GST 115 Nigerian Peoples and Culture PDF

GST 115: NIGERIAN PEOPLES AND CULTURE OBJECTIVE: The course is design to supply some basic information about Nigeria as a Continuous long human habitation that dated back to pre-historic times and runs through the pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial period. These historical details about this...

GST 115: NIGERIAN PEOPLES AND CULTURE OBJECTIVE: The course is design to supply some basic information about Nigeria as a Continuous long human habitation that dated back to pre-historic times and runs through the pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial period. These historical details about this geographical location are unfathomable to many Nigerian students today while some are completely ignorance of it. Hence the following course outlines will be covered to give full description of Nigerian peoples and Culture for the benefit of the present generation of Nigerian students. COURSE OUTLINE 1. The geographical background of Nigeria 2. The peoples and notable Ethnic groups in Nigeria 3. Stages of Civilization in Nigeria 4. Early Centres of civilization in Nigeria 5. Nigeria Cultural zones (History and Political structure). 6. The Evolution of Nigeria (Amalgamation, Reasons for Amalgamation) 7. Colonial Rule In Nigeria (Constitution Development) 8. Nigeria Independence, Republican, Military rule and Civilian Rule in Nigeria 9. The Economy and National Development (Nigeria Economic system pre-colonial, Colonial and post-colonial) 10. The structure of Economic Activities in Nigeria ( Major problem of the Nigerian economy and solution) 11. Major components of Natural Environment (Environment problems, factors responsible for environmental problems and solution) Recommended Textbooks for further Reading Fajana, A and Biggs, B.J (1970) Nigeria in History, Ibadan: Longman Obaro, Ikime (ed), (1980). Groundwork of Nigerian History, Ibadan: Heinemann Falola,T. & Heaton, M.M. (2008). A History of Nigeria. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Egharevba, J. U. (1968), A Short History of Benin and Ibadan, Ibadan: University Press. Dele Odanye (2014) A Handbook of History, Ibadan: Holand Publishers Falola T. and Adediran A.( 1986) A New History of Nigeria For Colleges Book One, Ikeja: John West Publications Ltd 1 GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND OF NIGERIA Nigerian peoples and culture has to do with the country that is made up the largest single pole units in West Africa sub region. It also contains the world largest concentration of Negroes (black people). It is bounded by the Republic of Benin (Dahomey) in the West, on the Eastern-coast, it shares a border with the Gulf of Guinea. On the North, it is bounded by the Republic of Niger, on the North-east by Lake Chad. It adjoins the Cameroun Republic on the East and in the South by the Atlantic Ocean. Nigeria has a total area of 923768 square kilometres, with land mass covers 910768 square kilometres and waterway covers 13000square kilometres. It is located in the tropical climatic zone which is hot all the year round. There are two major air masses that determine the seasonal pattern of rainfall (Northeast and Southeast Trade winds) these air masses caused variations in seasonal patterns of rainfall that bring two distinctive seasons of the year i.e rainy and dry seasons. The intermixed of these two seasons brings the Harmattan. The variations in the seasonal pattern of rainfall also bring differences in the vegetation which has given Nigeria a geographical division that may conveniently divided into forestland and grassland. Within these two geographical divisions four vegetation zones can be traced for instance, in the forest region, we have thick forest vegetation that covers states like Oyo, Ogun, Osun, Ekiti, Edo, Imo, Anambra, Abia, Ebonyi and Enugu. The second one is swamps forest which is along the coast. States located here are; Rivers, Bayelsa, Cross Rivers, Delta, Akwa Ibom and Lagos. In the grassland region, we have semi-savannah which lies between the forest region and savannah zone. States along this zone are; Kwara, Niger, plateau, Benue, Nasarawa, Taraba, Kogi and Adamawa. The fourth zone is savannah zone where there is low annual rainfall with abundance of grass. States that can be found in this zone are; Kaduna, Gombe, Sokoto, Katsina, Bauchi, Kebbi, Yobe, Bornu, Jigawa and Kano. The major physical features in Nigeria are Plateau to the centres of the North and the Oban hills to the East which merge with Adamawa highlands and the Cameroun Mountains. River Niger and Benue are the popular rivers in Nigeria. Besides, there are some other rivers such as river Ogun, Imo, Cross River which empties into the Atlantic Ocean. River Kaduna 2 empties into river Niger. In the extreme North-eastern Nigeria is Lake Chad, a depression which is an inland water system. THE PEOPLES AND NOTABLE ETHNIC GROUPS IN NIGERIA The peoples of Nigeria are varied in accordance to the geographical location that divided has provided natural division. Hence, it has Nigeria into three distinctive regions (North, Middle belt and the south). The people that were brought together and now called Nigerian initially belonged to different communities, kingdoms and empires. These peoples had converged to form different ethnic groups and developed the kind of political institutions and set of rules, laws, values and customs that suitable of their area of jurisdiction. There are about 500 different ethnic groups within the boundaries of Nigeria. But the three major ones are; Yoruba, Hausa, and Igbo. Although there are some other prominent ethnic groups in accordance to geographical divisions these are; 1. Northern Nigeria: we have the following ethnic groups; Hausa, kanuri Fulani 2. Middle Belt: The Nupe, Tiv, Idoma and Igala 3. Southern Nigeria: The Yoruba, Edo(Benin), Igbo, Ijaw, Iteskiri and Urobo Many of these ethnic groups traced their origins outside Nigeria and maintained either centralized or Non-centralized or segmentary socio-political organization. A centralized state refers to a community made up of independent villages or towns that has only one source of political power that concentrated on the head of such political unit. Examples of centralized states in pre-colonial Nigeria are Oyo, Kanem-Bornu and Benin, Ijaw, Itsekiri, Nupe, Igala, Calabar etc A non-centralized or segmentary state refers to a kind of political unit where source of political power is not derived from only one source. In this system particularly among Igbo village forms the political unit while the political power derived from two basic institutions i.e. Council of elders (Ama-ala) and village assembly. Other examples of non-centralized states are Ibibio, Urhobo, Isoko, Idoma, Tiv. STAGES OF CIVILIZATION IN NIGERIA The term civilization simply means an organized culture that encompassing many communities. Hence, human activities and culture in various locations in Nigeria took place 3 during different stages. For the better understanding, three stages of civilization are identified. 1. Stone Age. This is the first stage of human civilization. It is subdivided into two sections: The Old Stone Age (Palaeolithic Age) and the New Stone Age (Neolithic). The Old Stone Age (Palaeolithic Age): It was the earliest and longest period of human history, tools were made of broken pieces of stone and man was essentially a wanderer. But in Nigeria we do not know the extent of Man’s habitation but the relic of this Palaeolithic man have been found in Bauchi area in Nigeria. The New Stone Age (Neolithic): In this age there was advance that was more important than the discovery of grinding. There were domestication of animals and practice of agriculture. Although man still wandered about for green grass for his cattle but not for food but. The evidence of Neolithic man in Nigeria could be seen in tools, ornaments and weapons in the lower Benue valley. 2. Bronze Age: This has been considered as the second stage of human civilization. The age when minerals like aluminium, copper gold and silver were discovered inside the soil. Man began to make tools like bronze ornaments, statue and spoon 3Iron Age: This is the third stage of human civilization when iron was discovered. During this period, there was predominant use of iron and steel as raw materials in production of tools and implements and weapons such as iron-axe, gun and cutlass knife Instead of stone and bronze tools. This period also brought other changes in the society, some of them include differing agricultural practices, religious beliefs, and artistic styles. EARLY CENTRES OF CIVILIZATION IN NIGERIA These are places where important events took place in the past. Places where cultural and historical development started. These places are also referred to as historical sites among these are Nok, Igbo- Ukwu, Ife and Benin. Nok: This is the first work of art and civilization in Nigeria and Africa as a whole. Nok is a small community in the Northern part of Nigeria, located in the Northeast of kwoi in Jema local government Area of Kaduna state. Owing to the fact that the first object was found around Nok village, those that lived there are called Nok people and their culture is called Nok culture. Nok culture began during the Stone Age and skipped the Bronze Age. It thrived 4 till the beginning of Iron Age. This shows that people lived in Nigeria as far back as 1000 BC. Nok culture is made up of the artefacts from these artefacts the occupation, religion, festival, food and music of Nok people were known. The artefacts of Nok are artworks like figures, statues, animal and human heads made of terracotta (fired clay or baked clay). Others include materials and objects like tools, ornaments and weapons made of stone and iron. Nok were very skilled in sculpture by carving stones, wood or clay and ceramic. Several object made by Nok were later found in other p ‘ laces like Jos plateau, Katsina and Sokoto. Nok people practiced subsistence farming by planting food crops such as pearl, millet and cowpeas. They also engaged in animal husbandry, tin mining and iron-smelting. Nok culture in Nigerian history is so significant because it proves that from the earliest time people from Nigeria were first iron worker in sub-Saharan Africa. They were skilful in making iron tools and weapons. IFE: This is an ancient town in Yoruba land often regarded as the cradle of humankind and spiritual home of the Yoruba. Ife is located in the present day Osun state, east of Ibadan and about 40 kilometers from Osogbo the capital of Osun state. It was founded around 500 BC while her artworks started between 700 and 900 AD. The greatest attention placed on the city of Ife is as a result of the discovery of natural and semi naturalistic artworks. Ife artworks include terracotta, Bronze-moulding and wood-carving. Ife terracotta and bronze sculptures are human heads and animals hence, the terracotta heads are called Ife heads. The brass heads are called Bronze heads and are made of copper and zinc. Ife head represented a king, it was dsiscovered in 1938 at Wunmonije compound in Ile-Ife in a building site. Bronze head was equally found there. Tribal or facial marks were found on all the heads of Ife. These lines distinguished Ife sculpture from other and the lines are called striation. The first Ife artworks to be seen by outside world were glass beads known as Segi. It was discovered in 1836 at Old Oyo by Richard Lander and his brother John Lander. Today some of the examples of statues made of bronze and terracotta by the artists for the remembrance of dead kings, chiefs, heroes and heroines in Ife are Ori Olokun, Oduduwa, Obalufon and Queen Moremi. The common occupation among Ife people are farming, Palm- wine tapping, Blacksmithing, hunting and wood carving. Some of the carved objects were used as idols to 5 represent deities. Ife people are traditional worshipers, It is a city of 401deities, this showed that there is no day without celebration of festival for the deity. Ife artworks reveal their culture and show that Nigerians were able to produce tools and weapons to enable them control and adapt to their environment. Also the similarity between Ife art and Nok art shows meaningful inter-relationship among Nigerians before the colonial administration. The Benin (Edo): Benin Kingdom was one of the oldest kingdoms in the forest region of Nigeria. It is located in the south-western part of Nigeria and capital of the present Edo state. Benin art could be dated back to 14th century and was rich in sculptures of different materials like iron, bronze, wood, ivory and terracotta. Majorly Benin art is made of cast bronze and carved ivory. Benin bronze is a mixture of minerals like copper, tin and zinc, while her ivory is a hard, white material from tusks and teeth of animals. Their artefacts were produced and used in palace for decoration. Benin artists that worked in bronze are royal artist that lived in the palace to produced artworks for palace. The membership of these royal artists also known as guilds is by birth. Benin got the knowledge of bronze work from Ife. Like Ife, Benin bronze is naturalistic in shape and highly artistic, it gives regard to the institution of Obaship like that of Ife. Benin artefacts are made up of busts which are sculptured representations of the upper part of human figure such as head, neck and part of the shoulders and breasts. Some of these busts have beaded collar fitted around their necks. The busts of Queen mother is decorated with special coral headdress the popular artefact of Benin Queen mother is queen Idia,s statue. Benin brass objects not only depicted the king, palace and royal activities, but also depicited the Benin connection with Christianity. The evidence could be seen from Frank willet discovery in 1959 when he worked on the Benin Baptist church site. However Benin as a centre of ancient civilization proves that Nigerian people quite very early in their history were engaged in various forms of activities such as farming, craft work and trade and that there were contacts among the various people in Nigeria. IGBO-UKWU: They were the ancestors of the present day Igbo Nigeria. They lived in the 9th century in a town that is of great historical and cultural prominence in Igbo land, precisely located in Aguata local government area of Anambra state. Igbo-Ukwu objects is made up of bronze work which started during the Bronze Age. The first Igbo-Ukwu bronze artefacts were 6 discovered by Isaiah Anozie in 1939. Igbo-Ukwu objects are older than those of Benin and different in both design and composition from those of Ife and Benin. Most of Igbo-Ukwu objects include bronze pendant ornaments, vessels, masks, bell and sculptures. Other Igbo- Ukwu bronze artefacts include animal’s models like ram head, snake and leopards. Insect-like flies, beetles and grasshoppers, The Significance of the Early Centres of civilization For Nigerian peoples and Culture 1. It proves that Nigerian peoples had passed through various stages of development which developed their culture before the advent of the Europeans. 2. It indicates that Nigerian peoples have developed technology in art works such as brass, bronze and copper. 3. It shows that Nigerian peoples were able to adapt into their environment by making some necessary tools and weapons for their survival. 4. It proves that Nigerian people quite very early in their history were engaged in various forms of activities such as farming, craft work and trade 5. It also indicates that there were contacts among the various peoples in Nigeria before the European contact. CULTURE OF SOME NOTABLE ETHNIC GROUPS IN NIGERIA The main focus of our discussion on this topic is to emphasis on the various notable ethnic groups that had been identified in our previous topic on the peoples and notable groups in Nigeria. The emphasis will therefore base on their culture. Therefore, it is pertinent at this juncture to conceptualise culture. Concept of culture The word Culture could be used differently and interrelated ways. For instance, it is seen as the quality possessed by individuals, it is also seen as the collective body of arts and intellectual work and at times it is used closely related to the idea of civilization. Diaz and weed conceptualise culture as the knowledge, belief, art, moral, law, customs, behaviours, traditional and habits of people. In the nutshell, Culture is the totality of the people’s way of life as well as the device and methods that a group of people adopt to tame and subdue their physical environment in an attempt to provide for their economic, religious, social, and political and security. This further shows that culture is the traces of what man left behind as 7 his achievement in the process of his struggle for survival between him and nature. It has been a means of distinguishing man from man in different location of the world. Hence in any society the aspect of culture encompass religion, marriage practices, language, dress codes, music, sports, funeral rites, amusement, culinary practices, values and tradition, economic practices and political practices. Our discussion on culture of some notable ethnic groups in Nigeria will cut across all the aspects of the culture. To make this topic more understandable Nigeria will therefore divide into two i.e, North and South. Wherefore culture of some notable ethnic groups in the North as well as south will be fully discussed. Culture of notable ethnic groups in the Northern Nigeria The Hausa are predominantly found in the north-western part of Nigeria and constituted the notable cultural groups in the Northern Nigeria. They were made up of seven states that were substantially Islamized even before the Sokoto Jihad of 1804. The origin of Hausa states can be traced to Bayajidda also known as Abu-yazid. Bayajidda fled from Baghdad to kanem- Borno after he quarrelled with his father Abdullahi who was the ruler of Baghdad. Bayajjida later left Kanem-Borno and came to Daura where he killed a snake which prevented the people of the town from drawing water from a well except on Friday. With this achievement the queen of Daura (Dauranama) married Bayajidda and the marriage was blessed with a son called Bawo. Bawo later gave birth to seven children who became the founders of the seven original Hausa states (Hausa Bakwai). Their names are; Kano Daura, Gobir, Zaria, Katsina, Rano and Biram. This legend also proved further that Bawo had a concubine who gave birth to another seven children who were called Hausa Banza Bakwa. They were the founder of seven illegitimate Hausa states which include Zamfara, Gwari, Nupe, Yauri, Ilorin, Kwararofa and Kebbi. Today the Hausa people of Nigeria are mostly concentrated in Kano, Katsina, Jigawa, Sokoto, Kebbi and Zamfara, The Hausa language is classified under the Chadic sub-group of AfroAsiatic or Hamito-Semitic family, it is a lingua- franca of the entire northern of Nigeria. Political Organization of Hausa States Hausa states political organization was based on city- states with centralized political administration. The head of a typical Hausa city state was the Sarki, who was supported by the subordinate chiefs, who were the head of villages absorbed by the city states. In political terms, the development of the office of the Sarki of a birni (city) like Kano was very 8 significant. His full title was Sarkin Kasa, meaning: ‘ruler of the land’ and not just the city. The sarki was both a political and religious leader of the people. He was also the chief executive and judge of the state. He was aided by a council of state. However, new socio-political institutions were introduced into the Hausa political structure with the introduction of Islam in the 14th and 15th centuries; for example, the offices of the Galadima (senior counselor), Madawaki (palace administrator), Magaji (overseer), Dogari (guard), and Zagi (orderly). In the same vein, from the 15th century, the administration of justice and fiscal systems were similarly influenced by Islam, titles, concepts and institutions as the Alkali or the Qadi (judge), Zakat (tax on income), Jangali (tax on livestock) became common in the administration of the state. Social life of Hausa The social life of Hausa people is found on strict status differentiation. We have the Sarakuna (Chiefs in Hausa language) and Masu Sarauta. The former are at the top of the hierarchy, while the Masu Sarauta are holders of offices. Those who hold hereditary offices constitute the sub-class of Masu Sarauta Na Asali while those who hold office of allegiance form the Masu Sarauta Na Cafka, and they constitute the middle class. There is the third class called Talakawa, which is made up of farmers and peasants, petty civil servants, craftsmen, traders etc. Economy of the Hausa States The main occupation of Hausa states was agriculture. The main agricultural crops found in Hausaland are: maize, millet, guinea corn and beans among many others. There were other local industries such as blacksmithing, sculpture, perfumes, leather-works, dying and cloth- weaving. Apart from this, Hausa states engaged in trade activities with North Africa which was known as trans- Saharan trade as well as trade with the southern kingdoms of forest regions of Nigeria such as Yoruba and Benin. They involved in trade in Kola nut and some other articles. Among the Hausa women enjoy enormous economic freedom more than any other women in Nigeria. They are free to run their private businesses and enjoy absolute control over their income. A wife is justified to claim a fee for labour rendered to her husband in the process of economic production. The Fulani Culture 9  The Fulani also called Fula in English language and Bambara, “Peul” by the Wolof, “Fellata” by the Kanuri and are generally called Fulani by other Nigerians. This is another notable ethnic group that lives side-by-side with the Hausa and others in the Northern part of Nigeria. It is believed they originated from the Futa Jalon highland region of West Africa and later migrated in stages to various places in the West African sub-region. They are Semitic Negroes, the products of Berber marriage with the Negroes inhabitants of West Africa. Political Organization of Fulani The Fulani are of two categories, namely: fulanin daji (nomadic) and fulanin gida (town or settled). Fulanin daji (nomadic cattle rearer) maintained their nomadic way of life, move from one place to another at different seasons of the year in search of pasture or grazing land for their livestock. The fulanin gida (town Fulani) lived in conquered towns and served as administrator and some cultivate land for agricultural purpose. They owed large herd but entrusted them into the care of their nomadic brethren. In the pre-colonial period, the Fulani, under Shehu Usman Danfodiyo’s leadership functioned basically as administrators and sometimes as cultivators. As devout Muslims, they were very instrumental in assisting Shehu Usman Danfodiyo in the execution of the popular Sokoto Jihad which helped in the socio-political as well as the religious changes of Northern Nigeria in the course of the nineteenth century. The Fulani family is under the head of the patriarch (The male head of a tribe or Family). The entire society is based upon the different families’ patriarchs and the land that they own and occupy, as well as the buildings and livestock on that land. They are part of the Niger-Congo linguistic group and speak the Fulaar dialect of the Fulfulde language. Social life of Fulani The Fulani social life is divided into castes, which consist of nobility, cattle owners, herdsmen, the craftsmen and cultivators, who are deemed to be the very lowest classes. In fact, the vast majority of those within these last two divisions have descended from black slaves. As part of their social life, they are noted for their tattoos, which are common to men, women and even the infants. The Fulani women frequently tattoo their lips, making them black, or dye them with henna. Tattoos are considered to beautify the body, and aesthetic beauty is particularly important in this culture. The town Fulani lived in the town while the 10 cattle Fulani lived in camp of tent or grass shelter which is usually deserted when death occurs. Young girls and women typically wear strips of colourful cotton woven into the hair just above their foreheads. Their clothing is characteristically colourful, comprising long robes with a little embroidery or embellishment sewn on. Men and women both used these long robes, while the herdsmen and women wear turbans. Jewellery is important for both men and women. The marriages among the Fulani are polygamous. However, a bride price is paid by the groom’s family to the bride’s family, so no man will have more wives than he can afford to pay the bride price for. The Fulani are noted for their bravery. They have an array of weapons testifying to their warrior courage and lack of fear. When young boys are coming of age, they perform a ritual that requires that they strike one another with spears. Many boys have died during these ceremonies. Music and song are an integral part of the Fulani culture. Their instruments include a riti (similar to a violin), hoddu (like a banjo) and drums. Ululation is also a very popular addition to most musical pieces. This is a vocal technique that is high-pitched, adding a tribal sound to the overall piece Economy of the Fulani The main occupation of Fulani is cattle-rearing by the males. They maintained their nomadic way of life, move from different locations at different seasons of the year in search of water and good pasture or grazing land for their livestock while the females occupied with cow-milking. Some also cultivate land for agricultural purpose. The Kanuri Culture The Kanuri people are an African ethnic group living largely in the lands of the former Kanem and Bornu Empires: Presently they are located in Bornu state of north-eastern Nigeria, southeast Niger, western Chad and northern Cameroon. Kanuri were the original settlers in Kanem-Bornu which was located in the east and west of Lake Chad. The So people were once lived in this area. The Kanuri were one of many Nilo-Saharan groups of the Central South Sahara. They began their expansion in the area of Lake Chad in the late 7th 11 century, and absorbing both indigenous Nilo-Saharan and Chadic (Afro-Asiatic) speakers. According to Kanuri tradition, between the 9th and the 10th centuries, Arab hero Saif bin (son of) Dhi Yazan of Yemen, arrived in Kanem and united the population into the Saifawa dynasty. Saif bin Dhi Yazan was credited to have established the renowned Saifawa Dynasty (ruling family). Little is known of the earliest phases of Kanuri culture, but the Contemporary Kanuri are the descendants of this ruling Saifawa family of the Kanem Empire. For a period of several centuries, the efforts of the Saifawa to consolidate their power and expand their kingdom’s boundaries led to the incorporation of many distinctive groups within Kanuri society. These groups include the Budum of Lake Chad, the Mandara and Kotoko (or Mogori) who live southeast of the Kanuri, the Marghi of the Damboa district, the Babur in the hills south of the Kanuri, the Bolewa located southwest of the Kanuri, and the Bede of Gashua, within the Kanuri territory. All of these groups have acquired various aspects of Kanuri culture, mainly the Kanuri language and Islam. The political organization of Kanuri (kanem-Bornu) Like the other kingdoms in Nigeria before the advent of the European of the colonialist in Nigeria in the 19th and 20th century, the political organization of kanem-Bornu had reached an advance stage. The kingdom was administered by hereditary king called the Mai. He was forbidden to appear in the public except on the annual festival. The Mai was assisted by the twelve officials, (the Nokena) who acted in advisory capacity to the Mai and controlled most of his decision in theory. The present political structure of kanem-Bornu had changed the title of the political head from Mai to Shehu, though he is still remained both the political and the religious leader. Councillors were chosen among the Maina (members of the royal family) and appointed for specific duties under Mai. The appointment of such Councillors was for life. The kingdom was divided into four districts, each headed by a councillor. The southern district headed by Kaigama and he was the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The Yerima was in-charge of Northern Province. The eastern province was headed by the Mestrema also he was the warden of the Mai’s household. Galadima was the controller of the western province. He was the only one among the provincial heads that lived outside the capital. The queen mother (Magira) was important and power in the political setting of the kingdom. She controlled the domestic arrangement of the royal court. Mogaram the sister of the Mai was also important because she assisted the Mai in the administration of the empire. 12 Other great dignitaries in the kanem-Bornu were the people of low birth. Slaves and eunuchs made up of this group. They also played important roles in the administration of the dynasty and held offices such as the Mushemu, Yuroma and Kachalla. Bornu was a feudal state, with royal lineages, a landholding aristocracy, peasants, and slaves. Each receiver of a fief was called the chimakura. The administration of the fief was left in the hand of the steward called Chima Gana. There was a social unequal relationship in which each person has diffuse obligations to and expectations of the other, this is still an integral part of Kanuri culture. The principal contrast was between the nobility and royalty, on the one hand, and commoners, on the other. But today this contrast has transformed to one between the modern, educated, bureaucratic elite and the traditional, illiterate peasantry. The Kanuri Social organization emphasizes the importance of the nuclear family and the supreme authority of the father. Kanuri groups have traditionally been sedentary, engaging in farming, fishing in the Lake Chad basin, and engaged in trade and salt processing. There were two taxes in operation in the Kanem- Bornu these were Binemram and sada’a. Binemram was the tax on personal property while Sada’a was a royal revenue. The Kanuri language, which derived from Kanembu, was the major language of the Borno Empire. Kanuri remains a major language in southeastern Niger, northeastern Nigeria The Kanuri were noted for Islam as state religion since the eleventh century. Law, education, and social organization were the parts of their culture that have been most affected by Islam. The Malakite version of Islamic law is administered by the judge. In the capital the chief judge called Mainin kanendi while Mallamais were acted as judges in the large town outside the capital. The Nupe Culture Nupe is another ethnic group that can be found in central part of Nigeria. It is presently located in part of Kogi, Kwara and Niger States. The main towns where they are living presently are Bida, Minna, Agaie, Lapai, Mokwa, Jebba, Lafiagi, and Pategi. Like many Nigerian ethnic groups, the Nupe people have different versions of origin but the most common version of Nupe origin was traced to Egypt. Nupe people considered Edegi the 13 founder of their state; Edegi according to Nupe tradition might have arrived in the early Sixteenth Century from Idah. Edegi was also believed to have had an Igala father and a Nupe mother. Historical traditions revealed that the Nupe people had at a time paid allegiance and tribute to the Atta of the Igala state. The Nupe in the Sixteenth Century formed a confederacy because they comprised of semiautonomous states in the area, such as Ebe, Gbidye, Kusopa, Benu,Beni, Dibo, Kede, Ebagi, Batsoi, Kupa, Cekpa, and Gwagba. It was an Idah prince, known as Tsoede that re-established Nupe independence and proclaimed himself the Etsu Nupe (King of Nupeland). Linguistic evidence suggests that the Nupe language belongs to a branch (Nupoid) of the Benue-Congo group of languages. Others languages in the group are Igbira (Ebira), Gbagyi (Gbari), Gade, and Kakanda. Nupe is related most closely to Gbari and Kakanda in structure and vocabulary. There are at least two markedly different dialects: Nupe central and Nupe Tako. Political Organization of Nupe Etsu Nupe was known as the head of the Nupe kingdom. He enjoyed a divine status and people worshipped him and respected him. He has the final say on any matter in the land and his words were laws. His power and actions were regulated by a body of traditions and taboos. Magic and myth, rituals and taboos, and the law of succession separated the king from his subjects. He operated a two-level administration: central and provincial. Besides the Etsu Nupe there was a class of powerful gentlemen called nobility. Its main task is to help the king carry out his duties as leader. Such nobility include: shaba, kpotuh and maku. At the village level, there was a head called Zitzu. He was an appointee of the Etsu and he was assisted by a council of elders. He was expected to pay annual tribute to Etsu. Marriage Life of Nupe In Nupe, polygymous marriages were very common both before and after the introduction of the Islamic faith. Marriage involves the payment of a bride-price by the groom. A ceremony is carried out on the eve of every marriage where the bride her sisters and other maidens shows their dance steps. Marriage has no real meaning without procreation Barrenness is regarded as a curse and a misfortune, and traditional means are utilized to secure fertility or cure barrenness. Divorce rarely occurs because men want to avoid the publicity and ridicule of divorce proceedings in Alkali court (Islamic court). Most marriages 14 are terminated by the death of a spouse. A widow according to Nupe culture must stay within the compound for five good months. The heritance of the deceased person is divided between his oldest son, other sons, full brothers, and daughter in decreasing proportions. If the children are very young, the money is held in trust for them. In a situation where the marriage did not produce children, a woman may inherit from her husband or the deceased's brothers may forgo their right in her favour if they feel she has been a very good wife. Nupe religious belief Nupe religious belief before the contact of Islam involved a variety of local deities and the honoring of ancestors. Among pre-Islamic Nupe veneration of the guardian spirit Gunu was the most widespread religious practice and represented the peak of ceremonial life. Animals are sacrificed in his honor, and their blood is poured out as a libation to him. Every eleven months the men go to his altar, where they kneel down and bow their foreheads to the ground. There is also a semi-religious institution called Ndakogboiya, in which a man may complain of a wife's conduct and beg that she be exposed, together with any other guilty party The Igala Culture The Igala are an ethnic group of Nigeria. Their homeland, the former Igala is situated on a parcel of land that is an approximately triangular area of about 14,000 km2 lies in the eastern part of the river Niger and Benue confluence, and also extending across the river Niger in Lokoja, Kogi state of Nigeria. The area was formerly the Igala Division of Kabba province with Idah as the capital, and is now part of Kogi State. The Ìgàlá people living north of the Igbo people founded the Igala Kingdom, (Ánę-Ìgàlá). Igala has different traditions of origin one is linked with divine rulership of the Jukun, while another claimed ascendancy with Yoruba. Also there is one that claimed connection with Benin. According to one of the local traditions of Igala, Agenapoje is believed to be the ancestor of the ATA of Igala. This tradition confirmed that Agenapoje was sent from the gods and landed on a rock close to Idah. He was the first Ata of Igala and succeeded by Ayagba or Ayegba. Another traditional account points out that the founder of the Ata dynasty was not a total stranger but an offspring of a local woman. However, there is 15 indication that both external and internal factors played vital roles in the emergence of Igala kingdom The political organization of Igala was headed by ATA, who a council of state has made up of nine chiefs known as the Igala Mela. This council served as adviser to the ATA and at the same time they performed the role of the kingmaker. This council forged a link between the Ata and his subjects and also responsible for the installation and funeral rites of the ATA. Adokainya who was the heir apparent to the throne of ATA after the demise of the reigning ATA falls within the council of state. The Onu or Akomu was the ATA’s representatives in the neighbouring Igala settlement. They were usually the relatives or trusted followers of ATA and were sent as chiefs to consolidate ATA holds in those settlements by establishing chiefdom which they presided over. They were subject to the ATA only in certain sovereign matters such as the payment of tribute, jurisdiction over homicide and succession to their own offices. Igala festivals revolve round gods and goddesses of the rivers and other deities. The Igala People have a very rich cultural heritage. Taboo is an aspect of this culture, despite the fact that westernization The Yoruba Culture The Yoruba land covers Southwest Nigeria and part of Middle Belt of Nigeria. Until the colonial conquest of Africa, the Yoruba region extended from Benin Republic to parts of Togo. A sizeable number also settled in Sudan en route to or from Mecca. The Trans-Atlantic slave trade also led to their forced migration to the Americas where Yoruba cultural traditions have endured to the present in Brazil (as Lucumi), in Trinidad and Tobago and in Cuba, amongst many other places. Yoruba is one of the largest and homogenous groups in Nigeria and constitutes about 21% of the total Population and they are one of the majority ethnic groups in Nigeria communities. This area is bounded by the Borgu or Bariba in the Northwest, the Nupe and Ebira in the North, the Esan and Edo to the South East, the Igala and other related groups to the Northeast. In Nigeria the Yoruba could be found in the states like Ondo, Ekiti, Oyo, 16 Ogun, Lagos, Osun, Edo, Kwara, and Kogi state. The Itsekiri are their kins. The principal tribes amidst these kingdoms are; Egba, Ijesha, Oyo, Ondo, Ekiti, Ife, Ijebu and Akoko. The Yoruba had several traditions about how their people began life. The earliest known account of their existence in the region according to archaeological evidence dated to around 9000 BC as revealed by human remains at Iwo Eleru. However, their inability to develop arts of writing early in their history gave rise to fables and conflicting accounts of their origin. The first written account of Yoruba origin according to RCC. Law was traced to the second Sultan of the Sokoto Caliphate, Sultan Mohammed Bello. In his writing, Infaq al Maisuri, Bello in his version in 1812 stated that the Yoruba derived from Nimrod, a descendant of the cursed Ham who fled Mecca while resisting Islam. This account was later adopted by extension to identify Nimrod as Lamurudu whom they now referred to as the father of Oduduwa, the acclaimed progenitor of the Yoruba. According to Samuel Johnson, Oduduwa was the heir to the throne of Mecca, but was driven out of that Holy city and put to flight together with his entourage until he got to Ile- Ife where he subdued the indigenous population and laid the foundation of Ile- Ife which subsequently became the first Yoruba kingdom. It was from Ile- Ife that Oduduwa sent his son and grandson respectively to establish different settlement which later form different sub- ethnic group in Yoruba land. The descendant of Oduduwa also went out to rule the various branches of Yoruba. One of his sons was said to have become first Alaafin of Oyo, as well as being the father of the first Oba of Benin. Another myth of the Yoruba origin alleged that Oduduwa descended from heaven sent by God to create the earth. This tradition tells of the period when the whole earth was covered with water and God sent messenger to go and create farm land according to this tradition part was led by Obatala otherwise known as Orisa- nla. Somewhere along the way Obatala got drunk with palm wine and Oduduwa seized the instrument of authority from him and eventually led the delegation to the world, the site on which Oduduwa landed is traditionally identify as Ona- Oranfe in Ife. At this place farm land appeared and it gradually spread to cover the whole earth. From this episode the town probably has the name Ile- Ife meaning the act of spreading on the surface of earth. These versions of traditions of origin appeared contradictory but both have some important things in common. Firstly, Oduduwa was identifying as a leader that created the Yoruba land. Secondly Ile- Ife was regarded as the spot where the immigrants were first 17 settled and up till today refer to the cradle of Yoruba land and several other Yoruba royal lineage traced their roots to Ile- Ife monarchy The Political Organization of Yoruba There were some local variations in the political organization of Yoruba communities. Notwithstanding, the political organization was based on the same principle. For instance, Yoruba kingdoms irrespective of size and locations were made up of town dependent on the capital town where the seat of Oba (king) was. Subordinate towns were usually headed by Baale or king of lesser status who were appointed by the king to represent his interest in various villages for effective administration. The government of Capital town was the Oba, in theory all authority came from Oba and he was supposed to have power over the life and death of his people, but in practice his kingdom had institution which wielded direct power over matters and convention which place limit on what the Oba could do for instance the quarter chiefs wielded considerable authorities over their respective quarters while military chiefs played major roles when military decision had to be taken. The Oba had to be selected from the royal family but the top most chiefs which were known as king’s maker had the power to appoint the king. These groups of chiefs were given different names in different towns in Yoruba land for instance in Oyo they were called Oyomesi and in the eastern towns of Yorubaland they were called Iwarefa. These groups of chiefs can remove the Oba that becomes tyrannical through the presentation of empty calabash to the king which implies that such king should commit suicide. The position of Oba was one of the great dignities. The Oba was the only person that entitles to wear beaded crown which is the Yoruba symbol of royalty. To greet an Oba all his subject must either prostrate or kneel down. In Yoruba land, the town was the basic political unit. Each town was divided into smaller units to facilitate the administration. Under the town, there were wards or quarters headed by chief (Ijoye). These quarters in turn subdivided into compound headed by compound head (Baale). Each compound therefore was an agglomeration of patrilineal related lineage (Idile). This was under the lineage head (Olorile) who usually the most senior male member The political administration in Yoruba kingdom was hierarchical. At the lowest level were the compound heads who with the assistance of head of component lineages administered the compound on behalf of the king. They were firstly answerable to the ward or quarter head. The ward head (Ijoye) was the next level who administered the section of the 18 town on behalf of the king. At the apex of the town government was the body of chiefs (Igbimo Ilu) headed by Oba. This was the decision making body in the town. Women are not prominent in the Political organization. The interest of women was represented on the central administration of some towns by the Iyalode, Iyaloja or Iyalaje. But in some towns there was also a female chieftaincy line corresponding with that of the male e.g Ondo lobun and Ijebu. Yoruba Religious Beliefs The Yoruba people have their beliefs, culture and tradition, which they observe and practice. They are culturally homogenous. This is because they all claim to have descended from the same ancestor and from the same place. Yoruba people believe in the supremacy of Olodumare (The Almighty God). Olodurame is a Supreme deity in traditional Yoruba society. Olodumare serves as unifying force, works in collaboration with the minor gods or deity otherwise known as ‘Orisa’. The Orisa (Divinities). The principal deities among the Yoruba are: Orunmila, Ogun, Esu, Ifa and Shango. Other gods being deified by them apart from the principal ones those worth to mention in this category are Oloje ( Olosunta) in Ikere, Osun at Osogbo, Elemi in Igede, Orosun at Idanre, Olumo at Abeokuta etc. Yoruba Social and Moral life The Yoruba are respective, virtuous, loving and kind. These characters among the Yoruba extended beyond the family level but also permeate all facets of their life. Children were more dutiful to their parents. They engaged in hard work whether at home or in the farm. The Yoruba men clothe themselves in loose flowing robes, some of their dresses include Agbada, Dandogo, Gbariye, Dansiki, Buba and Soro, Kembe, Labankada etc. The married women usually dress in simpler way with wrapper and ‘Buba’with headgear. Boys and girls up to the age of puberty were allowed the use of aprons, the cut and shape for their sex being different, the one for boys was called ‘Bante’ while that of girls was called ‘Tobi’. The Yoruba also used facial marks as a beautification and for the purpose of distinguishing the various tribes. They equally place great regard to personal cleanliness. Yoruba Marriage, Naming and Burial Customs Marriage is a sacred duty which every normal and mature male and female must. Great importance is attached to marriage in Yoruba land It is seen as a means of perpetuating the society. It also regarded as medicines against death. The choice of life 19 partner is done either by the parents or the children themselves. There always a go- between called ‘Alarina’. The duty of ‘Alarina’ is to do the toasting to the family of the woman. The Yoruba used to make consultation with Ifa oracle where rituals and all other religious observance such as sacrifices are to be performed by each family before the marriage is effectuated. Thereafter the marriage gift which serves as symbols of the marriage bond are given during engagement. The gifts often consist of Yam, money, she- goat, clothes, ornament etc. prayers are offered to the new couple while instruction on how to live successful marital life are also given by the members of the two families. The ceremony proceeds with feasting, feeding, rejoicing and dancing. Among the Yoruba virginity of the bride is highly valued while Polygamy marriage is an essential feature of the Yoruba marriage custom. The birth of a child in the family is a thing of joy and greatest blessing in life. There are rituals and ceremonies attach to the birth of baby. Traditional medicine men and diviners are usually consulted for the protection of a baby right from the womb against the evil forces. On the naming day the child hair is shaved while prayer and sacrifices are made to appease god and goddess and thank him for the blessing. The items of sacrifices are: kolanut (Obi), bitter Kola (Orogbo), Palm oil, Honey (Oyin) Sugarcane (Ireke), Wine (Oti), Salt (Iyo), alligator pepper (ataare) and money. circumsion of the baby at the early age especially before the baby starts to crawl is part of the rituals involve in the birth rites of baby in Yoruba land. While feasting, eating, rejoicing and dancing are ceremonies attach to the birth of baby. Yoruba view death as a debt owed by every human being. They strongly believe that when an old person dies he or she will reappear again in that family by rebirth. The death of an old person is not seen as bereavement but the death of young person among the Yoruba is regarded as a bad and unfortunate happening. In the Yoruba land different rituals are made for different persons when they die. There are some rituals that are commonly performed for the deceased before burial regardless their status and position in the society. These rituals consist of washing of the deceased body with soap and sponge, shaving of the hair, cutting of the finger nails and oiling of the body. The burial of the deceased always accompanies with wailing, weeping and lamenting while the funeral rites are followed by feasting if the decease attained the old age. Benin (Edo) Culture 20  Benin City is the present capital of Edo state of Nigeria. It lies on the low plain west of Ikpoba River. While Benin serves as the territorial label and being named after the body of water on which it lays, Bight of Benin. Edo is the linguistic or ethnic label for the people living around this geographical location. Benin tradition of Origin There are different versions of the origin of the Benin kingdom. The first version is from Edo mythology. According to this mythology, the Benin Kingdom was founded by the youngest of the children of Osanubua (the high god). This child came with his elder brothers who subsequently founded Ife and Yoruba Kingdoms. The second version stressed that an attempt was made by the people of Benin to have a workable form of government during the Ogiso period in which Ogiso combined both religious and political duties. During this period one of the leaders known as Igodo extended his influence over adjacent communities and organised the various communities into a confederacy known as land of Igodo (Igodomigodo). It was this that form the basis of benin Monarchical organisation. The increasingly harsh of the successive Ogiso to his subject caused the banishment of Owodo from and followed with period of interregnum and apparently turned Benin into a republican government that characterised with political instability, economic decline and internal conflict that caused the elders of Benin to appeal to Oni of Ife (Oduduwa) to send one of his sons as the King of Benin. Oduduwa complied by sending Oranmiyan. But Oranmiyan did not stay for long. He impregnated the daughter of the Onogie of Edo. This woman later delivered a son who was installed as the first Oba of Benin. This Oba was later called Eweka. He and the people of Benin lived at Usama. Another accounts says that the Bini were descendants of Noah. But Chief Jacob Igharevba, a renowned Benin historian, affirmed that Benin migrated from Egypt and in the course of their journey southward, they settled at Ile-Ife and finally moved to their present location. However, looking at the new dynasty in Benin today it is not totally foreign one but it is an hybrid between the Oranmiyan (foreign) group and the Ogiso (indigenous) group. This is because before the acceptance of the new dynasty by generality of the people it has to identify itself with the pre-dynastic Ogiso culture. More than any ethnic group, Benin have played major roles in the history of Nigeria. The Benin was the first to be visited by the European as early as 1472 A.D. A Portuguese, 21 Ray de Siqueira visited Benin during the reign of Oba Ewuare in 1472 to exchange pleasantraries. This was followed by Alfonso de Ariero who paid visit in 1484 during the reign of Oba Ozolua. In the whole of West Africa coast, Benin was the first to send an ambassador to Libson in Portugal, a major European power, between 1481-1504. Political Organization Benin kingdom operates a monarchical system of administration just like Yoruba. At the head of administrative setting was the Oba who acts as the both political and religious head of the kingdom. The Oba of Benin was sacred and was not an autocrat, the well-being of the kingdom is attached to the state of his health. Hence he could not be summarily dismissed from office. The Oba at the centre of the political system was assisted by the three groups of senior title holders who were appointed directly by him; The Uzama, Eghaevbo N’ogbe and Eghaevbo N’ore. The Uzama were the highest ranking chiefs in Benin kingdom. They were the king- makers just like Oyomesi of Oyo Kingdom. They were seven in number and were hereditary titles. These include; the Oliha, Edohen Ezomo, Ero, Eholor N’ire, Oloton and Edaiken. The Uzama chiefs enjoyed semi-autonomous status in their respective settlements with court court patterned to that of Oba. They acted as intermediary between the palace chiefs and the town chiefs (Eghaevbo N’ogbe and Eghaevbo N’ore). The Eghaevbo N’ogbe were palace chiefs that saddled with specific functions. They were of three associations known as Otu (a freeborn retainer). These include; Iwebo, Iweguae and Ibiwe. Among these, Iwebo were ranked highest and was headed by Unwague. The category of chief was in charge of the Oba’s regalia which include his throne and ceremonial wardrobe. The second ranked Otu were Iweguae. They served as the Oba’s personal attendants who made up of Oba’s cooks, domestic servants, sword-bearers, spies and errand boys. The Ibiwe were the third ranked Otu. These sets of chiefs were in charge of Oba’s harem which consisted of his wives and children. They settled disputes among Oba’s wives and at the same time maintained discipline among them. Other duties of Eghaevbo N’ogbe include collection of levies from the villages, gathering of information, investigating complaints and representing Oba at village rituals. The Eghaevbo N’ore was chiefs attached to the town. They were non-hereditary chiefs but a title that served as gift to freeborn Benin citizen except Ologbosere. Among these titles were 22 Iyashere, Esongban, Eson and Osuma. Iyashere was the head of the town chiefs, commander of Benin forces until the 18th century when the Ezomo was bestowed with that power, and was the premier chief among the all Benin title-holders Apart from central administration headed by the Oba, there were territorial administrations in Benin. This level of government was divided into two; Provincial and local. The Provincial administration was placed in the hands of Onotueyevbo who were the appointees of the Oba; and could either be a prince from Benin or Chief. They were responsible for the collection of taxes and tributes for the king as well as maintenance of law and order in their area of jurisdiction. The local administration was placed in the hand of the local rulers called Enigie. These Enigie usually came from the descendant of the past Oba. They most had direct contact with the palace. The Benin Economy The major pre- occupation and economic activity of Benin people was agriculture. They cultivated crops such as Cassava, Yam, plantain, Cocoyam. Some people in the kingdom also engaged in hunting, fishing, crafts and local industries such as production of arrows, swords, cutlasses, hoes and other ornamental articles like leather works and brass- castings. Benin also involved in trading activities which became vital aspect of her economy. Benin traded with several empires and kingdoms as far to the east and to the north. Her commercial activities were well organised by having trading associations called Ekhen. Among these associations was the Ekhen-Egbo, Ekhen Ona, Ekhen-Irhuen meaning; traders of forest, traders of Ishan and traders of the Ivbiosakon area. These associations were headed by one of the palace chiefs while Oba was the patron. The association called for regular meetings where matters affecting their members and the expansion of their trade were discussed. Benin equally had early trade contact with European where they exchange slaves, ivory, leopard skins, pepper and palm kernel for guns, cloth and various manufactured goods. The Igbo Culture, Religion, Origin and History Igbo, also called Ibo, are one of the three major tribes in Nigeria. The Igbo live chiefly in south-eastern Nigeria, in rainforest vegetation zone of the country. They consist of 23 many subgroups and are known to be socially and culturally diverse. They have a deep and original culture which includes the various customs, practices and traditions of the people. These customs and traditions include the Igbo people’s visual art, religious beliefs, birth, marriage and death rituals, use of language, music and dance forms, as well as their attire, cuisine(a characteristic style of preparing food often associated with a place of origin) and language dialects. The culture of the Igbos modify the thoughts, speech, actions and artifacts of the Igbos so much that the Igbos are easily distinguished from other ethnic groups. They speak Igbo, a language which belongs to the Kwa, a sub-group of the Niger-Congo language family. Today Igbo culture comprises ancient practices as well as modern concepts either through evolution or outside influences. Traditions of Origin of Igbo There are three versions on the origin of the Igbo. The first version says the Igbo migrated from the Middle East to their present location. The second version says they have been in their present location in eastern Nigeria from the beginning. The traditions have it that Awka and Orlu were the earliest settlements, as the population swelled they moved from these original settlements to the eastern Isu Ama area around, and from there to aba, the Arochukwu ridge and other places. The third version says they descended from the sky. The Political Organisation of Igbo In the pre-colonial period, the Igbo were not united as a single people but lived in autonomous local communities. Most Igbo occupy villages of dispersed compounds, but in some areas villages are compact. The compound is typically a cluster of huts, each of which constitutes a separate household. The Igbo political structure is a segmentary system of governance with two levels of political organisations; the village and the village group. Village government consisted of two basic institutions i.e Council of elders called Ama-ala and the village assembly. Traditionally, the village was usually occupied by a patrilineage called umunna. Each Umunna is under the authority of an Okpara in whom the highest moral sanction laid with. It is he who keeps the Ofo which is the staff, the symbol of authority of their ancestors. In the village there were other hierarchy of power from the family to the age group and to special titles. This power is often distributed among the following title holders: Ozo, Ichie, Mazi, Ozioko, Nze, Diokpa, Isi, Ezeji and a few others. Similarly, others that hold powers include priests, elders, diviners, medicine men, members of secret society and age grades. They all have recognized roles to play within the Igbo political set up. Through Igbo land the status of men and to some extent 24 of woman was expressed in the title they held. Titles in Igbo land were open to all free born citizens in the community on the payment of required fees and meeting other conduction which related to their character and conduct in the community. Also among the Igbo an aristocracy (hereditary ruling class) of age is the mark of importance. The largest political unit among Igbo was the village group, a federation of villages averaging about 5,000 persons. Members of the group shared a common market and meeting place, a tutelary deity, and ancestral cults that supported a tradition of descent from a common ancestor or group of ancestors. Hence the village group served as the basic social unit among the Igbo and was linked together by socio-economic ties such as clanship, marriage and religious association. Authority in the village group was vested in a council of lineage heads and influential and wealthy men. There was a strongly sense of ethnic identity among the Igbo which made them dominated Eastern region of Nigeria. Igbo traditionally engaged in subsistence farmers, their staples were yams, cassava. The other crops they grow include corn (maize), melons, okra, pumpkins, and beans. Among those still engaged in agriculture, men are chiefly responsible for yam cultivation, women for other crops. Land is owned communally by kinship groups and is made available to individuals for farming and building. They also kept livestock, as a source of prestige and for use in sacrifices. The Igbo women engaged in trade while the principal exports are palm oil and palm kernels. Trading in local crafts, and wage labour are also important in the Igbo economy, The Ijaw Culture The Ijaw is one of the earliest ethnic groups to occupy the Niger Delta and accounts for a sizeable percentage of Nigeria’s population. They are located along the coastal belts of Southern Nigeria from the Forcados to Bonny River. Presently Ijaw ethnic group can be found in the following states in Nigeria: Rivers, Akwa-Ibom, Cross River, Delta and Ondo. There are three groups of Ijaw mostly identified as Western Delta Ijaw which include; Gbaramatu, Mein, Iduwini, Arogbo, Egbema (Bassan), Apoi Ijaw; the Central Delta Ijaw comprises of Apoi, Furupagha, Olodiama Ijaw); and the Eastern Delta Ijaw such as Bonny, Elem Kalabari, Nembe (Brass), Okrika. According to the tradition of origin, there were levels of migration that led to the foundation of different groups of Ijaw. The first migration was led by three men that were hailed from Benin. It was believed that these men were the founder of Ijaw. These men were Olodia. Onyo and Obolo. The second migration was led by ogidiga who was a descendant of 25 Ginuwa, founder of the Itsekiri kingdom of warri. The last migrants were the founder of the Coastal ports of Akassa and Twon. Some scholars include Kenneth Dike (1956), G.I. Jones (1964) and E.J. Alagoa (1972) have come up with different Ijaw traditions of origin. Dike ascribed the establishment of Ijaw politico-religious institutions to the commencement of trans-Atlantic trade around the 15th Century, while G.I. Jones modified this submission by propounding claims of migration from Eastern Delta pinning it to the period of or before Portuguese contact with the region (1450-1550). On the contrary, Alagoa, an Ijaw, brought up ‘Mein tradition’ to assert migration from Central Delta to Eastern Delta. Archaeological studies sponsored by Alagoa to settle this controversy provided more concrete information. The results showed that Eastern Delta Ijaw communities were settled far ahead of the Central Delta region. Ijaw group belong to the Niger-Congo linguistic subgroup and they speak Izon. The eastern Ijaw group, however, speak Kalabari. The western Delta Ijaw also speaks Edoid languages while the Ogbia clan, the Andoni as well as the Obulom speak Cross-River languages. The political organisation of the Ijaw was based on the House system in which people were grouped into households and wards. The House were based on localised descent group consisting mainly of descent group members such as wives and children. The government of each house was in the hands of descent group elders who saw to the welfare of its people. The entire adult male population seats in three age grades assembly to perform legislative and judicial functions presided over by the Amanyanabo (village head). The village head is chosen from a single descent group. In Ijaw religious belief, Tamuno is acknowledged as a High God. An ancestor cult similar to that of the Igbo also exists. Being riverine people, there is a strong belief in the water goddess (Owu) that plays certain roles in human affairs. The Ijaw, over the course of their history are mainly noted as fishermen, canoe builders, salt manufacturers and above all elaborate and extensive merchants and traders, well known for the establishment of merchant houses. Early External contact with Nigeria Nigeria earliest contact in the North part was with North African states. This contact was mostly based on trade and religion. The earliest trade contact with Nigerian was established and financed by the North African Berber as early as 4th century A.D. This trade was across the Sahara desert through the use of camel. It was term Trans-Sahara trade. The 26 principal items of the trade which were exported from Nigeria included Kolanut, gold, Ivory, Ostrich feathers and hides. Later Nigerians became one of the articles of trade; they were bought as slave and transported to North Africa. Nigerians obtained North African products such as salt, horses, beads, metal wares, clothes, perfume and leather materials. This trade led to the establishment of caravan trade routes across the Sahara desert to Nigeria. One of these routes began at Tripoli and ended at Ngazagamu which was as at then the capital of Kanem- Bornu. Others included the Kanem-Bornu to Sudan and Kano to Fezzan route. The trade contact between the Nigerians and the North Africans led to the introduction of Islam. Islamic teachers used the trans-Sahara trade routes to promote Islam which was the new religion in the North Africa. Islam first introduced in the Kanuri Empire before spreading to the Hausa states. In the south, Nigerians had contact with the Europeans. The European that first made contact with Nigerians was the Portuguese Explorer led by Ray de Siqueira and Joan Afonso De Aveiro in the 15th century while they were looking for better trade route to indian. Portuguese desire to get alternative trade route to India by sea to avoid heavy duties imposed on them in the trans-Sahara trade where they did not have direct trade contact with the people of Nigeria. They discovered Nigeria by chance and trade contacts were established with the coastal states of Nigeria. This first took place in Benin, later trading posts were established in Warri and Ughoton. Other Europaen explorers that came to Nigeria are: Mungo Park, Bain Hugh Clapperton, Richard Lemon Lander and John Lander. The Portuguese commodities such as glassware, Clothes, salt and mirror were exchange for Nigerians local products like palm products. The Dutch that followed later concentrated on the slave trade which was then more profitable than any other business. By the end of 16th century, other European nations such as Portuguese, France and Britain also joined the trade in slaves. During this period their contact with Nigerians was limited to the coastal areas, these coastal areas developed and became commercial centres and cities. There were competition among these European nations in acquiring slaves to meet the cheap manual labour needed or Portuguese sugar plantation on the Island of Sao Tome as well as Labour demand at Sugar plantation in the New world (America) and West Indies. Hence slaves were therefore transported across the Atlantic Ocean to these plantations, thus the trade was termed trans- Atlantic slave trade. The organisation of this trade was majorly involved three ports from Nigeria ports where the slaves were purchased and transported to Libson and Europe, from Europe slaves were transported to the sugar plantation at new world and west indies as 27 labour. Sugar in turn transported to Europe as raw material to feed the industries while European finished product will be transported to Nigeria market at the ports. This system has been termed as Triangular trade. European contact with Nigeria was not only felt in trade but also in religion. European traders also introduced Christian religion to Nigeria. This was first done by the Roman Catholic priests from Portugal who accompanied the slave dealers to Nigeria. The preaching of the missionary and conversion to Christianity then was restricted to the coastal towns such as Benin and Warri due to the financial problem and the malaria that caused the death of many missionaries. European contact with Nigerians moved beyond the coastal region to the hinterland only after the abolition of the slave trade that called for the introduction of legitimate trade. This new trade caused struggles among the European nation in acquiring more territories in Africa countries where they can secure raw materials to feed their industries and at the same time to secure market for their finished goods. This experience was termed struggle and partition of Africa. It was this incident that led to the Berlin Conference of 1884, where African countries were partitioned among the European countries. At this conference Nigeria was conceded to the British. The Evolution of Nigeria British traders came to Nigeria after the partitioning and established their trading companies. One of these traders was Sir Taubman Goldie who established United Africa Company (UAC) and National African Company (NAC) in 1886. These companies were charted as Royal Niger Company in July 1886, with this it had the mandate not to allow any other company to trade in Nigeria territory. The royal Niger Company headquarters was situated at Asaba and later moved to Lokoja. Its trading activities were extended to Urhobo, Ibibio, Ukwuami in the Niger Delta region also to the Northern part of Nigeria. The Royal Niger Company controlled and governed the Niger River area until 1899 and handed over to the British government when their charter was revoked. In 1900 the British government sent her officers to take over the administration of River Niger area and the Northern Nigerian territories, hence the company prepared Nigeria for British Colonization. In 1861 British annexed Lagos and in 1862 it was declared as British colony. Thereafter the British traders that had been operated in the coast of Lagos moved into the interior and adopted two methods for acquisition of the territories in the interior; signing of treaties and waging of war to conquer Nigerian territories. All the territories acquired by these traders eventually became a protectorate under the British government. Hence Nigeria was divided into Northern and Southern Protectorates, and the colony of Lagos. In 1906 28 Lagos colony ceased to exist as separate administrative unit, it was merged with southern protectorate to form a territory under a single administration, known as colony and protectorate of southern Nigeria. This reduced colonial administrative units in Nigeria into two; colony and protectorate of southern Nigeria and Northern protectorate, each with its own government. In 1914, the two protectorates were amalgamated to become a single administrative unit known as Colony and protectorate of Nigeria. With this development Nigeria became a single political entity. Though the amalgamated protectorate were continued to be administered as two separate entities each placed under the Governor while Governor- General was the overall head. Sir Fredrick Lord Lugard was the Governor- General since 1914 and adopted the indirect rule system of administration. 29