Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Movement PDF

**Hand Out for Semi-Finals** **Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Movement** **(Summarized Terminologies)** **Prepared by:** **Raxu Nil Baya Peñaranda** **Skeletal Tissues** The skeletal system is the body system composed of bones and cartilage and performs the following critical functions for...

**Hand Out for Semi-Finals** **Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Movement** **(Summarized Terminologies)** **Prepared by:** **Raxu Nil Baya Peñaranda** **Skeletal Tissues** The skeletal system is the body system composed of bones and cartilage and performs the following critical functions for the human body: **Bones** are made of connective tissue reinforced with calcium and specialize bone cells. Most bones also contain bone marrow, where blood cells are made. **Cartilage** is a strong, flexible connective tissue that protects your joints and bones. It acts as a shock absorber throughout your body. Cartilage at the end of your bones reduces friction and prevents them from rubbing together when you use your joints. **Ligaments** often connect two bones together, particularly in the joints: Like strong, firmly attached straps or ropes, they stabilize the joint or hold the ends of two bones together. **Tendon** is a fibrous connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone. Tendons may also attach muscles to structures such as the eyeball. A tendon serves to move the bone or structure. **Functions of Bones** - supports the body - facilitates movement - protects internal organs - produces blood cells - stores and releases minerals and fat **Types of Bones** **Flat bones** are made up of a layer of spongy bone between two thin layers of compact bone. They have a flat shape, not rounded. **Long bone** is a bone that has a shaft and 2 ends and is longer than it is wide. Long bones include bones of the thigh, leg, arm, and forearm. **Short bones** include the carpal bones of the hands that allow movement of the wrist, and the tarsal bones of the feet that allow movement of the foot. Short bones are shaped roughly as a cube and contain mostly spongy bone. **Sesamoid bone** is a small bone commonly found embedded within a muscle or tendon near joint surfaces, existing as focal areas of ossification and functioning as a pulley to alleviate stress on that particular muscle or tendon. **Irregular bones** vary in shape and structure and therefore do not fit into any other category (flat, short, long, or sesamoid). They often have a fairly complex shape, which helps protect internal organs. For example, the vertebrae, irregular bones of the vertebral column, protect the spinal cord.  **Microscopic Structure of Bone** The basic microscopic unit of bone is an osteon (or Haversian system). Osteons are roughly cylindrical structures that can measure several millimeters long and around 0.2 mm in diameter.Each osteon consists of lamellae of compact bone tissue that surround a central canal (Haversian canal). The Haversian canal contains the bone\'s blood supplies. **Bone Marrow** Bone marrow is in the center of most bones and in the end of spongy bones in your body. Bone marrow and blood vessels fill cavities in your bones, where they store fat and stem cells and produce blood cells that make your whole blood. **Regulation of Blood Calcium Levels** The parathyroid hormone (PTH), secreted by the parathyroid glands, is responsible for regulating blood calcium levels; it is released whenever blood calcium levels are low. PTH increases blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts, which break down bone to release calcium into the blood stream. **Calcium** is a mineral your body needs to build and maintain strong bones and to carry out many important functions. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body. Almost all calcium in the body is stored in bones and teeth, giving them structure and hardness. **STAGES OF BONE REPAIR**  **Skeletal Differences Between Men and Women** However, bone mass, density, structure and length differ in a male and female body. Female bones are lighter, and their pelvic cavities are broader to support childbirth, whereas male bones are heavier and sturdier. **What are the three 3 divisions of the skeletal system?** The adult human skeleton usually consists of 206 named bones. These bones can be grouped in two divisions: **axial skeleton** and **appendicular skeleton.** Babies have 300 but is merged to form mature bones in developmental years. **** **Read and analyze the handouts. These pages will serve as your guide for passing the Semi-Finals. God Bless.** **-Sir Rax**    **Common Bone Disorders (Additional Hand Out)** **1. Osteoporosis** This common disease occurs when bones become weak due to changes in bone mineral density and mass, causing a higher risk for fractures. Osteoporosis is known as a "silent" disease as there are no obvious symptoms until a bone actually breaks. These fractures can occur anywhere, but typically in the hip, spine, and wrist. Although anyone can develop this disease, osteoporosis is more prevalent in older women. Aside from aging, additional risk factors include being of small stature, family history, certain medications, and having low bone density. **2. Fracture** A fracture is a break in a bone which occurs when it is put under sudden or very strong pressure or force. This covers falls, a direct impact on the body, and sports-related injuries. People at high risk of getting fractures are the elderly, individuals with osteoporosis and endocrine or intestinal disorders, and those taking corticosteroids. There are several types of fractures but are usually classified as closed or open, and incomplete or complete. **Closed/Open fractures** A closed or simple fracture is when the broken bone does not break the skin. Conversely, an open or compound fracture happens when the ends of a fractured bone tear through the skin. Open fractures that expose the bone and other tissues put the injured at greater risk of infection. Incomplete/Complete fractures Incomplete fractures are when the bone cracks without breaking completely, keeping it in one piece. Complete fractures, meanwhile, happen when the bone is snapped or crushed into two or more pieces. Both types have a slew of variations, depending on how the bone breaks and its condition after breakage. **3. Scoliosis** Scoliosis is an abnormal curvature of the spine resulting in an S or C shape. The disorder often occurs in a child's growth spurt before puberty, with cases usually diagnosed in the first seven years. In around 80% of scoliosis cases, no identifiable causes are found, though it may happen due to birth defects, neurological abnormalities, and genetic conditions. Symptoms of scoliosis depend on the severity of the condition, including having one shoulder blade higher or more protrusive than the other, uneven hips, a rotating spine, breathing problems, and back pain. 4. **Paget's Disease** Paget's disease is a chronic disorder that affects the way that bones break down and regrow. This results in excessive breakdown and regrowth, leading to bones that are bigger and softer than usual. Paget's disease may also cause bones to grow misshapen and more prone to fracturing. Symptoms of Paget's disease rarely manifest, and when they do, they can be similar to that of arthritis. These include pain in the affected area, headaches and hearing loss (if the disorder affects the skull), pressure on the nerves (if the skull or spine is affected), damage to the cartilage in the joints, increased head size, limb bowing, and spine curvature. **Common Joint Disorders** **1. Osteoarthritis** One of the most common joint disorders, osteoarthritis arises when the cartilage between two joints is worn down. This causes the bones in the joint to rub together, causing swelling and stiffness in the area. Symptoms typically occur way into adulthood, with the average person over 60 displaying some of the symptoms. Risk factors for this disorder include age, weight, frequency and intensity of joint activity, sports that directly affect the joint, and family history. **2. Rheumatoid arthritis** Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune and inflammatory disease that causes the body's immune system to attack healthy cells mistakenly, leading to inflammation or painful swelling in the affected area. It can attack multiple joints at once, usually the hands, wrists, and knees, and damage the joint tissue, leading to chronic pain, lack of balance or instability, and deformities. Signs of rheumatoid arthritis include pain and stiffness in multiple joints, as well as tenderness and swelling. These will occur symmetrically on both sides of the body, like in both wrists or both knees. Other symptoms are weight loss, fever, fatigue, and weakness. While the primary cause of the disorder is unknown, factors like age, gender, genetics, exposure to smoking at a young age, and obesity have been linked to an increased risk of contracting it. 3. **Gout** Gout is a common form of inflammatory arthritis marked by intense pain and caused by too much uric acid in the body. Uric acid crystals build up in the joints and surrounding tissues in the body. This disorder typically affects one joint at a time, usually the one connecting the big toe. Other commonly afflicted joints are the lesser toe joints, ankles, and knees. Symptoms like intense pain, swelling, redness, and heat are known to get worse ("flares") or disappear ("remission") entirely. Repeated instances of gout may lead to gouty arthritis, a severe form of arthritis. Increased risk factors include gender, obesity, certain health conditions, use of certain medications like diuretics, an increased intake of alcohol and high-fructose food and drink, and a purine-rich diet. **4. Bursitis** This disorder is characterized by the inflammation of the bursa, the small fluid-filled sac that serves as a cushion between the bone and other moving parts like muscles, tendons, joints, or skin. The bursa may turn red and increase in fluid content, leading to painful swelling. Bursitis is caused by overuse or an increased activity level involving the joint. Trauma or a complication from rheumatoid arthritis, gout, or infection may also be a culprit, although there are cases of bursitis where no cause can be determined. Symptoms include pain and tenderness when pressing around the joint, stiffness and aches when moving the afflicted joint, and swelling, warmth, or redness over the joint itself. Treatment and Prevention Treating various bone and joint diseases will depend on their nature. Fractures will need emergency medical attention, and if the injury is severe, it may require surgery. Other disorders may require surgery as well, or medication for less severe or chronic afflictions. Bracing, ortho visits, physical medical rehabilitation, and lifestyle and behavioral changes are also recommended. **In most cases, living a healthier lifestyle is the best one can do to prevent the onset of these conditions. Eating a well-balanced diet, engaging in regular exercise, and getting the recommended doses of vitamins and minerals can go a long way in strengthening and maintaining one's bones and joints.** **"TOUGH TIMES NEVER LAST, ONLY TOUGH PEOPLE LAST."**