, Ostwald’s gray scale ranges from white (lettered A) at the top to black (lettered P) at the bottom. Then mixtures of white, black, and pure hue are added to form 28 variations of each of the 24 hues in terms of lightness or darkness; the results are similar to the tints, tones, and shades of the standard color system. Ostwald’s complete solid contains a total of 672 chromatic hues and 8 neutrals. Like Munsell, Ostwald also developed his own hue notation system for use in selecting color harmonies. Ostwald’s system specifies the number of the hue (from 1 to 24) followed by two letters, for example, 14 ea. The first letter indicates how much white is added, and the second letter, how much black. Intermediate values are noted as c, e, g, i, l, and n. For example, the Ostwald notation for a tint of red would be 8 ca. To harmonize with that hue, either a hue must be the same number, such as 8 le, or the letters following it must be identical, such as 15 ca. These “harmonizing” hues are located according to geometric relationships within the various parts of the color solid. The Gerritsen Color System In 1975, Frans Gerritsen developed a color system that is based on the laws of perception and explained in his book Theory and Practice of Color. Gerritsen began his training in the Netherlands in art, photography, graphic arts, and education. He then went on to work as a designer and consultant, and on occasion worked with Le Corbusier on his pavilion for Expo 1958 in Brussels. Gerritsen’s color system (Figure 5.22) is based on six basic colors: yellow, cyan, magenta, green, red, and ultramarine blue. These six colors are made up of three “eye” primaries: blue, green, and red (as discussed under cone vision) and three “eye” secondary colors: yellow, magenta, and cyan. In Gerritsen’s theory, when we activate two eye primaries simultaneously, we perceive the secondary color sensations; that is, red and green activated at the same time produce the color sensation yellow; red and blue produce the color sensation magenta; and green and blue produce the color sensation cyan. Figure 5.22 This color circle is based on Gerritsen’s color system. 23  Gerritsen’s color tone circle can be separated into infinite divisions of the basic colors. The circle surrounding the basic colors consists of two in-between colors next to each basic color, which totals 18 colors. The more the colors are divided, the smaller the sections of the basic colors become. As the colors are divided, they are still “pure” and are not neutralized or modified by any other color. The second ring on the circle, which consists of 54 colors (3 × 18 = 54), only illustrates the transition to the outside circle of infinite divisions. The Gerritsen color circle is divided by systematically activating one of the eye’s two sensitivities for spectral light, as illustrated by the perception schemes shown for the 18 colors in the middle ring. The value scale in Gerritsen’s system also is based on spectral sensitivities and color perception qualities of the eye. The brightness axis ranges from white through various grays to black, with the perception schemes placed next to each step. The highest possible brightness (white) can be produced only by activation of all three spectral sensitivities (blue, green, and red) simultaneously. The perception schemes show that all three spectral sensitivities are equal and none dominates. This is Gerritsen’s definition of neutral, and he has named the steps of the value scale “special” tertiaries, which are coded from white to black with the letters A through J. Color with optimum saturation is fixed at 100, and color fixed at 0 has no color and is neutral. Gerritsen’s color theory is also illustrated by a three-dimensional form that shows the relationship between value and saturation levels for all colors. Each basic color is placed on the outside of a cylinder wall according to the same lightness found on the value axis. Since the value level is different for the basic colors—yellow is at the C level, red at G, magenta at E, ultramarine blue at H 24  cyan at D, and green at F—an irregular, zigzag line results when these points are linked. This irregular color form organizes all full colors by hue and their own inherent lightness, according to the laws of color perception. In his book Evolution in Color (1988), Gerritsen says that the color circle Newton introduced in the 1600s was irregular, because the basic colors of magenta and cyan were missing. He explains that the color wheel based on the mixing properties of paint, with red, yellow, and blue as the primaries, is misleading and outdated. He says that magenta, cyan, and green are spectral sensitivities that cannot be produced by mixing any other colors. Another major difference between Gerritsen’s color system and those of others is his complementary color pairs. In his system, because they lie opposite each other on his color circle, ultramarine blue and yellow, green and magenta, and red and cyan are the complementary color pairs. The Küppers Color System Harald Küppers, a partner in the printing firm of Wittemann-Küppers K.G., explains his color theor in his book Color: Origin, Systems, Uses. In an effort to identify the primary colors, Küppers explains that the monochromatic colors of the spectrum are what he feels are “original” colors and that they make visible everything that we see. To progress from the original colors of the visible spectrum to the primary colors necessary for the laws of color mixture, Küppers theorizes that the color spectrum (Figure 5.23) contains the five regions of blue, cyan, green, yellow, and red. He also explains that although magenta is not present in the spectrum as a monochromatic color, it is produced by superimposing the red and blue spectral regions. Therefore, his color system is based on those six primary colors. Figure 5.23 Küppers color system is based on the visible spectrum that has been bent into a circle, with magenta used as the transition. It is produced by superimposing the red and blue spectral regions as illustrated in the outer ring. CC-BY-SA-3.0/Harald Küppers 25  The Küppers color circle corresponds to the arrangement of the colors of the spectrum (see Figure 5.3). He feels that a color circle is really a spectrum that has been bent into a circle, with magenta used as a transition. The outer ring of his color circle illustrates how one color merges into the next without a break. The middle ring shows certain hues isolated from the continuous color spectrum. This particular arrangement shows 24 isolated hues (also called a 24-sector color circle, using the same colors as in the Ostwald system). Küppers explains that his color circle can consist of an infinite number of isolated hues as it is expanded outward toward infinity (which is the continuous spectrum). None of the mixed colors consists of more than two primary colors. His three-dimensional system for mixing color is based on a rhombohedron. The rhombohedron is a geometrical form that has six faces and resembles a cube but differs in that the two diagonals of a face are not of equal length. Both Küppers’s and Gerritsen’s color systems are based on updated theories that include green, cyan, and magenta as primary colors along with red, yellow, and blue. They both agree that Newton and others who considered only red, yellow, and blue as primaries were inaccurate because in those earlier days no pigments of present-day standards of purity were available as magenta and cyan. The Pantone Color System Pantone is a corporation that began as a commercial printing company in the 1950s. However, it is best known for its color- matching system (PMS), as seen inFigure 5.24. Pantone’s system consists of 26  approximately 1,114 ink colors that are produced from 13 base pigments (15 including white and black) mixed in specific amounts. Each color is identified by a three- or four-digit number followed by a C, M, or U, such as PMS 123-C. The letters following the number refer to the type of paper the are printed on, such as C = coated, M = matte, and U = uncoated. The Pantone system can be used with the CMYK mixing process as well as the screen-based RGB process. Although Pantone’s color matching system is primarily used for printing, it is sometimes used in the manufacturing of colored paint, fabric, and plastic. Figure 5.24 This Solid Matte Formula Guide from Pantone is used for color matching. CC-BY-SA-3.0/Parhamr Color Schemes The concept of color harmony is the basis of understanding the theories of arranging colors into practical color schemes. Just as the Munsell and Ostwald color systems use a systematic approach to determine harmonies, guidelines for arranging colors based on other systems have also been developed. Designers establish color schemes to set a basic guide, or rule of thumb, to build upon. The schemes that follow are exactly that—a foundation of color principles to build upon. They can be interpreted differently or modified according to the situation. In fact, some designers’ color schemes do not seem to follow any of the basic schemes, yet work very well. A successful color scheme is not necessarily determined by which concept was followed, but by how it was applied and to what proportions. Color schemes can be applied to the standard 12-part color wheel (Figure 5.25) or to other color systems, such as Gerritsen’s color tone circle, as illustrated in Figure 5.26. These schemes are based on the organization and harmonizing effects of colors, irrespective of the number of hues in a color circle. These color schemes can be placed in two general categories: contrasted or related (analogous). Contrasting schemes are those made up of hues opposite or far apart on the color wheel. 27  Designers tend to use these hues as accents in a color scheme. Related color schemes are made up of adjacent hues on the color wheel. When a designer wants to express harmony or unity through the use of color, these schemes often are the easiest route. Figure 5.25 Seven basic color schemes can be composed on the 12-part color wheel. Figure 5.26 Six basic color schemes can be composed on Gerritsen’s 18-part color wheel. Monochromatic Schemes The monochromatic is perhaps the simplest and most basic of the color schemes. A single hue is varied throughout in tints, tones, and shades. The one-color combination seems to ensure some unity or harmony through color application (Figure 5.27). However, 28  designers should consider that some colors lend themselves to monochromatic schemes better than others, and that certain monochromatic concepts can become rather monotonous. Some variety in intensities, textures, and forms should be 29  used to give life to the interior. Figure 5.27 A monochromatic color scheme is used in this kitchen with accents of stainless steel and wood tones to offset the use of one dominant color. Courtesy of National Kitchen & Bath Association Analogous Schemes The next easiest scheme is the analogous color scheme, which uses colors (often three or more) that are adjacent on the color wheel. Analogous schemes offer more variety than the monochromatic schemes, yet are harmonious (Figure 5.28). The hues are intermixed in varying proportions, values, and intensities to provide successful interiors. Many designers select one of the colors as a dominant theme and accent with the other analogous hues. Figure 5.28 This interior is an example of an analogous color scheme that ranges from orange through yellow and green to blue. Courtesy of National Kitchen & Bath Association 30  Complementary Schemes The complementary color schemes offer an even greater variety in contrast or accent by using colors that are directly opposite on the color wheel. When these colors are in their purest form and placed next to one another, they appear more intense than if viewed separately, because they contrast with one another. They can also visually tend to actually vibrate along their borders. These brilliant contrasts are frequently used in graphic design when a forceful visual impact is needed. In interiors, however, the hues are generally toned down, reduced in amounts, or varied in value and intensity to lessen the harsh visual statement (Figure 5.29). Figure 5.29 This collaboration area within a corporate office is designed using a complementary color scheme to inspire the users. Courtesy of Kimball Office. 31  Triad Schemes Any three hues that are equidistant on the color wheel compose a triadic color scheme. These colors might be the basic primary or the basic secondary colors. These combinations can produce some of the most diverse color schemes of all the systems. Sometimes, strong primary hues are used in interiors to provide visual excitement and contrasts for sensory stimulation (Figure 5.30). However, for most interior schemes they are toned down or varied in value and saturation. Figure 5.30 Blue and yellow wall paints in this interior are accented with red furniture, creating a strong triad color scheme. Courtesy of Knoll, Inc.; Photographer: Michael Moran 32  Other Color Schemes NEUTRALS A simple color scheme can be created by using black, white, gray, off-white, beige, tan, or brown. Interiors with neutral, or achromatic (meaning without color), schemes tend to visually expand a space and make good backgrounds for colorful furniture, artwork, and accessories. In most neutral color schemes, one or two chromatic hues are added for accent (Figure 5.31). Neutral backgrounds are advantageous in that they are flexible; it is easy to change color schemes through varying accent colors, rather than changing wall and floor colors. Figure 5.31 The building elements of this interior are done in an off-white achromatic color scheme, with color used as accents for furniture, carpets, and paint. Courtesy of Knoll, Inc. 33  SPLIT AND DOUBLE COMPLEMENTARY A split-complement scheme resembles a narrow-armed Y on the color wheel rather than being exact opposites or complementary colors. Such a scheme thus provides three colors instead of the two of complementary combinations, thereby offering a wider range of color selection (Figure 5.32). The split-complement scheme can be expanded to a double-complement on the color wheel, taking the shape of an X with its legs and arms adjacent to each other. If it is a balanced arrangement, it is also referred to as a tetrad scheme. Figure 5.32 The acoustical panels used in these collaborative areas within Haworth’s Paris showroom are based on a split- complementary color scheme of violet, yellow-green, and yellow- orange. Photo Courtesy of Haworth, Inc. 34  TETRAD Four colors equidistant on the standard 12-part color wheel form a tetrad scheme. The tetrad scheme does not present itself equally and is therefore not valid in the Gerritsen color system or other systems unless the color circle is extended to include 24 hues. This scheme can also be thought of as a balanced double-complement color scheme, although the colors are not adjacent. Color Interaction Color never appears visually as it physically is supposed to, because color is perceived in relation to the total environment, rather than by itself. Color can even deceive the eye, for it has the ability to change or influence other colors. These visual illusions are very important to interior designers, as their desired color effect can change as a result of the interaction of hues with one another. Josef Albers (1888–1976) was an artist and designer who is credited with the formal studies on the interaction of color. He taught at the Bauhaus and later immigrated to the United States and finally became the department head of the design department at Yale University, where he published his teachings on color. His works demonstrated how our perception of color is influenced by placing colors adjacent to or on top of another color(s). His handbook Interaction of Color was originally published in 1963 and has remained in print since then. SUCCESSIVE CONTRAST OR AFTERIMAGE In all color systems, two hues directly opposite each other are called complementary colors. When complementary hues are placed next to each other, they produce a strong contrast and vibrancy, referred to as successive contrast. For any given color, the eye requires balance from the complementary color and will generate the complement spontaneously if it is not present. 35  If a person looks at a particular hue, such as a red surface, for a period of time and then suddenly shifts to a white or gray surface, his or her eyes usually will visualize the color green (or cyan) instead of white or gray. The phenomenon of “seeing” the complementary color is called afterimage (Figure 5.33). A practical example of the importance of understanding the afterimage is the hospital operating room, where walls, cover sheets, and surgical gowns used to be white. When surgeons and nurses looked up from their work, after concentrating on red blood and tissue, they would see green spots before their eyes. Today, most surgical gowns, walls, and cover sheets are light green or blue- green to act as a background to neutralize these afterimages and eye fatigue. By understanding the concept of afterimage, designers can prevent such undesirable color relationships and visual perceptions. Figure 5.33 Successive contrast/afterimage can be experienced by staring at the red surface for a short period of time, and then suddenly shifting to the black “x” on the white surface. SIMULTANEOUS CONTRAST Color is rarely seen in isolation, especially in interior environments, where different colors are usually viewed together. This creates an optical effect referred to as simultaneous contrast, a perceived change of a color as the result of the influence of a surrounding contrasting color. Simultaneous contrast is an illusion of color, since one color can be made to appear as two different colors when it is placed against two different backgrounds (Figure 5.34). To make one color look different, the backgrounds or surrounding environments can be contrasted to it. Designers should be aware that large color masses influence smaller ones and that the stronger the contrast of the backgrounds, the more the center color will change in visual appearance. For example, if two areas of a neutral gray are surrounded by a larger area of white and black, respectively, the gray surrounded by the black will appear to be brighter and lighter in value than the gray surrounded by the white. This 36  happens because the adaptation of the eye is less sensitive to low brightness and will evaluate the gray area as being very bright (Figure 5.35). The same kind of contrast will occur between most other colors, not just between black and white, if a strong contrast exists. For example, a neutral gray placed against a surrounding red background will appear to have a tinge of green (the complement of red). Figure 5.34 Simultaneous contrast is a perceived change of color when one color appears as two different colors when placed on different colored backgrounds. Figure 5.35 Simultaneous contrast in value. The gray spot surrounded by white appears to be of a lower (darker) value because of the bright surroundings. When the background is black, the eye is less sensitive to the lower value of black and perceives the gray spot to be lighter or of a higher value. 37  The visual illusion of simultaneous contrast can be effectively applied to interior design: A colorful accent can be made to appear stronger by placing a contrasting color or object next to or around it. REVERSED GROUNDS The illusion of simultaneous contrast can be expanded by making three different hues appear as only two. This is done by selecting the mixture of two background colors to be the middle color. When this middle color is placed on each of the two background colors, it produces the visual illusion of the other background color (Figure 5.36). Figure 5.36 Reversed grounds: the illusions of making three different hues appear as two SUBTRACTION OF COLOR The background color “absorbs” or “subtracts” its own hue from the center color. This process is referred to as the subtraction of color, and it can be used to create still another illusion involving the use of color: making two different colors look the same (Figure 5.37). 38  Figure 5.37 Subtraction of color is an optical effect that makes two different hues appear as one. 39  It has been demonstrated that color changes are caused by two factors, hue and light—generally by both simultaneously. Recognizing this, we can visually affect the appearance of a color by “pushing” its hue and/or lightness away from its first appearance toward opposite qualities, using contrasting backgrounds—in other words, by adding opposite qualities or by subtracting the qualities of color that are not wanted. By experimenting with colored objects on colored backgrounds or in colored environments, we find that a ground will subtract, or absorb, its own hue and thus project the remaining hues. A blue- green sofa against a blue background will appear “green” because the blue ground absorbs the “blue” from the “blue-green” color. The lightness or darkness of a color will also be absorbed in the same way that its hue is. Thus, light colors on light backgrounds will appear darker because the light ground subtracts the lightness of the center object’s color. PSYCHOLOGY OF COLOR Interior designers must understand the perception and use of color and its resulting effects on human behavior. Studies have shown that color can create excitement, relaxation, calmness, or cheerfulness and can even increase productivity in working environments. The way people interpret or feel about color can vary according to experiences, education, and cultural associations with color. Color association, or symbolism, is generally based on a person’s individual innate personality or cultural background. For example, in Western cultures, black generally symbolizes death and mourning, whereas in Eastern civilizations, the symbolic color of death is white. Some common color 40  associations in Western societies include: Red is associated with battle, blood, fire, passion, love, and excitement. Historically it represents royalty, majesty, and triumph. Orange symbolizes friendliness, pride, ambition, warmth, and relaxation, and is stimulating to the appetite. Yellow symbolizes sunlight and is associated with springtime, cheerfulness, and optimism. Yellow also connotes the feeling of safety because it is easy to see. Green represents nature and the feeling of calmness, friendliness, and freshness. Blue stands for truth, honesty, loyalty, and integrity. It also is associated with coolness, repose, and formality. Purple or violet is the color of royalty and has religious significance. Many studies have attempted to identify the emotional impact of color on people, but most of the studies cannot determine whether the reactions are cultural or emotional. Color response also differs according to the context in which it is experienced. For example, red is commonly associated with love and passion, yet it can also evoke a feeling of danger. Colors are also commonly associated with a psychological “temperature” and are divided into warm and cool categories (see Figure 5.38). Reds, oranges, and yellows produce a warm and active feeling, similar to sunlight. They also appear to advance toward the eye because they seem nearer than they actually are. A chair or sofa in an intense red fabric will generally appear larger than the same piece in a cool color, such as blue. Also, if the walls of a room are painted the same intense red, the walls will appear closer, decreasing the apparent size of the room. Figure 5.38 Colors on this color wheel can be grouped as warm and cool color divisions. 41  The cool colors are blues, greens, and violets. These colors tend to remind us of the ocean, sky, grass, and other elements found in nature. Tints of these colors create a restful and soothing feeling unless they are too intense in chroma. Cool colors are also known as receding hues since they appear farther away than they actually are. The apparent size of a room will increase when these colors are applied to the walls, but furnishings using cool colors will seem smaller. A major factor in the determination of advancing or receding colors is intensity. A very intense, bright cool color will seem to advance, but a dull warm color will recede. Whether a color psychologically advances or recedes depends on the hue (warm hues advance, cool hues recede), value (high or light values recede, low or dark values advance), and intensity (bright advances, dull recedes). Studies on the psychological effects of color have revealed that people actually feel warmer in red and orange spaces than they do in blue and green spaces, when the temperature is constant in both environments. People attach all kinds of different meanings and emotional responses to color. We all have heard about “feeling blue” or being “tickled pink.” One hypothesis is that people respond to color with their emotions rather than their intellect. We do not experience color in isolation but in relation to the total environment. Thus, color alone does not affect our behavior and emotional state, but in relation to the objects, patterns, texture, light, and so on within an environment, it does affect us. The complex area of the effect of color on people is still being researched. Interior designers should be aware of some of the emotional effects color can create—especially in isolated environments. 42  Color Perception Color and Space The effect of color on space perception (the apparent versus the actual, size and distance of objects) and perceived distance from a viewer is a very complex relationship and will vary with different users. When hues are placed closer to the viewer, they will appear more brilliant and darker than the same hues placed at a greater distance. More intense and darker colors will appear less demanding when used in very large spaces than in small spaces. Spaces with white or very light, cool colors on the walls generally appear more spacious than those with darker warmer hues. Colors also appear more intense, or stronger in chroma, when covering large areas. For this reason caution should be used when selecting wall colors on the basis of very small samples or color chips, for the color will often appear darker when applied to large areas. Color and Texture The textural quality of an object or surface will also affect the visual appearance of color. Rough- textured materials will generally appear darker because they absorb light and color rather than reflect it, as do shiny surfaces and materials. Also, textured materials, such as nubby fabrics, pile carpet, and velvets, will cast small shadows within themselves and appear darker than a smooth material of the same hue, value, and chroma. Color Distribution Color distribution is important in creating a feeling of unity within an interior environment. Every color plan should ideally include some light, some dark, and some median values to create the desired effect. There are primarily two popular methods utilized for color distribution. The first specifies that the backgrounds (floors and walls) should be the most neutral colors, and the strongest chroma should be used in the accents, such as accessories and furniture items (Figure 5.39). The second method is to put the darker values, or stronger chroma, in the backgrounds (floors and walls) and the small accent items, and use more neutralized tones for the major furniture items (Figure 5.40). Figure 5.39 The neutral background of this interior is accented with strong color in the furniture and accessories. Courtesy of Knoll, Inc. 43  Figure 5.40 The floor, walls, and ceiling of this café are done in darker values, as contrasted with light-colored furniture and bright stool cushions. Courtesy of Kimball Office 44  The choice of one method over the other depends on personal preference and what is to be emphasized in a space—the background or the objects in it. Light values against dark values produce the strongest contrast. Then as values become closer to each other, such as a light-value chair against a light-value wall, the shape of the object will tend to merge with its background. A dark-value chair placed against a light background will produce a dramatic effect but be less pronounced in contrast than a light- value chair against a dark background. Generally speaking, most successful spaces are planned around one dominant color and two subordinate colors that are varied in value and intensity. These colors do not have to be present in every piece of furniture, but they should be repeated at least once to create a unified feeling. Remember, however, that an even distribution of color could become boring and create a monotonous feeling. Color Application in Interiors Color is a design tool. Its practical application ranges from using luminescent colors for safety in highway signs and markers to using specific colors for hunting gear, life jackets, and reflectors for bicycles in order to be seen instantly. A number of studies have been done on using color so that it is conducive to activities designed for specific interior environments. For example, hospital interiors have been painted in specific colors because studies have shown that particular colors can affect behavior and personality. The following discussion mentions some examples of color usage in commercial spaces. Offices Job performance is closely associated with satisfaction in the working environment. Because the work environment has a direct relationship to employee efficiency, drab offices can be 45  counterproductive. It is important to design office spaces that will lift spirits, not depress them (Figure 5.41). Off-white, buff, and gray surroundings are not very stimulating if additional color is not used effectively. Earth colors can be comforting in an office environment, and yellow has been found to create a cheerful atmosphere and improve work concentration. Figure 5.41 Accents of color are used on these workstations to offset the neutral background of this office. Courtesy of Kimball Office Greens and blues are thought to be calming, but that effect depends on the value and saturation level of the hues (Figure 5.42). Too much white in a workplace can produce too much glare. More saturated colors, such as deep green or purple, are often used as accents, especially in executive or reception areas, to give a feeling of status and dignity. Another way to express prestige and status is through the use of natural materials, such as marble and wood. Figure 5.42 These bright-colored “Fit” chairs by Kimball Office liven up this touchdown station in an office environment. Courtesy of Kimball Office 46  In some office environments, creating a corporate image is important. Black, gray, and white with one or more accent colors might be used, for example. However, the brightness contrast ratio needs to be proportionate. Because white reflects 80 percent of light, and black approximately 5 percent, a brightness contrast ratio of 16 to 1, there could be physical eye discomfort. Gray can be ideal for desktops and working surfaces since it is a neutral color and not distracting. And because it creates a good balance in contrast between black and white, gray is able to keep the eye at a comfortable and uniform brightness level. In offices where a great deal of concentration is necessary, cool hues tend to be a better choice. In general office areas, either warm or cool hues can be used, depending on users’ preferences. High- stress environments can use color to achieve a calming atmosphere. Low-reflective surfaces should be used in areas where workers must use their eyes a great deal for visual tasks. Also, to ease the strain of working long hours at a computer terminal, flat, absorptive colors can be effectively used. Educational Facilities Traditionally, a pale green has been thought to be a good color for school walls because it creates a quiet mood that enhances concentration. However, pale green can also create a very monotonous environment and should be used for specific situations, not a general scheme for all spaces. Warm, bright color schemes are thought to be a good choice for preschools and elementary grades, since children in these age groups tend to be more extroverted. Such schemes also can reduce anxiety 47  and can stimulate activity. In secondary schools, beige, light greens, and blue-greens are often used to create a more passive effect while enhancing the ability to concentrate. Brightly colored accents can add cheerfulness and encourage participation among students. Using a different color for the front walls in classrooms where students face a specific direction not only draws attention to the front of the room but creates an effective contrast with visual aids, such as chalkboards and bulletin board materials, to allow students to relax their eyes when looking up from their desks. Visual monotony can be lessened also by adding a contrasting color to the front wall. The side and back walls then could be more neutral, such as tan or beige. Medical Facilities The correct application of color in medical facilities contributes to the well-being of the patient and the efficiency of the staff. In the study “Effects of Color,” M. N. Bartholet hypothesizes that colo could be used to motivate sick people to get well and, possibly, to improve nursing care.1 It was also concluded that since green is frequently associated with sickness and nausea, patient rooms should not be painted this color. After doing research into color preferences of a depressed group, Dr. Deborah T. Sharpe reported in The Psychology of Color and Design that the group members had a strong preference for bright, gay colors. In general, warm neutrals, light greens, and blues are used in healthcare environments. Blue walls create a calming effect and give an impression of expanded space that will help keep patients from feeling confined. This does not necessarily mean, however, that all walls should be blue. Medium tones of green or blue-green are recommended for operating rooms, as discussed under “Successive Contrast or Afterimage.” Large expanses of yellow used in hospital patient areas can give patients a sickly pallor. Pure white is seldom used for hospital walls because it is highly reflective and harsh on the eyes. Even though white has been traditionally associated with sterile environments, such as hospitals and healthcare facilities, it, too, can make a patient appear sickly. Gray is not a good color to use in large applications for healthcare facilities, because it appears cold and harsh. Public areas of healthcare facilities, such as waiting rooms and corridors, generally use more brightly saturated colors to create a cheerful atmosphere, and can be used as a method of wayfinding throughout a facility (Figure 5.43). Figure 5.43 Bright colors and artwork are used in this reception area of the Helen DeVos Children’s Hospital to create a cheerful atmosphere. Graphics used in the flooring aid in wayfinding, to help guide the patients throughout the hospital. Photo Courtesy of Haworth, Inc. 48  Restaurants Color is used in a number of different combinations and accents for restaurants and other eating establishments (Figure 5.44). Color is a major factor in our evaluation of the freshness, ripeness, and palatability of food. Experimental studies show that people’s appetites are stimulated by viewing food under normal light. When colored light is substituted, unnatural food colors are produced, such as dark-gray meat or violet potatoes. Even though people know the food is edible, many are not particularly drawn to it. Figure 5.44 This restaurant uses a variety of colors for an inviting atmosphere. 49  © ARCO / P Goll / age fotostock 50  Other studies on appetite and color reveal certain trends to stimulate appetites. Red, red-orange, and orange tend to produce the most favorable appetite sensations. Blue-greens, such as aqua and turquoise, can be used successfully as backgrounds for food displays because their afterimage of red- orange enhances these colors. Green salads will appear greener on cool pink backgrounds. Another consideration for color in restaurants is the use of color flattering to human complexions, for example using pink or warm lights to shine on warm neutrals or soft reds and oranges. However, in a fast-food establishment, bright, stimulating colors and light tend to encourage rapid eating and movement. Retail Color can also be an important element in the marketing and selling of merchandise. We are presented with a huge variety of colors on products and in those retail outlets that sell them (Figure 5.45). Yellows and reds are used for aggressive, attention- grabbing messages, whereas earth tones are often used for subtler product messages. Figure 5.45 This showroom offers a variety of furniture selections in bold colors. Note that the light fixtures also reflect these strong color accents. Courtesy of Knoll, Inc. Brighter, more saturated hues are often used for store identification, traffic patterns, and shopping bags to assist in image making and ease of purchasing. Industry Color is important in industrial plants and related manufacturing areas. Using intense colors for warnings in hazardous areas or on potentially dangerous machinery and products emphasizes safety. Light colors (except stark white) can be used over all to reflect light and can be accented with bright, cheerful colors. Eye fatigue can be lessened by reducing contrasts and the afterimage effects of dark and saturated 51  colors. Matte surfaces are also preferred over shiny, reflective ones where workers must concentrate on a specific task or product. Color can also be used to create a sense of place in industrial areas or to identify positions on an assembly line. Color coding can be more effective than words to designate specific work or storage areas and to break up a large area into smaller spaces. Communicating Color Decisions After understanding the theory of color and proposing a suitable scheme for a particular project, designers must communicate these decisions to others. An effective way to do this is through the preparation of sample boards, palette boxes, and computer realistic renderings (Figure 5.46). Figure 5.46 This student presentation board shows materials, details, furniture, and renderings for the design of a new retail kiosk. Color Samples Designers must first have readily available many paint chips, upholstery and drapery fabric swatches, and samples of carpets, wallcoverings, and accessory colors. With these color samples at hand, the designers can put together several trial schemes for client viewing. Today, most of the initial searching for products can be made online or from material swatches/binders for the designer’s use. Then small samples can be acquired for actual viewing and touching. Most manufacturers will also supply large “memo” samples of fabric, carpet, plastic laminate, wall vinyls, and wood panels. It is sometimes a good idea to see a larger sample of patterned objects because their appearance may be drastically different from that of the small sample. It is important to select colors under lighting conditions that approximate those in the actual project space. Because light directly affects color, a variance in light conditions between the location where colors are chosen and the location where they are applied can create color discrepancies. This phenomenon, known as metamerism, means that colors look different under different lighting systems. Many designers have several types of lighting (incandescent, fluorescent, and natural) available in their offices to use when matching colors. 52  Sample Boards Samples of actual materials, along with color samples representing paint or other solid colors, are then arranged and attached to a sturdy sample board (Figure 5.47). The actual board color should be neutral and not distract from the colors of the material samples. These are presented as an overall “color palette” in small projects or are detailed with a key to a floor plan in more complicated or larger projects. Careful attention must be given to making sure the sample material is not outdated or has not been discontinued by the manufacturer. Most designers maintain an updating system in their resource libraries to weed out outdated material samples. They can also contact the manufacturer’s representative to make sure the sample is still current and available. A record is made of each sample attached to the board, unless the manufacturer’s identification is readily apparent. This record later serves as a guide for the actual specifying and ordering of materials and furniture. Figure 5.47 Sample boards are created to convey ideas of materials, color, and finishes of the interior spaces, furniture, and furnishings. Courtesy of Brigitte Demmel Ideally, large areas of color or texture, such as walls and floors, should be represented by large samples, and small samples or swatches should represent smaller areas or accents. However, it is not always possible to obtain samples in the desired proportions. Sometimes larger than proportional samples are needed to show accurately how a particular pattern or texture would look. In some projects, sample boards are not used for presenting color selections to a client. For example, a large 53  fabric sample might be draped over a client’s existing sofa for color selection. Presentations The sample boards are presented to clients to explain the designers’ overall color and materials concepts. When approved, the boards and the color chart can become a record of the final selections. In small projects, the sample board can be used directly as an aid to the installer or painter. In larger projects, additional color specification charts or floor plan keys are made to assist in getting the selected colors to the proper location. 54