Human Anatomy & Physiology: The Skeletal System PDF

Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology Thirteenth Edition Global Edition Chapter 5 The Skeletal System Lecture Presentation by...

Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology Thirteenth Edition Global Edition Chapter 5 The Skeletal System Lecture Presentation by Patty Bostwick-Taylor Florence-Darlington Technical College Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. The Skeletal System Parts of the skeletal system – Bones (skeleton) – Joints – Cartilages – Ligaments Two subdivisions of the skeleton 1. Axial skeleton 2. Appendicular skeleton Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Functions of the Bones Support the body Protection of soft organs – Skull and vertebrae protect brain and spinal cord – Rib cage protects thoracic cavity organs Allow movement via attached muscles Store minerals and fats – Calcium and phosphorus – Fat in the internal marrow cavity Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Classification of Bones The adult skeleton has 206 bones Two basic types of osseous (bone) tissue 1. Compact bone ▪ Dense, smooth, and homogeneous 2. Spongy bone ▪ Small needlelike pieces of bone ▪ Many open spaces Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.1 Flat Bones Consist of a Layer of Spongy Bone Sandwiched Between Two Thin Layers of Compact Bone Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Classification of Bones Bones are classified on the basis of shape into four groups – Long – Flat – Short – Irregular Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.2 Classification of Bones on the Basis of Shape Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Classification of Bones Long bones – Typically longer than they are wide – Shaft with enlarged ends – Contain mostly compact bone; spongy bone at ends – All of the bones of the limbs (except wrist, ankle, and kneecap bones) are long bones – Examples: ▪ Femur ▪ Humerus Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.2a Classification of Bones on the Basis of Shape Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Classification of Bones Flat bones – Thin, flattened, and usually curved – Two thin layers of compact bone sandwich a layer of spongy bone between them – Examples: ▪ Most bones of the skull ▪ Ribs ▪ Sternum Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.2b Classification of Bones on the Basis of Shape Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Classification of Bones Short bones – Generally cube-shaped – Contain mostly spongy bone with an outer layer of compact bone – Sesamoid bones are a type of short bone that form within tendons (patella) – Examples: ▪ Carpals (wrist bones) ▪ Tarsals (ankle bones) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.2c Classification of Bones on the Basis of Shape Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Classification of Bones Irregular bones – Irregular shape – Do not fit into other bone classification categories – Examples: ▪ Vertebrae ▪ Hip bones Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.2d Classification of Bones on the Basis of Shape Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Structure of Bone Long bone anatomy – Diaphysis (shaft) ▪ Makes up most of bone’s length ▪ Composed of compact bone – Periosteum ▪ Outside covering of the diaphysis ▪ Fibrous connective tissue membrane ▪ Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers secure periosteum to underlying bone Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.3a The Structure of a Long Bone (Humerus of Arm) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.3c The Structure of a Long Bone (Humerus of Arm) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.3b The Structure of a Long Bone (Humerus of Arm) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Structure of Bone Long bone anatomy – Epiphyseal line ▪ Remnant of the epiphyseal plate ▪ Seen in adult bones – Epiphyseal plate ▪ Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in young, growing bone ▪ Causes lengthwise growth of a long bone Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.3a The Structure of a Long Bone (Humerus of Arm) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.3a The Structure of a Long Bone (Humerus of Arm) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Structure of Bone Microscopic anatomy of spongy bone – Composed of small, needlelike pieces of bone called trabeculae and open spaces – Open spaces are filled by marrow, blood vessels, and nerves Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.4a Microscopic Structure of Bone Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Structure of Bone Microscopic anatomy of compact bone – Osteocytes ▪ Mature bone cells situated in bone matrix – Lacunae ▪ Cavities in bone matrix that house osteocytes – Lamellae ▪ Concentric circles of lacunae situated around the central (Haversian) canal Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Structure of Bone Microscopic anatomy of compact bone – Central (Haversian) canal ▪ Opening in the center of an osteon (Haversian system) ▪ Runs lengthwise through bone ▪ Carries blood vessels and nerves – Osteon (Haversian system) ▪ A unit of bone containing central canal and matrix rings ▪ Structural and functional unit of compact bone Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.4b Microscopic Structure of Bone (1 of 2) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.4c Microscopic Structure of Bone Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Structure of Bone (9 of 10) Microscopic anatomy of compact bone – Canaliculi ▪ Tiny canals ▪ Radiate from the central canal to lacunae ▪ Form a transport system connecting all bone cells to a nutrient supply – Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal ▪ Canal perpendicular to the central canal ▪ Carries blood vessels and nerves Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.4b Microscopic Structure of Bone (2 of 2) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling Bone formation and growth – Ossification is the process of bone formation – Occurs on hyaline cartilage models or fibrous membranes – Long bone growth involves two major phases Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.5 Stages of Long-Bone Formation in an Embryo, Fetus, and Young Child Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.6ab Growth and Remodeling of Long Bones Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.6cd Growth and Remodeling of Long Bones Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling Appositional growth – Bones grow in width – Osteoblasts in the periosteum add bone matrix to the outside of the diaphysis – Osteoclasts in the endosteum remove bone from the inner surface of the diaphysis Bone growth is controlled by hormones, such as growth hormone and sex hormones Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Bone Fractures Fracture: break in a bone Types of bone fractures – Closed (simple) fracture is a break that does not penetrate the skin – Open (compound) fracture is a broken bone that penetrates through the skin Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Bone Fractures Bone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization – Closed reduction: bones are manually coaxed into position by physician’s hands – Open reduction: bones are secured with pins or wires during surgery Healing time is 6–8 weeks Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Table 5.2 Common Types of Fractures (1 of 3) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Table 5.2 Common Types of Fractures (2 of 3) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Table 5.2 Common Types of Fractures (3 of 3) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Bone Fractures Repair of bone fractures involves four major events – Hematoma (blood-filled swelling, or bruise) is formed – Fibrocartilage callus forms ▪ Cartilage matrix, bony matrix, collagen fibers splint the broken bone – Bony callus replaces the fibrocartilage callus ▪ Osteoblasts and osteoclasts migrate in – Bone remodeling occurs in response to mechanical stresses Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.7 Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Axial Skeleton Forms the longitudinal axis of the body Divided into three parts 1. Skull 2. Vertebral column 3. Bony thorax Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.8a The Human Skeleton (1 of 2) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.8b The Human Skeleton (1 of 2) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Skull Two sets of bones form the skull 1. Cranium bones enclose the brain 2. Facial bones ▪ Hold eyes in anterior position ▪ Allow facial muscles to express feelings Bones are joined by sutures (immovable joints) Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Skull 8 cranial bones protect the brain 1 Frontal bone 2 Occipital bone 3 Ethmoid bone 4 Sphenoid bone 5,6 Parietal bones (pair) 7,8 Temporal bones (pair) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Skull 14 facial bones 1, 2 Maxillae (pair) 3, 4 Palatine bones (pair) 5, 6 Lacrimal bones (pair) 7, 8 Zygomatic bones (pair) 9, 10 Nasal bones (pair) 11 Vomer bone 12, 13 Inferior nasal conchae (pair) 14 Mandible Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.9 Human Skull, Lateral View Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.10 Human Skull, Superior View (Top of Cranium Removed) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.11 Human Skull, Inferior View (Mandible Removed) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.12 Human Skull, Anterior and Posterior Views Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Skull Paranasal sinuses – Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal cavity – Functions of paranasal sinuses ▪ Lighten the skull ▪ Amplify sounds made as we speak Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.13a Paranasal Sinuses Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.13b Paranasal Sinuses Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Skull Hyoid bone – Closely related to mandible and temporal bones – The only bone that does not articulate with another bone – Serves as a movable base for the tongue – Aids in swallowing and speech Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.14 Anatomical Location and Structure of the Hyoid Bone Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Vertebral Column (Spine) Vertebral column provides axial support – Extends from skull to the pelvis 26 vertebral bones are separated by intervertebral discs – 7 cervical vertebrae are in the neck – 12 thoracic vertebrae are in the chest region – 5 lumbar vertebrae are associated with the lower back – Sacrum (formed by fusion of 5 vertebrae) – Coccyx (formed by fusion of 3–5 vertebrae) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.15 The Vertebral Column Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.16 The C-Shaped Spine Typical of a Newborn Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.17 A Typical Vertebra, Superior View Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.18a Regional Characteristics of Vertebrae Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.18b Regional Characteristics of Vertebrae Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.18c Regional Characteristics of Vertebrae Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.18d Regional Characteristics of Vertebrae Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.19 Sacrum and Coccyx, Posterior View Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Thoracic Cage Bony thorax, or thoracic cage, protects organs of the thoracic cavity Consists of three parts 1. Sternum 2. Ribs ▪ True ribs (pairs 1–7) ▪ False ribs (pairs 8–12) ▪ Floating ribs (pairs 11–12) 3. Thoracic vertebrae Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.20a The Bony Thorax (Thoracic Cage) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.20b The Bony Thorax (Thoracic Cage) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Appendicular Skeleton Composed of 126 bones – Limbs (appendages) – Pectoral girdle – Pelvic girdle Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.8a The Human Skeleton (2 of 2) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.8b The Human Skeleton (2 of 2) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Bones of the Shoulder Girdle Also called pectoral girdle Composed of two bones that attach the upper limb to the axial skeletal 1. Clavicle 2. Scapula Light, poorly reinforced girdle Allows the upper limb a exceptional flexibility Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.21a Bones of the Shoulder Girdle Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.21b Bones of the Shoulder Girdle Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.21c Bones of the Shoulder Girdle Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.21d Bones of the Shoulder Girdle Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Bones of the Upper Limbs Humerus – Forms the arm – Single bone – Proximal end articulation ▪ Head articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula – Distal end articulation ▪ Trochlea and capitulum articulate with the bones of the forearm Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.22a Bones of the Right Arm and Forearm Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.22b Bones of the Right Arm and Forearm Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Bones of the Upper Limbs The forearm has two bones 1. Ulna—medial bone in anatomical position ▪ Proximal end articulation – Coronoid process and olecranon articulate with the humerus 2. Radius—lateral bone in anatomical position ▪ Proximal end articulation – Head articulates with the capitulum of the humerus Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.22c Bones of the Right Arm and Forearm Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Bones of the Upper Limbs Hand – Carpals—wrist bones ▪ 8 bones arranged in two rows of 4 bones in each hand – Metacarpals—palm bones ▪ 5 per hand – Phalanges—fingers and thumb ▪ 14 phalanges in each hand ▪ In each finger, there are 3 bones ▪ In the thumb, there are only 2 bones Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.23 Bones of the Right Hand, Anterior View Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Bones of the Pelvic Girdle Formed by two coxal bones Composed of three pairs of fused bones 1. Ilium 2. Ischium 3. Pubis Pelvic girdle = two coxal bones, sacrum Pelvis = two coxal bones, sacrum, coccyx Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.24a The Bony Pelvis Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.24b The Bony Pelvis Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.24c The Bony Pelvis Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Bones of the Lower Limbs Femur—thigh bone – The heaviest, strongest bone in the body – Proximal end articulation ▪ Head articulates with the acetabulum of the coxal (hip) bone – Distal end articulation ▪ Lateral and medial condyles articulate with the tibia in the lower leg Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.25a Bones of the Right Thigh and Leg Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.25b Bones of the Right Thigh and Leg Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Bones of the Lower Limbs The lower leg has two bones 1. Tibia—shinbone; larger and medially oriented ▪ Proximal end articulation – Medial and lateral condyles articulate with the femur to form the knee joint ▪ Distal end articulation – Medial malleolus forms the inner part of the ankle 2. Fibula—thin and sticklike; lateral to the tibia ▪ Has no role in forming the knee joint ▪ Distal end articulation – Lateral malleolus forms the outer part of the ankle Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.25c Bones of the Right Thigh and Leg Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Bones of the Lower Limbs Foot – Tarsals—7 bones ▪ Two largest tarsals are the: – Calcaneus (heel bone) – Talus – Metatarsals—5 bones form the sole of the foot – Phalanges—14 bones form the toes Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.26 Bones of the Right Foot, Superior View Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.27 Arches of the Foot Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Joints Joints are articulations – Occur where two or more bones meet Functions of joints – Hold bones together securely – Allow for mobility Two ways joints are classified – Functionally – Structurally Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Joints Functional joint classifications – Synarthroses ▪ Immovable joints – Amphiarthroses ▪ Slightly movable joints – Diarthroses ▪ Freely movable joints Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.28a Types of Joints Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.28b Types of Joints Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.28c Types of Joints Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.28d Types of Joints Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.28e Types of Joints Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Joints Synovial joints – Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity – Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity – Four distinguishing features of synovial joints 1. Articular cartilage 2. Articular capsule 3. Joint cavity 4. Reinforcing ligaments Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.28f Types of Joints Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.28g Types of Joints Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.28h Types of Joints Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Table 5.3 Summary of Joint Classes Structural class Structural Types Mobility characteristics Fibrous Bone ends/parts Suture (short fibers) Immobile (synarthrosis) united by collagenic Syndesmosis (longer fibers) Slightly mobile fibers Gomphosis (periodontal (amphiarthrosis) and immobile ligament) Immobile Cartilaginous Bone ends/parts Synchondrosis (hyaline Immobile united by cartilage cartilage) Symphysis Slightly movable (fibrocartilage) Synovial Bone ends/parts Plane Freely movable (diarthrosis; covered with Hinge movements depend on design articular cartilage Pivot of joint) and enclosed within Condylar an articular capsule Saddle lined with synovial Ball and Membrane socket Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Joints Types of synovial joints based on shape – Plane joint – Hinge joint – Pivot joint – Condylar joint – Saddle joint – Ball-and-socket joint Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.29 General Structure of a Synovial Joint Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.30a Types of Synovial Joints Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.30b Types of Synovial Joints Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.30c Types of Synovial Joints Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.30d Types of Synovial Joints Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.30e Types of Synovial Joints Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.30f Types of Synovial Joints Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.31 Ossification Centers in the Skeleton of a 12-Week-Old Fetus Are Indicated by the Darker Areas Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton Fetal skull – Fontanels are fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bones ▪ Known as “soft spots” ▪ Allow skull compression during birth ▪ Allow the brain to grow during later pregnancy and infancy ▪ Usually ossify by 2 years of age Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.32a The Fetal Skull Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.32b The Fetal Skull Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.33a Differences in the Growth Rates for Some Parts of the Body Compared to Others Determine Body Proportions Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.33b Differences in the Growth Rates for Some Parts of the Body Compared to Others Determine Body Proportions Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton Older adults – Osteoporosis ▪ Bone-thinning disease afflicting: – 50 percent of women over age 65 – 20 percent of men over age 70 ▪ Disease makes bones fragile, and bones can easily fracture ▪ Vertebral collapse results in kyphosis (also known as “dowager’s hump”) ▪ Estrogen aids in health and normal density of a female skeleton Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.34 Osteoporosis Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Figure 5.35 Vertebral Collapse Due to Osteoporosis Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. END Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.