Nigerian History: An Introductory Guide PDF

NIGERIAN HISTORY: AN INTRODUCTORY GUIDE EFEREBO, Ikaonaworio (Ph.D.) & EWEKE, E. Emmanuel Department of History and International Studies, Federal University Otuoke, Nigeria. Introduction The importance of historical studies to human an...

NIGERIAN HISTORY: AN INTRODUCTORY GUIDE EFEREBO, Ikaonaworio (Ph.D.) & EWEKE, E. Emmanuel Department of History and International Studies, Federal University Otuoke, Nigeria. Introduction The importance of historical studies to human and national development cannot be overemphasized. This is consequent upon the reality that, the superpowers in the world (as they are mostly referred to) such as the United States of America (USA), Britain, Russia, China and France have a deep sense of their collective history respectively. This had enabled these developed countries to look back upon their past in other to revive former glories, to discover their origins, to relate their historical knowledge of the development of the political, social, economic and other systems necessary for their continuous advancement (Vansina, Mauny & Thomas, 1964:59). From the above-stated functions of History as an academic discipline, it can be deduced that this ―father‖ discipline plays various roles towards the development and advancement of society as it has i. Evaluative duties (to determine whether we have the right goals and how far we have gone to achieve them ii. Investigative duties (to enable man know about his origin, how he is, where he is and help determine his next step. iii. Informative and educative (to unveil necessary information needed to ensure the development of the various sectors of society such as political, social, economic and other systems). The functions mentioned are few relevant points to note about the benefits of History as an academic discipline that aims to deepen societal understanding of man, his actions and impact his existence through time and space (Ikime, 1979). For the purpose of this piece, our use of history would be mainly investigative in nature but would no doubt, provide useful insights into the lives and times of ancient societies of the various Nigerian peoples. Before moving to discuss the origins of the various peoples that now make up the Nigeria territory, it is pertinent to have an idea of the various ethnic groups we intend to study as well as a description of the Nigerian boundary. The Environment and Peoples of Nigeria History appreciates the part that geographical factors of location, climate and distribution of resources play in the study of human actions in the society. This had helped to make clearer why and how the political, economic and socio- cultural sectors of various societies formed, functioned and sustained. Thus, the environment determines what occupation the peoples of the area engaged in for a living, system of governance, socio-cultural relations and so on (Alagoa, 1978). Nigeria lies between latitudes 40N and 140W. it is bounded in the North by the Sahara Desert and in the South by the Gulf of Guinea, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean. The history of the country has featured many waves of human movements across the Sahara for economic, socio-cultural and other purposes (Udo, 1980:6). People move from place to place in search of favourable conditions for existence. In other words, migration had been a routine activity of man who sometimes, attempts to avoid the forces of nature in one place for another. Environmental and climatic conditions ensure that the southern part of Nigeria is under the influence of vain-bearing south-west monsoon winds for most of the year, leaving a long rainy season of not less than seven months in a year. The north which is under the influence of the dry north-east winds of the Sahara Desert, is hot and dry for most of the year and supports an open Savanna Vegetation. It is therefore, a function of environmental factors that, peoples of the north cultivates grains such as millet, guinea corn and acha, while the forest peoples cultivate root crops such as yams, cassava and cocoa-yams. The Middle Belt area which is a stop-gap between the climatic conditions of the north and south, is an area of mixed cultural heritage in which the food crops from both areas are grown side by side (Udo, 1980). As a man migrates to avoid the unpleasant part of the forces of nature, there might arise conflict over access to available natural resources in an area. In other words, environmental factors might indirectly, kick-start the process towards the nurturing of conflict. Especially during the long dry season when water and grazing for cattle is scarce, it made cattlemen adopt the nomadic mode of existence, moving to farmlands of those on the Middle Belt in search of grasses. The end product is manifested in ―Farmers-Herdsmen‖ clashes. There are over 200 ethnic groups in Nigeria. These ethnic groups have their peculiar culture but sometimes, they share a history of cooperation on several fronts. It is important to note that, the essential ingredient of their societal configuration was kinship oriented with the various components of the groups laying claim to a common origin. Thus, Alagoa (1972) has pointed out that, the use of terms such as ―tribes and ―clans‖ in classifying the various peoples unsuitable and therefore, should be avoided. According to him, ―they carry pre-conceived meanings in the minds of many people‖ (Alagoa, 1972: 14). In similar stances, words like ―tribes‖ and ―clans‖ have prejudice and discriminatory meanings especially in its usage in describing African peoples. Ethnic groups are appropriate for the classification of the various Nigerian peoples. Some of the ethnic groups in pre-colonial Nigeria (before the formation of Nigeria) are the Bini, Hausa, Fulani, Urhobo, Efik, Idoma, Ijaw, Igbira,Yoruba, Tiv, Ibibio, Annang, Igbo, Wupe, Kauri, Chamba, Jukun, Kyato, Eggon, Shuwa, Manga, Koro, Burumawa and a host of others. These ethnic groups as mentioned earlier, had distance culture and contiguous territories in the space called Nigeria today. Likewise, there were ―ethnic nations‖ with separate identities who co-existed or lived side by side with each other. The influence of this in the twenty-first century Nigeria is that, there are various kingdoms with traditional rulers in the states of the federation responsible for the protection and preservation of their cultural heritages. Due to the introductory nature of this course and the periods this piece intends to cover, we shall proceed to investigate the past of these peoples in three phases which are; pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial using selected themes and issues such as traditions of origin, societal configuration etc. as focal points. Pre-Colonial History of Nigeria (To 1895) The pre-colonial history of Africa refers to the period of the origin, evolution and development of African societies as well as intergroup relations. The need to really ascertain the history of the various peoples had thrown up lots of conflicting views. In an investigation that attempts to go as far back to the foundations of human life, History has to collaborate with other disciplines to find answers to the never ending questions on human origin and existence. This section would consider issues such as the origin of the various Nigerian peoples, various nature and structure of societies as well as intergroup relations up to 1895. The date, 1895 is chosen as the terminal point in this historical discourse because by this time, the British authorities had consolidated their position as ―overlords‖ on the various peoples that make up the Nigerian Federation. The Origin of Nigerian Peoples There are three schools of thought on the origin of man in the world in general and amongst the various ethnic groups in Nigeria on their origin. These schools of thought are; i. The creation school of thought.  ii. The evolution school of thought. iii. The migration school of thought. The Creation School of Thought: The main view expressed by those that hold this position is that man‘s existence was orchestrated by a supreme being in the remote past. This view holds that the Supreme Being created man and everything on earth. The most popular text on the creation episode is the Christian Holy Bible which stipulated in the Book of Genesis, how God created the heavens and the earth as well as man. Most ethnic groups in Nigeria also have their perception of the creation of man. They believe that their existence is a product of a ―manufacture‖ process by a higher and spiritual being. For example, amongst the Yoruba is the Oduduwa Creation narrative, which advocates that they are the forerunners of the human race. Ile-Ife is seen as the site where Oduduwa and the Sixteen Oye (Immortals) landed after Obatala (variously called Orisa Nla, or Orisa Alase), who was hitherto the leader of the delegation, sent by God to created the earth, was made drunk with palm wine hereby allowing Oduduwa to take charge of the assignment (Akinjogbin & Ayandele, 1980; Oduyeye, 1983). The Bini people also tie their existence to a supernatural being. This is replicated in their worldview that, the land they occupy was given to them by Osanobua (God) and her first Ogiso dynasty was also referred to as ‗Kings of the Sky‘ (Ryder, 1980). In the Akan worldview is also the idea of creation. It is pertinent at this point to address the issue of origin controversy between the Yorubas and Bini. A critical analysis of their origin which is domiciled in their traditions of origin clearly hangs on the establishment of the ruling house or monarchy than the origin of Yoruba group from the Benin and vice versa. They both claim that the prince that founded the monarchy in Ife and Benin belong to them. Thus, while we would agree that there had been intergroup relations between the various groups, idea of origin from one group or another is sometimes frivolous and must be assessed through specialized investigations such as linguistics, archeology, medicine, cultural comparative studies, among others. In sum, the creation school of thought about origin by any ethnic group in Nigeria has not gotten support from these specialized areas especially archaeology. However, the origin of man is now, settled as archaeological findings have posited that man originated in Africa. This is consequent upon the findings by archaeologists at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania of ancient remains dating millions of years than others from other continents (Thurstan, 1980). The Evolution School of Thought: The evolution school of thought sees man‘s origin as a consequence of natural and chemical actions. This view which is science oriented, rejects the imposition of the idea of a supreme being on man as his creator. They believe that the forces of nature had by its own evolution, kickstarted the process of ―making‖ man. The evolution idea can be traced to the renaissance period in Europe where scholars started the rethinking or rebirth process that placed man and nature at the centre of the society. Thus, man became responsible for his actions as this school of thought rejects any supernatural influence on the activities and decisions of man. Notable proponents of this view include Charles Darwin, whose position still influence inter-racial and group relations. Others are War Robert Hooke, Thomas Fowler, Herbert Spencer and other humanists. A basic flaw of this perspective is that, it cannot explain how the processes towards the creation of man started. Thus, we might ask, who or what started the process that led to the creation of man? Who or what created the process of man? History believes that ―nothing causes nothing‖. In other words, something must have started something. There is no auto-pilot explanation for the creation of man that would be acceptable to history. The difference between the creation and evolution schools of thoughts is that, while the former attributed the creation of man to supernatural forces, the latter left this to nature. The similarity is that both cannot satisfy our quest for information about how man was created. The Migration School of Thought: The above school of thought is primarily concerned about the movement of people from one place to another. This is consequent upon the fact that, many of them cannot actually trace their origin accurately. The basic idea and form of record keeping in Africa especially south of the Sahara where Nigeria is domiciled is known as Oral Historiography. This includes oral traditions and oral history which cannot really tell of the origin of these people. For example, Alagoa has identified that, the Ijaw traditions of origin cannot tell us the ‗origin‘ of the Ijaw people. It could only provide sketchy information on the extremities of the Niger Delta (Alagoa, 1972). However, linguistic evidence has shown that the Ijaw language is calculated to be at least, 5,000 years old than Ibo, Yoruba and Edo, a long period which cannot be accommodated in oral traditions (Alagoa, 1972). Thus, versions of Ijaw migration from Ile Ife according to S.K. Owonaro and the Mein migration to Ogobiri amongst others, is not to mean that Ijaw emanated from any of the ethnic groups within the Nigerian context. What can and had been established is that, there had been long records of intergroup relations between Ijaw and her neighbours including marriages, commercial and religious relations that had made to settle within her territories and vice versa. Nature and Structure of Pre-Colonial Societies The various Nigerian peoples had well organized systems that suited their need devoid of external influence from Africa. The colonial adventure in Africa was advanced on the ―Hamitic Hypothesis‖ which postulates that, no meaningful development could have taken place in Africa without external or west assistance or influence. This hypothesis had been proven wrong, faulty and discriminatory as studies on the pre-colonial Nigerian societies showed. The pre-colonial Nigerian people evolved kinship oriented societies. This means that the society is based on filial or family relations. Most people in the society trace their origins through their families to a common ancestry or marriage alliances. This helped to ensure peaceful coexistence and in times of conflict, amongst people. On the political front, the various societies are basically structured as centralized and non-centralized states. The centralized states refer to systems developed by the Kanuri, Benin, Ife, Hausa, Nupe and other ethnic groups which had kings as centralized authority and trappings of modern nation-states. On the other hand, the non-centralized states have leadership that is not centralized on a single person but dispersed responsibilities to various officials of the society. The Ijaw, Urhobo, Isoko and Igbo societies are examples of the non-centralized political system. A critical assessment of both political systems show that a centralized is not superior to a non-centralized political system. Put differently, it is not whether a political system is organized or not that makes it more stable and organized. What really distinguishes centralized from non-centralized political systems is the fact that all segments in the non-centralized system are politically equivalent and recognized, no higher authority than their political association. This helped to act as checks on any seeming despotic and authoritative tendencies amongst leaders of the society. A history of the various Nigerian peoples in ancient times had shown economic cooperation between them. No Nigerian community was self-sufficient in its economy. The peoples in the Savanna region needed coastal products such as salt, fish and other sea foods, while those in the coastal areas needed shea- butter, hides and skins and other products from the former. There were well organized economic systems that had well developed currencies and media of exchange for transactions to ensure that goods and services were equal to the payments made. Markets were well organized where they met and traded in variety of goods. While trade served to bring most of the Nigerian peoples together, it also linked them with the other parts of Africa and the world. There were control mechanisms to protect their various markets from competition and only accredited or licensed traders known as ―the middlemen‖ were allowed to export and import goods to the market. Levies, taxes and other rates were collected for the development of their societies and regulation of economic activities. Thus also ensured that cultural ties were strengthened as intergroup; marriages followed trading activities amongst Nigerian peoples in the pre-colonial era. These societies also had their own forms of religion and worship which served the aim for which they were established. Nigerian ethnic groups thus, had the concept of God, life after death, spirits, reincarnation among other issues related to metaphysics and existentialism. On the religious plain also, was recorded the coming of Islam, a religion established in the 7th century by the prophet Mohammed in Arabia (Balogun, 1980). The introduction of Islam changed the socio-political and economic contours of the areas that either accepted it voluntarily or conquered through the ―Jihad‖ or Holy War. Islam was said to have penetrated through the trans-Saharan trade as Muslim merchants dominated the trade routes. The earliest evidence of Islam was noticed in the Kanem-Bornu in about 666 A.D. The influence of Islam on the lives of the various Nigerian peoples cannot be overemphasized. It introduced the Sharia law which is an encyclopedia for the everyday living of a Muslim. Everything a Muslim does must be predicated on the Sharia law. Also, it introduced Arabic Historiography to northern Nigeria. This ensured that most societies could be able to document their activities in a written form. The only pitfall of this was that, it promoted any society that had Islam as their state religion and relegated societies that stuck to their earlier religious forms of worship. The arrival of Islam also occasioned the introduction of Arabic Education which used Arabian designed media of instruction and curricula to educate people. While Islam was dominated in the northern part of Nigeria, it also spread significantly to Yorubaland in the nineteenth century as well as Afenmai among others. Another notable landmark which formed part of the economic history of pre- colonial Nigeria, was the trans-Atlantic Slave Trade which had an adverse effect on the Nigerian state in particular and the African continent in general. The trans-Atlantic Slave Trade ensured the transplant of African peoples and culture to the Americas between the fifteenth and nineteenth century which became known as the African Diaspora. The trade ushered in the idea of racism, black condemnation and discrimination as slavery became hereditary by black people and their descendants in the Americas. Christianity also landed in Nigeria with the arrival of the first batch of Christian Missionaries in 1842 (Gbadamosi & Ade Ajayi, 1980). Like Islam, the aim of the first missionaries was to ensure the spread of Christianity through evangelism while meaningfully engaging adherents through agriculture, trade and other useful ventures. It is imperative to emphasize that, European or Arabic religious influence did not come to the Nigerian environment singlehandedly. In fact, the main motive for their coming to Nigeria was first economic in nature. Dike (1956) asserts that, ‗It was trading first and foremost that propelled European voyage to West Africa‘. The overriding economic purpose of their various explorations was to circumvent Arab traders who controlled the trade between West Africa and Europe through the trans-Saharan trade. The pre-colonial era came to an end in 1895 when most of the various ethnic groups were subdued and their societal structures collapsed to make way for the British administration whose main aim was to exploit the peoples for their economic self interest. This economic thought is referred to as Mercantilism. Colonial History of Nigeria The colonial period of Nigerian history refers to the British welding of the various hitherto independent ethnic groups to form the current Nigerian Federation. It started as a process from about 1837 when Anna Pepple (Alali), who was regent of Bonny was deposed from the throne. From this point, British interference in local politics and administration became consistent as king Kosoko of Lagos in 1851, Pepple of Bonny in 1854, Jaja of Opobo (formerly Bonny), Oba Ovavanwen in 1897, King Frederick Wilhiem Koko of Nembe and others were routinely forced out of office. Thus, it became the norm for the colonial government to remove and install traditional rulers that suited their fancy. This was however, handed down to successive Nigerian administrations and has continued to the present day. The British employed the ―Indirect Rule‖ system to administer her colonies. This was to save economic costs as the home country required huge returns from the colonies annually for development purposes. The colonial authorities therefore, amalgamated the northern and southern protectorate in 1914 with the crown colony at Lagos. In 1939, the authorities divided the southern province to the western and eastern provinces with headquarters in Ibadan and Enugu respectively while the north remained a province with Kaduna as headquarters. The result of the above on intergroup relations in Nigeria was that, it promoted unhealthy rivalry as those who were now forced to be under the leadership of a different ethnic group. For example, the Ijaw communities were Balkanized into the eastern and western provinces respectively and had to go to Enugu or Ibadan to carry out certain duties to the colonial government which was not the case in the pre-colonial era where they related on equal status. Thus, colonialism created an arbitrary hierarchy of ethnic groups which was discriminatory and oppressive. Also, the minorities of northern Nigeria were also made to be under the now acclaimed ―Hausa-Fulani‖ hegemony. This resulted to minority agitations from ethnic groups for state creation, resource control and self-determination even into the post-colonial period. These minority agitations spurred the British authorities to set up a commission to look into the fears of the minorities and ways of allaying them also known as the Willink Commission in 1957. The economy of the country was controlled by the British whose laws, system of government and court-styled administration of justice, became the mainstream ideas for operations in the society while the traditional ways of lives of the peoples was relegated to the background. The first and second World Wars as well as western education, provided the ideological foundations and consciousness for Nigerian demand from colonial rule. Hence, self-government was granted to the various regions in 1951 and independence in 1960. History was used as a tool by the nationalists such as Nnamdi Azikiwe, Obafemi Awolowo, Ernest Ikoli, Kwame Nkrumah, Sedar Senghor and others, to debunk the hypothesis that black people were not capable of a worthwhile civilization as studies on pre-colonial Africa shows that the various peoples that make up the Nigerian state have well structured and coordinated societies that suited them. Post-Colonial Phase of Nigerian History (1960-) This period refers to the period of Nigerian independence from the British authorities. Nigeria gained ―political Independence‖ on October 1, 1960 with Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe of the National Council of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC) as president and Alhaji Tafawa Balewa of the Northern People‘s Congress (NPC) as the prime minister. It has been observed that while Nigeria and indeed Africa in general achieved political or flag independence, they were still tied to the strings of their former colonial masters economically. The first ten years (1960-1970) of the independent Nigerian state was very turbulent. The minority agitations were carried over from the colonial era. The country still had three and later four regions which did not really fulfill the reasons for the sources of these discontent. Thus, there remained the Eastern, Western, Northern and later Mid-Western regions respectively. The creation of regions and states has been a very serious issue. However, the creation of states and the mid-western region, had been analysed as a political tool to weaken the opposition against the power of the Central government. Thus, the creation of states in 1967 was seen as a calculated attempt to demoralize the Biafran agitation while the Mid-Western region was created to split the Action Group (AG) led Western region in 1963. The minority agitations were very strong during the first six years of Nigerian independence. A notable example was the Isaac Jasper Boro‘s twelfth day revolution in 1966 which was an attempt to create the Niger Delta Republic out of the Nigerian state. This revolution preceded the Nigerian Civil War and is now a reference point in interrogating the idea of violence and open confrontation in the Niger Delta question. The Nigerian Civil War which occurred from 1967 to 1970 is also an important milestone in Nigerian history. It was as a result of unhealthy rivalry between the various political parties such as NPC, NCNC and AG which had ethnic colouration in their activities. The first coup of January 1966 and counter-coup of July 1966 were the immediate causes of the war. The remote causes include, religious intolerance, Western regional Crisis, 1963 census affected the corporate existence of the country. The period 1970 – 1976 was a period of reconstruction, rehabilitation and reconciliation (3Rs) after the Nigerian Civil War. The post-civil war programme seem not to have met the ideological intentions it had as the peoples of the former Eastern region especially the Igbos over the years complained of marginalization and oppression by the Nigerian state. The 1970s also witnessed the ―Oil Boom‖. From this time, Oil became the mainstay of the Nigerian federation. The Murtala/Obasanjo era came in 1976 after General Gowon was overthrown by a bloodless coup d‟ etat. Murtala Mohammed was assassinated in 1976 and Olusegun Obasanjo continued the leadership of the regime until 1979 when elections were conducted which produced Shehu Shagari as President and Alex Ekwueme as Vice-President. By late 1983, there was another coup which produced Mohammadu Buhari. His regime experienced a military patterned ―war against indiscipline‖ as well as fight against corruption which did not follow due legal processes. It was because the military rule was by decrees and not constitutional provisions. In other words, the constitution was not operational in a military regime. This was same with the Babangida regime (1985-1993), Ernest Shonekan (1993), Sani Abachi (1993-1998), and Adbulsalam Abubakar (1998-1999). The military era witnessed human rights suppression and abuse, widespread corruption and nepotism. Some landmark events during this era are; the June 12, 1993 election saga, state creation in 1991 and 1996, the Ogoni uprising (1990- 1995) and Ijaw Youth Council formation at the Kaiama Declaration of 1998, amongst others. The Abdulsalam regime returned power to a civilian regime after the election of Chief Olusegun Obasanjo in 1999. Obasanjo led the country between 1999 and 2007 before handing over to Yar‘Adua/ Goodluck in 2007. With the coming of Yar‘Adua, there was need to settle the enormous problems the country faced especially the Ijaw agitations for resource control and self-determination in the Nigeria state. The Ijaws believe that they had being severely marginalized by the Nigerian state who do not care about their wellbeing despite the huge revenue that crude oil, found in their domain, contributes to the Nigerian economy and development. They faced severe environmental and health challenges due to oil exploitation and exploration coupled with the bad terrain the people had to contend with. Yar‘Adua thereafter, declared amnesty for those young people in the Niger Delta who had taken up arms against the Nigerian state in their quest for resource control in 2009. Umaru Musa Yar‘Adua was succeeded by Goodluck Jonathan in 2010 after the former passed on. Jonathan contested elections in 2011 and 2015. While he won the 2011 presidential elections, he lost to Muhammadu Buhari in 2015. The presidential and governorship elections are conducted every four years and the body responsible for the conduct of election at the federal and state levels is the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC). Conclusion The Nigerian state had being faced with the challenges of evolving the ―Nigerian‖ identity which ensures ultimate loyalty and commitment to the country. The process of attempting to unite the various peoples to achieve a common identity is referred to as ―Nation-Building‖, a project described by Tekena Tamuno as ―a plant slow growth‖. The various ethnic groups who were hitherto, independent of one another politically, now find themselves struggling for the leadership of the Nigerian state as well as the allocation of economic resources and cultural values which involves the use of or threat of force and violence to have their way. The Nigerian civil war is an example of this scenario. Thus, ethnic groups in Nigeria, had been involved in a ―Zero sum‖ game where the ―winner takes all‖ and the looser, oppressed and intimidated. The Nigerian state would continually force people to be antagonist against her should the relevant stakeholders not consciously carry out plans and programmes for the peoples with their inputs for the growth and development of the country. Revision questions 1. Itemize and discuss the role geographical factors play in the study of human actions in the society. 2. Exhaustively discuss the creation school of thought as recorded in this study, showing its relevance in the tradition of origin of any Nigerian ethnic group. 3. Why did the British employed ―indirect rule‖ to administer colonial Nigeria? 4. Why was the period 1970-1976 Christened reconstruction, rehabilitation and reconstruction (3Rs) in Nigeria? 5. Explain the term resource control and link it to the agitation of the Ijaw people of the Niger Delta. Reference Akinjogbin, I.A, & Ayandele, E, A., (1980). Yoruba up to 1800 in Ikime, O. (ed), Groundwork of Nigerian History. Ibadan: HEBN. Alagoa, E.J. (1978). The Relationship between History and other Disciplines in A.I. Asiwaju and M. Crowder (eds.), Tarikh: Historical Method, 6(1): 16- 17, Harlow: Longman. Alagoa, E.J. (1972). A History of the Niger Delta; An interpretation of Ijo Oral traditions. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press. Balogun, S.A., (1980). History of Islam up to 1800, in Ikime, O., (ed), Groundwork of Nigerian in History. Ibadan: HEBN. Gbadamosi, T.G.O. & Ade, A.J.F. (1980). Islam and Christianity in Nigeria in Ikime, O. (ed), Groundwork of Nigerian History. Ibadan: HEBN. Ikime O., (1979). Through Changing scenes: Nigerian History: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow. Being an Inaugural lecture delivered at the University of Ibadan. Oduyeye, M. (1983), Adàmu Orisà in Ade Adegbola, E.A. (ed), Traditional Religion in West Africa. Ibadan: SEFER, 376. Udo, R.K. (1980). Environments and peoples of Nigeria in Ikime, O. (ed), Groundwork of Nigerian History. Ibadan: HEBN. Thurstan, S. (1980). Prehistory, in Ikime, O. (ed), Groundwork of Nigerian History. Ibadan: HEBN. Vansina, J., Mauny, R., & Thomas, L. V. (1964) (eds.). The Historian in Tropical African. Oxford, University Press Ryder, A.F.C., (1980). The Benin Kingdom, in Ikime, O (ed), Groundwork of Nigerian History. Ibadan: HEBN.  THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE 1 ENE, W. Robert & 2RAIMI, Lasisi (Ph.D.) Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Federal University Otuoke, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. Introduction Any academic work on culture is likely to be faced with a wide variety of opinions most of which are ideologically framed or even disciplinary contrived as to be highly intuitive. So, every scholar of culture in most cases is expected to balance several arguments ranging from issues as simple as a definition to more complex ones such as historicising culture. These challenges notwithstanding, one is always able through rigorous albeit careful content analysis to filter key arguments and narratives that represent useful information especially for younger or emerging scholars. As a result, this chapter provides readers with a simplified knowledge of the concept of culture while ensuring that the key ingredients that underpin the long list of scholarly materials on the subject matter are not unduly undermined. To this end, anyone who ventures to read this work is expected to enjoy a full dose of knowledge on issues such as:  Meaning of culture  Origin of Culture  Components of Culture  Characteristics of culture  Basic Elements and Concepts the study of culture  Significance or importance of Culture Meaning of Culture The term culture is one concept in the social sciences specifically sociology and anthropology that has witnessed an unprecedented riot of meanings. This is why for instance, the term has been described as a notoriously difficult concept to define. Perhaps, this is what informed the review of the concept and definition of culture by Alfred Kroeber and Kluckhon both of which are American anthropologists. This review led them to complete a list of 164 different definitions and or conceptualizations of the concept of culture. From this, it becomes easy to see that, providing an acceptable definition of culture in any academic work (of which this work is not spared) already presents a big problem simply because the theory and practice of culture exposes a mix-bag of perspectives on the subject matter. Hence, we appreciate Apte‘s (1994) corroboration of the problem of defining culture when, in his contribution to the tenth volume of the Encyclopaedia of Language and Linguistics, he argued that; despite a century of efforts to define culture adequately, there was in the early 1990s no agreement among sociologist and anthropologist regarding its meaning and nature. Still, a careful review of the literature on the subject matter of culture, reveals clearly that a significant part of the difficulty associated with providing a definition for the concept of culture stems from the different usage of the concept as it was increasingly employed in the nineteenth century. In the non- academic context, the term culture may have some emotive connotation whereby people are described as cultured or uncultured. Such descriptions generally refer to whether or not an individual is socially integrated or is a misfit or a cultural deviant within a given social setting or social organization. In this sense, a person who does the right things in the right (perfect) way is referred to as a ‗‗cultured man‘‘. Conversely, somebody whose behaviour is deemed to be at a level of crudity is regarded as unrefined, ‗‗uncultured‖. The meaning of culture in this sense is however very narrow and inappropriate. Culture cannot be defined in terms of one person possessing it and another lacking it. It is, in fact, inconceivable to have a human being who lacks culture. This is to say that such a human being does not have a way of life since, in the social sciences, culture is usually referred to as a totality of people‘s way of life. In other words, culture refers to the gamut of the knowledge, beliefs, customs, traditions and skills that are available to the members of a society. This goes a long way to show that culture is embodied in the social life of a people and is derived socially and not biologically. It is therefore, social designs, prescriptions and responses, which are deliberately fashioned to guide all aspects of a people‘s life. From a broad perspective, culture is used in three ways. It is first applied to exemplify special intellectual or artistic endeavours or products that define lifestyles, what today we might call cultured behaviours tagged as; high, popular or even low or bad cultures. This categorization was clearly reflected in the work of Matthew Arnold titled ‗Culture and Anarchy‘. By this definition, only a portion and typically a small one of any social group ‗has‘ culture. This sense of culture is more closely related to aesthetics than to sociological or anthropological convictions. Partly in reaction to the limited character of the first usage, the second perspective emerged as pioneered by Edward B. Tylor in his book titled ‗Primitive Culture‘ which was first written in 1871. Tylor referred to culture as a quality possessed by all people in all social groups, who nevertheless could be arrayed on a development (evolutionary) continuum akin to Lewis Henry Morgan‘s Scheme that sees cultural movements from ―Savagery‖ through ―barbarism‘‘ to ―Civilization‖. It is worth quoting Tylor‘s definition in its entirety because it became a directional cum foundational definition for scholars in sociology and anthropology and also explains why Kroeber and Kluckhohn found definitional fecundity by the early 1950s. That said, Tylor defined culture to mean ―that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society‖ (Tylor, 1920). It is clear that Tylor‘s definition of culture is without being prejudiced, seemingly encompassing and broad as to represent the fact that all humans have some degree of culture. In this sense and in contrast to Arnold‘s view, Tylor holds the opinion that all folks maintain some level of culture, which they acquire by virtue of membership in some social group or society. What is more, his definition revealed that culture is a dovetail of knowledge, habits and capabilities making it easy to see the scientific basis of culture. Another usage of culture, developed in anthropology in the twentieth century work of Franz Boas and his students though with roots in the eighteenth century writings of Johann Von Herders, as Tylor reacted against Arnold to establish a scientific (rather than aesthetic) basis for culture, so also, Boas reacted against Tylor and other social evolutionists. Hence, while Tylor and others within the evolutionist tradition stressed the universal character of a single culture, with different societies arrayed in a linear social trajectory that moves from savage to civilized stages, Boas emphasized the uniqueness of the many and varied cultures of different peoples or societies. For Boas, one should never differentiate high from low culture, and one also ought not to create a cultural differential scenario that undermines other people‘s way of life, while projecting others as a universal model. From the above, it becomes clear that culture cannot be a single aspect of human existence but a collection of the entire activities of man in society. This means that culture is an embodiment of the totality of human existence. From the several definitions albeit perspectives highlighted above and the explanations so far, culture could be reduced to three interrelated sets of phenomena. These are:- a. Tools and Techniques: Culture enables to create and recreate themselves and their means of production. In this sense, tools and techniques as a cultural phenomenon are reflective of how a people invent such instruments in relation to their peculiar environment. For instance, it is easy to identify some specific kinds of tools and techniques with a particular set of people. These tools and techniques can be observed in terms of; artefacts including physical layout, the dress code, the manner in which people address each other, the smell and feel of the place, its emotional intensity and other phenomena, to the more permanent archival  manifestations such as company records, products, statements of philosophy, and annual reports (Schein, 1990). b. Patterns of Behaviour: Culture defines to a large extent a people‘s pattern of behaviour. In fact, culture gives direction to behaviours. This is because culture specify standards of behaviour as discussed under norms and values below. While this is almost a tricky issue, it is easily identified that a group of people sharing similar culture may be identified by a distinctive behavioural pattern. In this sense, we can describe ‗‗how‘‘ a group constructs its environment and ‗‗what‘‘ behaviour patterns are discernible among the members, but we can often understand the underlying logic ‗‗why‘‘ a group behaves the way it does. c. Shared Values: These are beliefs, values, rules and norms that people create and recreate to define their relationships with one another and to the environment around them. Furthermore, to analyse why members behave the way they do, we often look for the values that govern behaviour, but as values are hard to observe directly, it is often necessary to infer them by interviewing key members of the organization or to content analyse artifacts such as documents and charters. However, in identifying such values, we usually note that they represent accurately only the manifest or espoused value of a culture (Qatey, 2002). Origin of Culture As we have implied above, culture is as old as mankind and creation. It is therefore difficult to imagine any period in time man lived without a culture. It is probably culture that differentiates man from other animals. But if man has lived with culture, since time immemorial, how did culture originate? Two main sources are suggested and discussed below: The individual perspective: There is the notion that culture may have originated through an individual even though culture in its present sense cannot be individualized. This is because culture is what members of a group generally share in common. For instance, it is likely that one man probably started the practice of animal husbandry and over time it was accepted by a majority of people. Other members of the society must have found these practices useful and therefore imitated the originator. The Group perspective (Sui Generis): The group perspective is a direct opposite of the individual perspective. This school of thought rests on the understanding that, the origin of culture cannot be credited to any individual. For instance, the idea of carrying placards to protest against authorities or individuals cannot be traced to anybody. Similarly, the idea of mourning the dead cannot be credited to anybody starting it. Culture can originate as a result of a group of people sharing the same feeling at a given period, and therefore acting in a similar manner. It could be a spontaneous action. Culture may be said to have originated Sui generic (Ifeanacho, 1998). Components of Culture Culture is divided into two parts. These are material and non-material culture. Material Culture: the physical objects such as houses, canoe, roads, artworks, clothing, weapons, among others constitute the material culture. These are the tools made to make life more comfortable for man. Nonmaterial culture: On the other hand, the abstract aspects such as knowledge, values, folkways, music, social institutions, ideas, norms and so on, constitute the nonmaterial component of culture. It is important to stress that the nonmaterial aspect of culture is what gives direction to the material components of culture since ideas and knowledge provide enabling conditions for the physical aspects to manifest. Characteristics of culture 1. Culture is learned: Culture is learned from the people you interact with as you are socialized. Watching how adults react and talk to new babies is an excellent way to see the actual symbolic transmission of culture among people. Two babies born at exactly the same time in two parts of the globe may be thought to respond to physical and social stimuli in every different way. For example, some babies are taught to smile at strangers, whereas others are taught to smile only in very specific circumstances. 2. Culture is shared: Culture must be shared by a large number of people in order for it to be considered as such. In other words, a belief or practice must be shared amongst a significant portion of any society in question. 3. Culture is interrelated: Cultures are coherent and logical systems, the parts of which to a degree are interrelated. When we say that culture is integrated we are saying that its components are more than a random assortment of customs. 4. Culture is dynamic: What this simply means is that culture is subject to gradual or even radical change. This could be as a result of cultural traits or an entire cultural practice changing over time due to progress in that society or as a result of contact with a superior culture. 5. Culture is Particularistic: In this sense, culture represents a unique activity to people. Even though we can see the universalistic character of culture, it nevertheless can also be particular in nature. It is an agreed fact that greetings, marriage, dancing, rituals, social status, inheritance, etc.  are practiced all over human society, yet some aspects are specific to certain people. This means that culture is particularistic. 6. Culture is Ideal: Culture is an ideal in the sense that the ideas and values expressed by members may not be eventually transmitted into normal behaviour in its entirety. Some aspects may be retained, while others lost or amended. 7. Culture is Abstract: Culture is a mental construct, and never a real or neat object. It is not seen but believed to exist by members of a society. 8. Culture is Adaptive: Culture is created by man and subject to his manipulation. Culture provides a new means of adapting to the condition of their environment. It is for this reason that Clyde Kluckholhn sees culture as a design for living held by members of a particular society. 9. Culture is Universal: By this we mean not just a specific practice, but the fact that it represents a universal principle of human social existence. There is no human society that does not have a way of life otherwise its cultural practices. Basic Elements of Culture Every culture has some elements which can be translated as ingredients that collectively frame the cultural system of any society. The basic elements of culture are discussed below: Norms: -Cultures differ widely in their norms, or standards and expectations for behaving. Norms simply are the standards that govern how people behave in any society. This is often divided into two types, formal norms and informal norms. Formal norms also called mores and laws, refers to the standards of behaviour considered the most important in any society. For example, formal norms in Nigeria include; traffic laws, criminal codes and a college contend, student behaviour code addressing such things as cheating and hate speech. On the other hand, informal norms also called folkways and customs, refer to standards of behaviour that are considered less important but still influence how we behave. They are norms that in most cases are unspoken. Table manners are a common example of informal norms. Many norms differ dramatically from one culture to the next. Some of the best evidence for cultural variation in norms comes from the study of sexual behaviour (Edgerton, 1976). Deviance across cultural perspective. Among the Pokot of East Africa, women are expected to enjoy sex while among the Gusii people of Western Kenya, a few hundred miles away, women who enjoy sex are considered deviants. Values: Another important element of culture involves judgments of what is good and bad, desirable or undesirable. A culture‘s values shape its norms. In Japan, for example, a central value is group harmony. The Japanese place great emphasis on harmonious social relationships and dislikes interpersonal conflict. Individuals are fairly unassertive by American standards, lest they are perceived as trying to force their will upon others (Schneider Silverman, 2010). In this sense, values represent what society terms as worthwhile and worth striving for in the daily activities of members of that society. Language: Language is a key symbol of any culture. Humans have a capacity for language that no other animal species have, and children learn the language of their society just as they learn other aspects of their culture. An individual needs to learn his/her language to become a full member of his/her society or group. Language is a primary element of culture. Sapir (1921) and Whorf (1956) unite in pointing out that Language is central in determining social thought. In other words, language determines what people think and perceive because language influence people to perceive the world and also express their perception in certain terms. Symbols: Every culture is filled with symbols or things that stand for something else and that often evokes various reactions and emotions. Some symbols are actually types of nonverbal communication, while other symbols are in fact material objects. Law: These are a set of guidelines that define right and wrong behaviour/actions in society. These are formally codified norms everyone in the society is expected to be aware of and obey. Examples are the criminal code where it may have been stated that no individual should kidnap, kill or steal another‘s property. Violation of laws carries specific punishment. The seriousness of a sanction depends on how strictly the norms held (Anderson & Taylor, 2002). Rites of Passage: A rite of passage symbolizes that a man or people have achieved some status in life. Okaba (2005 & 2006) explained rites of passage as the embodiment of ritual that accompany every change in place, time, social position and age. In another chapter of this textbook, the author on Rites of Passage provides an elaborate narrative on this and made it clear that rites of passage is intricately woven into the culture of a people. Key Concepts in Culture 1. Culture trait: This refers to the smallest units of culture. In this sense, every unit which involves both material and nonmaterial aspects of culture can be referred to as culture trait. For instance, a simple act of using cutleries is a unit of the western culture of eating food. So culture traits refer mostly to smaller bits of behaviours within the larger culture of a people. A culture trait can therefore be an object, a technique, a  belief or an attitude in so far as it is a part of the larger way of life of a people (culture). 2. Culture complex: This can be seen as a collection of the network of culture traits described above. In other words, a dovetail of culture traits form what we refer to here as culture complex. For instance, while the act of students going on a rag day can be defined as a culture trait in education, the entire system of learning can be viewed as culture complex. 3. Culture Relativism: The concept of culture relativism originated from the work of Franz Boas in the early 20th century and it focuses on the notion of culture in the eyes of the practitioners. In other words, it rests on the principle of regarding the culture of a people from the perspectives or the opinion of the people who are direct owners of the culture in question. It simply implies the diversity of cultural systems and the need to respect other people‘s culture. Cultural relativism emphasizes the need for tolerance of other people‘s culture. 4. Cultural Assimilation: This is the process whereby the culture of a group of people assumes the character of another mostly through some kind of contact. This can happen through migration, colonial contact or any other form of association between cultures. In the case of colonial contact, the Britain and Nigeria is a good example. The same is true of migrants who gradually accept the language, belief and behavioural patterns of their hosts. 5. Cultural Imperialism: The term cultural imperialism is a more stronger variant of cultural assimilation. In this regard, the point is made where stronger cultures come to dominate others in a repressive or a forceful manner leading to the entrenchment of unequal cultural relationships. For instance, America has been indicted for cultural imperialistic behaviours which today seemingly accounts for the clash of civilizations according to Samuel Huntington. 6. Visual Culture: This is basically cultural dimensions that are overly visual in their character. In any case, it represents those aspects of culture that presents visual evidence of a group of people‘s way of life for instance; arts, media, housing among others. This could ideally reflect the notion of material culture discussed above. 7. Culture Lag: This represents the theoretical notion that a lazy relationship exists between culture and technology or other cultural areas where the former tend to be slow in catching up with the progress of the latter. Culture lag is associated with the theory espoused by William F. Ogburn, who defined the concept as follows: A cultural Lag occurs when one of two parts of culture which are correlated changes before or in greater degree than the other part does thereby causing less adjustment between  the two parts that existed previously. The concept is used where there are failures in adapting culture to technological change. 8. Cultural Change: This simply refers to the dynamism of culture. Hence, it is believed that culture is constantly undergoing some level of modification or discontinuation that alters the original state in which they were handed over to us by people of the past. This is actually associated with the nature of man who is consistently yearning for change in his way of life. In other words, culture is never static. 9. Culture Shock: This simply refers to the display of surprise or disorientation expressed by someone or a people from another culture when they are confronted by other people‘s cultural practices. It can further be defined as ‗‗the psychological and social stress experienced‘‘ when confronted with a radical different cultural environment. Culture shock is known to be a major forerunner of cultural ethnocentrism. 10. Ethnocentrism: Cultural ethnocentrism or simply ethnocentrism represents a situation where someone or a group of people from another cultural background judge the cultural practices of others from their own perspective and usually negatively. It is looking at other people‘s culture from the lens of our own culture and believing that ours is better than those of others. Cultural ethnocentrism is usually expressed in phrases such chosen people; progressive; superior race; true believes; infidels; backward people, underdeveloped, and so on. 11. Xenocentrism: The act of xenocentrism stands as direct opposite of ethnocentrism discussed above. It simply refers to a situation where someone or a group of people show preference for foreign cultures more than their own culture. This is particularly typical of most African people who consistently see western cultures especially those of America and Britain as more preferable than theirs. Significance of Culture Like every other system of behaviour in human society, culture performs some distinctive functions that underpin its relevance or significance in that society. So it is easy to pose the question; what does culture do for people in society? Below, an attempt to answer this question is made by aggregating the significance of culture under some useful sub-themes. Communication: Because of the character of language, culture enables members of society to communicate with others. This further provides enabling conditions for people to learn and share knowledge around culturally held beliefs and practices. Standards. Through the values and norms which are integral to culture, human beings come to acquire standards of behaviour. In this regard, culture performs the function of ensuring that standards are established to guide behaviour in society. This helps us in distinguishing between what is considered right and wrong, beautiful and ugly, reasonable and unreasonable, tragic and harmonious, safe and dangerous. Socialization: Culture is a significant rallying point for the socialization of young ones. In this sense, culture provides the required frame of reference for training young ones to behave in ways, generally considered appropriate in society. Identity: Culture performs the function of defining the identity of a people. Through culture, a distinctive set of behaviours which is reflective ways of dressing, eating, worship among others, a particular cultural group is distinguished and people from that group are identified. Bonding: Culture is known to provide one of the most important structure of social glue ever known in human history. Through culture and associated rituals, a group of people become intricately bonded and in most cases are willing to die for each other. Leisure/aesthetics: Another significance of culture most often neglected in the literature is the area of leisure and aesthetics. For instance, cultural activities such as dance, sports, wrestling among others provide means of leisure while showcasing the unique beauty of a people‘s way of life. Culture is now a major source of tourist attraction all over the world as more people continue to seek to understand other people‘s ways of life. Conclusion The concept of culture as discussed in this chapter has enabled readers to see the many intellectual arguments as well as dimensions associated with a single concept. Perhaps, culture as a concept attracted such a widespread scholarly attention because it is indeed a significant determinant of man‘s social existence as well as what clearly distinguishes man from other animals. So clarifying issues about its meaning, origin, character and significance as we have successfully done here, is indeed a step in the right direction especially for students of culture in Nigeria. Review Questions 1. What is the definition of culture according to Edward Tylor? 2. Describe the two perspectives on the origin of culture 3. Mention and discuss the two major components of culture 4. What are the different characteristics of culture? 5. What are the basic elements and concepts associated with culture? 6. In what ways is culture significance in our society? Reference Anderson, M. L. & Taylor, H. F. (2002). Sociology: Understanding a diverse society. Belmont, CA:Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. Apte, M. (1994). Language in socio-cultural context. In R. E. Asher (Ed). The encyclopaedia of language and linguistics, (4), 2000-2016. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Edgerton, R. B. (1976). Deviance: A cross-cultural perspective. Cummings Modular Program in Anthropology: Cummings Publishing Company. Tylor, E. B. (1920). Primitive Culture: Researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, language, art and customs. 6th Edition. London: John Murray. Ifeanacho, M. I. (1998). The Nigeria culture: An institutional approach. Owerri: Springfield Publishers. Okaba, B.O. (2005). Petroleum industry and the paradox of rural poverty in Niger Delta. Benin city: Ethiope Publishing Corporation. Sapir, E. (1921). The status of linguistics as science, In selected writings. D. Madelbaum (ed). Berkeley: University of California Press (5), 207-214. Schein E. (1990). Organizational culture. American Psychologist, (45)2, 109- 199. Schneider, L. & Silverman, A. (2010). Global sociology: Introducing five contemporary societies (5th ed). New York, NY: Mc Graw – Hill. Qatey, S. H. (2008). Culturally speaking: Culture, communication and politeness theory (2nd ed). London: Continuum. Whorf, B. L. (1956). Science and linguistics in language, in Thought and Reality. J. B. Carroll (ed). Cambridge: M.I.T.  NIGERIA: A PRE-COLONIAL, COLONIAL AND POST-COLONIAL INSIGHT 1 BEIH, N. NWOKE (Ph.D.) & 2PROF. E.B.J, Iheriohanma 1 Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Federal University Otuoke, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. 2 Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State Introduction Long before the entity referred to as Nigeria came into being, its people were organized in diverse and mostly dispersed ways. During this period, the enclave now referred to as Nigeria comprised of many autonomous ethnic groups which shared absolutely nothing in common particularly in terms of culture, religion, blood ties except long distant associations that were underpinned by trade and commerce. Essentially, what is today known and called Nigeria could be referred to as more or less ‗independent‘ communities, groups, empires, kingdoms, etc. and different peoples that had dissimilar psychological bonding and allegiance to any traceable common genealogy or ethnic origin. There were no commonalities in language, trade and commerce, religion, cultural contiguity and affinal relations (Iheriohanma, 2003). These explicated the scenario before 1914 Amalgamation. By 1954, each of the regions that now make up Nigeria had their various ethnic affiliations, distinctive political and social activities in addition to their economic life. For instance, the Northern society had the following independent ethnic groups: Hausa, Fulani, Kio, Kanuri, Igala, Tiv, Nupe, Gwarri, Igbira among others. On the other hand, the Eastern region had the following ethnic cleavages: Igbo, Ogoni, Ibibio, Anang, Efik, Ijaw, Ikwerre etc.; the Western part appeared to be homogenous with the Yoruba dominating, the Ijebu etc.; while the South had the following: the Edo, Delta, Benin, Isekiri, and Isoko among others. As mentioned above, the various autonomous groups were unique in their culture, beliefs and traditions. At the end of this chapter, the readers are expected to have in-depth knowledge of the following: 1. Pre-colonial Nigeria, with emphasis on the economy in terms of farming, fishing, pastoralism and trade relations 2. Pre-colonial Socio-political system in Nigeria 3. Colonial Nigerian society, with regard to its economy and administrative strategy, and 4. Post-colonial Nigeria, in relation to its neo-colonial characteristics The Pre-Colonial Nigeria - The Economy in Focus As stated above, the pre-colonial societies prior to the birth of Nigeria were distinctively unique in the socio-political, economic, religious and cultural systems. However, for the purpose of this work, it is necessary to provide a working definition of the concept - pre-colonial. The term is used here to mean, the period of time before colonization of a region or territory. Hence, pre- colonial Nigeria would mean the period before the British intervention and specifically before British colonial administration came into being in the hitherto separate societies now officially referred to as Nigeria. As we have attempted to clarify the concept - pre-colonial, it is also necessary to define what economy is at least within the ambit of this work. The term, economy, is seen as a specific cultural and social arrangement, structured by particular kinds of norms, values, roles, social control and practices, the purpose of which is to satisfy societal needs for production, distribution, consumption and exchange of goods and services. Hence, we hear of the economic system which deals with the production and distribution of goods and services within the larger social system or society. Having dealt with the definitional issues in relation to our concern, we can now look at the substance of pre-colonial economic life. The main spring and life- wire of any society are mostly referred to as its economic and human potentials. Nigeria does not take exception to this universal rule. The kingdoms, states and empires that existed in pre-colonial Nigeria were great and prosperous not only because of their sound socio-political institutions, but also as a result of the endowed natural resources such as bountiful arable land for agriculture, mineral deposits, trade and crafts. In this sense, it is fundamental to state that the pre- colonial Nigerian societies albeit their differences and ways of life, were largely agrarian in nature with rudimentary division of labour underpinned by age and gender rather than the more sophisticated model we currently have in modern societies. The production process in most traditional societies of the period was mainly structured around kinship obligations, tribal affiliations, religious lines and moral values of the people. This perhaps is why Ekpenyong (1993) rightly maintained that land, labour as well as goods and services that were produced in traditional kind of societies were located, exchanged or appropriated through reciprocity and distribution rather than being dictated by market forces. In trying to analyze the traditional economic processes and institutions of Africa and indeed Nigeria, culture is considered a key determinant of this institution especially in the light of the fact that culture is the foundation of the people‘s way of life and as such, takes the centre stage in the relevant production processes, the social organization of labour and, of course, the existing indigenous mechanisms for the distribution of social wealth. In doing this, we shall focus on the key indicators that revolve around the agrarian economy of the people before the changes that emerged during the colonial era in Nigeria. Farming in Pre-colonial Nigeria In the pre-colonial agrarian societies, farming was a major activity and access to or ownership of land played a key role in it. In other words, farming as a big part of the agrarian economy depended on a number of land-related factors such as availability, accessibility and how arable it is. Land is one of the non- exhaustible factor of production and access to and or ownership of it was culturally determined. The practices by which land is made available to individuals during the pre-colonial period were subsumed in the popular concept referred to as ―land tenure‖. Famoriyo (1979) opined that the central issue in the analysis and discussion of land tenure system is the relationship of man to man in the occupancy and use of land. Hence, land tenure expresses the methods by which individuals gain access to, acquire, and use over land either on temporary or permanent basis and this practice differs from one society to the other. This notwithstanding, three types of land tenure systems were more dominant in pre-colonial Nigeria societies. These are family land tenure, lineage land tenure and public land tenure. Family Land Tenure: This refers to the land tenure practice whereby a man, his brothers and children own a particular piece of land allocated to them as a family. The man to whom the land has been allocated has the right to put the land under use and can always return to it after some fallow period. As the name implies, it is usually inherited from previous ancestors by only those who are members of the family (genitors). Lineage Land Tenure: The concept, lineage, simply means a corporate descent group; a group with common ancestor, and common property ownership. Adetola and Ademola (1985) state that a lineage land is a territorial unit distinctly marked from those of other lineages. In fact, Raimi, Ogadi and Wabah (2012) refer to this type of land tenure system as one in which land traditionally belongs to the ancestors of the people. In other words, this type of tenure involves the ownership of land by the founder of a particular community. Hence, all members who are usually the descendants of the guarantor of the land have perpetual and exclusive right to such land. Public Land Tenure: In some traditional Nigerian societies, there are some parcels of land designated for public use only. Such lands are used for public utility such as markets, schools, village play grounds, church buildings etc. The head of the community and his assistants are in control of such property. Decision on who, when and how to use it is mainly decided by the chiefs. Such lands are forests, swamps, reserved (sacred) forests among others. Fishing in pre-colonial societies The art of fishing in pre-colonial Nigerian societies is to say the least very old and viewed as an ancient economic activity in most of the societies. Its activities cover both the coastal and inland waterways and it was of tremendous economic value to the pre-colonial Nigerians. Fish was one of the major articles among the commodities of exchange between traditional societies. Fish of various kinds were either dried in the sun or traditionally smoked in order to preserve them for long or short distance markets. Fresh fish were said to be marketed mostly in short distant areas owing to the perishable nature and problem of storage facility. Professional fishing is characterized by craftsmanship and special skills, such as boat, canoe, paddle, float, buoy and net construction coupled with invention of a variety of indigenous fishing techniques and gear. Fishing in pre-colonial Nigeria till date engenders migration as many of its practitioners would have to leave their original settlements for better prospects elsewhere. Fishing of the migratory type was very prominent among the Ilaje, Izon, Itsekiri, Efik, Jukun, Ijebu, Awori among others. According to Bassey (1992), around the early 16th century, fishing is said to be practiced with rudimentary techniques and tools such as raffia materials, wood, and grasses and with very limited scope. By the late 18th century to early 19th century, most Nigerian fishermen had started developing improved fishing gear and techniques such as clapnets, castnets, ita, egho, asuren, ojijon, agada, ighee, iyanma, ekobi ufo, riro among others. To say the least, fishing constituted an important economic activity among the coastal/riverine traditional people of pre-colonial societies in Nigeria and even till date. The people by proximity to the rivers, seas, lakes, lagoons, creeks and streams have demonstrated sufficient skills over the years. Both men and women whose life revolved and continues to revolve around the riverine environment see fishing as their major economic activity. Nigerian fishing economy was in its progressive stage of development before the sudden colonial eruption and intervention that eventually truncated most of the envisaged natural growth associated with traditional economic activities. Pastoralism in pre-colonial Nigerian societies Pastoralism is another economic activity practiced in pre-colonial Nigeria. It is the tending of sheep, cattle, goats or doing all of these together at a time. In a simple term, this refers to animal husbandry. Early traces of animal domestication in Nigeria is dated to the Nok era, between 900 or 500BC and AD200 (Stride & Ifeka, 1979; Shell, 1988), at Birnin Kudu near Kano and Geji near Bauchi states respectively. Cattle herding is one major economic activity among the Northern Nigerians. Notable societies in the North known for this activity include the Shuwa Arabs, the Fulanis, the Kanuris. During the pre-colonial era, the cattle territory lies mainly in the Sudan savannah zone where there is prolonged dry season while the rainy season only lasted from May to September. Pastoral growth in this area largely depended on the rains. Trade in pre-colonial Nigeria Trade between pre-colonial Nigerian societies was another economic activity that preoccupied the people at this period. Trade is concerned with the business of distribution; selling and exchange emerged as a result of occasional surpluses generated over and above the current or immediate desire and needs of the people. There is a clear indication that the natural resources are not distributed equally. Stride and Ifeke (1971) cited in Girigiri & Anele (2003) assert that it was between forest and non-forest inhabitants that trade first started. According to them, trade later spread among different peoples in the forest zone. Some of the commodities that the people traded on were food and non-food stuffs. Trade by barter – where goods were exchanged for other goods - was the dominant character of commerce during this era. Later, currency was introduced when African and Nigerian people started trading with the outside world. But prior to the 14th century, there was the Trans-Saharan trade which was dominated by Hausa and their neighbours in the West African region. Summarily, it may be proper to state that traditional Nigeria economy before the British conquest was purely indigenous, self-reliant, and of course self- sustaining. The various autonomous groups used different farming implements relevant and preferable to their locality. The tools were produced or manufactured locally. Agriculture, hunting, animal husbandry, fishing, trading, mining and manufacturing developed differently before colonialism. Socio-Political Character of Pre-Colonial Nigeria With regard to socio-political structure, it should be said that each of the different societies that made up Pre-colonial Nigeria had their distinctive ways of social and political associations. This to a large extent reflected the historico- cultural foundations of the different societies. Much as this is the case, it is easy to cluster these socio-political systems into three albeit reflective of the dominant ethnic groups of the time. These are the Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo socio-political systems. Below, we provide a concise narrative of these socio-political characteristic. Hausa-Fulani Socio-Political System The Hausa-Fulani socio-political defines is associated with Northern Nigeria. This society is known to be home to the NOK (Tarracotta or clay/iron based) culture. The region was dominated by the Hausa kingdom which emerged from what was known as the fourteen kingdoms. However, Sudanic States displaced the Hausa Kingdoms and Sultanates began to emerge by the 17th century leading to a series of Wars that saw the emergence of organized empires. Religious holy War brought by the FULANI‘s marked a significant cultural, social and political change in Savanna States with the introduction of ISLAM which led to the formation of the Sokoto Caliphate in1808. Below is the socio-political structure of the Northern society. From the socio-political structure of the Hausa-Fulani society presented in the diagram, it is easy to see that the Emir had supreme and spiritual powers attribute to the divine rights of kings in the medieval era. He was closely followed by the Galadima who runs the capital on-behalf of the Emir. This is followed by the Waziri who maintains oversight functions over other designated officials. The Waziri is followed by the Madawaki who in todays Nigeria is referred to as the Chief of Army Staff in charge of all the military. He is followed by the Hakimi who is in charge of the districts and lastly are the Talakawas representing the commoners or the masses. The Oyo Empire In the Western part of pre-colonial Nigeria, the Oyo Empire was very unique and exceptional in its system of government. In the 16 th century, Oyo was one of the rare empires with in-built checks and balances and this contributed to its stability for centuries. Below is the socio-political character of the Oyo Empire. Alaafin (Oba‘s) court was the highest in the kingdom, followed by the Oyomesi constituting a council of seven members who were led by the Bashorun. The Ogboni Cult is made up the Oyomesi and other powerful members of the society. The Ogboni Cult is followed by the Are-Ona-Kakanfo who was considered as the head of the infantry akin to the army chief described above. This is followed by the Baales who oversee the provinces as governors and lastly, the Ilari acted as the personal agents of the Oba to watch over the Baales. Igbo Socio-Political Character Unlike other pre-colonial societies such as the Yoruba, Hausa/Fulani and Bini, the Igbo people did not build any strong centralized states. The largest social and political unit was the village/village group. This was largely driven by the kindred then family units with the council of elders (Ofo title holders) representing the highest decision making body. This was followed by the Ozo title holders, the age grades and the women groups. However, the age grades performed functions such as labour services, defence and to some extent administrative duties. The Igbo socio-political system has been referred to as village democracy or republican government in its rudimentary form. The Colonial Nigerian Society Having analyzed the economic characteristics of pre-colonial Nigerian societies, this section focuses on, especially the economic activities in the colonial era. This ultimately laid the foundation for modern day Nigeria. Colonialism refers to a social system in which political conquest of one society by another leads to cultural domination with enforced social change. Because there is a generally held perception that colonialism was chiefly motivated by the expropriation of material wealth, it is logical to point out that the reason for its existence was economic. However, there were three main reasons for the European intervention or, to say, colonization of Africa. These were a) to Christianize / Evangelize Africans, b) to stop slave trade, and c) to bring about ―legitimate‖ trade. These were the outward or manifest reasons for colonization but the argument has been that African indigenous peoples knew their creator and were worshiping Him before the white-man came. How come the British came to evangelize a people that had their religion before then or were they here to show us how to worship their own God? The issue of ―legitimate‖ trade sparks off stiff argument in that it takes two to tangle. Who were engaged in the slave trade that made America and Britain what they are economically? Africans could not have involved themselves in the kidnapping and killings of themselves if there were no buyers of individuals that were exploits from the internecine wars. The latent reasons for their coming were i) to source for raw materials for their emergent industries, ii) to extend their political and military prowess otherwise there was no need to Christianize a people with the Bible in one hand and a sword in another. You do not force a people to accept Christ or religion unless you are engaged in a Jihad. Another reason was to protect their political and business interest in Africa, hence the approach through military warfare and conquest. The Berlin Conference explains all these in details as this chapter is limited in its scope (Iheriohanma, 2003). The British colonization in Nigeria altered and derailed Nigeria‘s political and economic future and development and this accounts in greater percentage the crab-walk-like political and economic development in Nigeria today and the effect will continue to linger in our face for a longer time to come. During the nineteenth century, as the Industrial Revolution got under way, European nation-states moved outward for the acquisition of new territories. These oversea territories were to serve as major sources of raw materials and markets for European manufactured goods and services that were mass produced by their new industrial system, without which it would have been difficult for the survival of these industrial nations. The outward drive for overseas territorial possession is simply referred to as imperialism. Colonialism, as earlier mentioned, is the direct political, social and economic domination or subjugation of one relatively powerless nation by a more powerful one. It is usually characterized by the exercise of political control and generally the manifestation of domestically adverse policies aimed at the structural, economic underdevelopment of the colonized in such a way that those colonized are distanced from the products they produce and are forced to engage in activities with direct bearing to the colonizers. This epitomized alienation of the colonized. As Nekabari (2000) opines, colonialism therefore is characterized by the presence of political institutions which serve the interest of the colonizing authorities and armed occupation by force and a monumental act of hostility which dispenses a great deal of violence as well as political authoritarianism. When the reasons for European conquest of Africa and Nigeria, through the process of colonialism as at then, are expanded we have the following: i. Exploration for Geographical/Scientific knowledge ii. Economic iii. Religious/Humanitarian iv. Political and Military 1. Exploration for Geographical/Scientific Knowledge – There was a period of contention that the world was flat, round or spherical. This necessitated the first explorers from Spain and Portugal to scientifically affirm the proposition of this debate. Yet, it is still contentious if this could be a reason for colonization. 2. Economic – This has been identified as the primary reason for the coming of Europeans to Africa and by extension Nigeria. This is latent but a clear and potent reason for the domination and exploration as this has tended towards globalization, interconnectivity, interdependence, etc. with the assistance of information and communications technology (ICT). 3. Religious/Humanitarian – European Missionaries equally played some important roles in conquering Africa. Their activities were mainly to convert souls by making them have the knowledge of Christ but indirectly they paved the way for the legitimization of the British and other colonizers‘ commercial business in the region. 4. Political and Military: The character of annexing territories by powerful societies or nations of the time was key to their political machismo. Hence, powerful countries maintained and continue to maintain colonies as a way of equally showcasing their military and political power as ‗strong political entities‘ to the entire world. This still reflects in international politics and arena. The administrative strategy of the colonial period The subjugation of hitherto existing pre-colonial societies and their subsequent merger as one socio-political entity meant that new forms of governance or administration had to be introduced. This administrative strategy was to ensure that a people that were previously different in so many ways, were easily managed for the gains of the colonial system. Much as this is the case, the colonial administration‘s form of ruling from Whitehall England, introduced the direct and indirect models as the case may be.  Direct rule: The model known as the direct rule, involved the administrative structure set up by the colonizers to regulate both social and economic activities within the colony. The colonial administrators bypassed existing social organizations and structures and supervised a centrally controlled administrative hierarchy for their interest. Here, existing indigenous administrative structures were completely neglected and a direct process of managing the people was followed. Indirect rule: On the contrary, indirect rule involves the exercise of power by colonial authorities via local leaders such as chiefs, kings, and family heads. This was the method practiced by the British colonizers in Nigeria. In fact, this model became more popular to the extent that where chiefs were not in existence such as in the Igbo societies, they were erected for the sole purpose of aiding the colonial administration. In Igbo society, the British established the warrant Chiefs stool for the purpose of collecting taxes and reaching the people. Indirect rule in Nigeria was introduced by Sir Frederick Lord Lugard in 1914 after he had introduced and practiced the system in India. He surveyed the existing structures in Nigeria and found the need to introduce it here after the 1914 Amalgamation of Southern and Northern Protectorates. This explains the maxim that ‗Nigeria is the creation of the British‘. The ‗independent‘ entities that made up present - day Nigeria had no hand in this marriage of ‗inconvenience‘ that could be said to have started as far back as early 1860s with John Beecroft appointed as the British Consul for Bights of Benin and Biafra in 1849. The Post-Colonial Nigeria The granting of independence to Nigeria in 1960 was widely celebrated. This was because people were hopeful with the expectation that there would be some fundamental transformations in the society. There was widespread hope that significant changes would ensue that would promote better economic empowerment of the people, industrialization of the country, growth of infrastructure in areas such as health, roads network among others as well as believing that poverty of all kinds would be addressed. But after independence, such expectation could not be realized. At this point, it became clearer that political independence could not usher in the much expected economic and social freedom. This is because the economy remained disarticulated and vertically integrated into the capitalist economic system of the dominant colonizers who are still in control of the economy from outside. In fact, the literature began to witness such new terms as neo-colonialism, external rule, flag independence among others as a way of describing the new character of the social relations that existed and still persist between Nigeria and her erstwhile colonial masters in the post-colonial era. Consequently, the local economy failed to respond to domestic demands. Therefore, it became evident that the withdrawal of political domination did not mean that foreign domination had ended. Hence, the post-colonial African societies such as Nigeria were analyzed in the third All Peoples Conference in Cairo, Egypt from 25th – 31th March 1961 in the following ways: 1. Puppet government representing a stooge system with characters such as, societies that fabricate elections based on some chiefs, reactionary elements, anti-people, politicians, big bourgeois, compradors or corrupt civil or military functionaries. 2. Regrouping of states before or after independence by the imperial power in federation or communities linked to imperial power. 3. Balkanization as a deliberate political fragmentation or state by creating artificial entities. 4. Economic infiltration by a foreign powers after independence through capital investment, foreign direct investments, loans and monetary aids or technical expertise on unequal contentions, particularly, those extending for long period. 5. Military bases, sometimes introduced as scientific research centres or training schools, introduced either before independence or as part of conditions for independence. 6. Integration into colonial economic blocs which maintain the underdevelopment character of African economies… through modernization policies. Perhaps, it is in appreciation of the enumerated characteristics of the post- colonial African societies above that Nkrumma (1966) cited in Girigiri, (1999) defined neo-colonialism as ―the last stage of imperialism‖. To him therefore, it is the process of handing independence over with one hand and taking it back with another hand. Conclusion In this chapter, the focus has been to provide albeit briefly the three historical epochs that characterize the Nigerian society. Hence, the beginning point covered the discussion on the pre-colonial societies which as they were, represented some degree of distinctively autonomous societies with different socio-cultural characteristics. However, the coming of the colonial age triggered a forceful unconventional marriage between these hitherto independent societies thereby setting the stage for a long distasteful country-union called Nigeria. This marriage notwithstanding, the character of the post-colonial Nigerian society leaves little by way of expectation given the fact that politically, the country can brag of independence but economically, this seems like a far cry from reality. This doubt in the country‘s complete independence from her erstwhile colonial masters gave rise to the neo-colonial discourse in the literature. It is nevertheless sad, that the colonial hangover is still bedeviling the country till date and there is the urgent need for real independence especially in the realms of economy and politics. Review Questions 1. What do you understand by a precolonial society and what were the dominant economic activities in this period? 2. Describe the different socio-political system of the pre-colonial Nigerian society 3. How do you describe the place of land tenure system in the agrarian economy of precolonial societies? 4. List and explain the four processes that underpinned the reasons for the conquest of Africa, and in deed Nigeria, through colonialism? 5. Why is the post-colonial Nigerian society considered a neo-colonial society? References Adotola, A. (1981). Why we struck: The story of the first Nigeria coup. Ibadan: Evans Brothers. Anele, K. A. (2003). Ethnography of sub-Saharan Africa. Port Harcourt: Luckozim (Nig) Ltd. Ekpenyong, S. (1993). Elements of sociology. Lagos: African Heritage. Famoriya, S. (1979). Land tenure and agricultural development in Nigeria. Ibadan: University Press. Girigiri, B. K. (2003). Culture and the group: African and other contexts. Owerri: Springfield Publications. Ifeanacho, I. M. (1998). The Nigerian culture: An introductory approach. Owerri: Springfield Publishers. Iheriohanma, E. B. J. (2003). Polity and economy of Nigeria and the European intervention: an introduction, E. B. J. Iheriohanma (ed) Path to Nigerian political and economic development, (enlarged edition), Owerri: Ugonna Ventures (Nig.). Nekabari, J. N. (2000). Contemporary political analysis: Introduction. Port Harcourt: the Blue print Publications. Odetola, T.O. & Ademola, A. (1985). Sociology: An introductory African text. London and Bringstoke: Macmillan Pub. Ltd. Raimi, L. Ogadi, C. and Wabah, G. (2013). Land tenure systems and the challenge of agricultural production in Nigeria. Journal of Qualitative Education, 9 (2): 88-93. Stride, G.T. & Ifeka, C. (1971). People and empires of West Africa: West Africa in History, 1000-1800. Lagos: Thomas Nelson (Nig) Ltd.  FAMILY INSTITUTION, MARRIAGE AND KINSHIP SYSTEM 1 ABEJIRINDE Ayodele Adedeji & 2 BOROH, Stanley Ebitare Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Federal University Otuoke, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. Introduction The history of human has being characterized by social groupings formed for the purposes of accomplishing basic collective societal goals needed for existence and continued survival of humanity. Man in his bid to achieve vital social needs designed his life and activities into varieties of social group units. The social synergy within family units such as the marriage, family, and the kinship and descent system is crucial to the human and societal functioning. Some functional roles of intimate group organizations include; companionship, sexual regulation, child bearing, socialization process, economic activities, political aspiration, and religious duties. The centrality of marriage, family, and kinship system to the human society cannot be over-emphasized. Our social nature is inherent in the group we create and live in all through our lives. Also they serve as essential social ingredients linking various groups into a universal social system (Erebagha, Igibuna & Obaro, 2008).The diversity in human culture has aided the creation of myriads of marriages, families, and kinship systems across the globe. Nevertheless, regardless of the diversities in the familial and extra- familial organizations, their functional roles remain the same as it helps in the continued survival of the social system. At the end of this chapter, readers are expected to have gained insight into the following: i. The changes currently being witnessed in the intimate institutions and identify factors propelling this changes. ii. The contemporary definition of family related institution ( e.g marriage, kinship, and descent system, etc). iii. The contemporary functional roles of the family related intimate group organization such as descent, residential patterns, marriage, etc. iv. Varieties of the family institution across cultural divide and v. The functional roles of the family, marriage, and kinship system. The Family The family is regarded as one of the oldest critical institution saddled with the primary role of bearing, rearing, and nurturing the new members of the society. It is the social milieu in which members of a society access their means of identity (Jack, 2015). Also, the family institution has both particularistic and universalistic attributes. Universal in the sense that the family is an institution that can be found all over the world, and particularistic because its structure and element are relatively unique across cultures. Scholars across the disciplines of Sociology, Anthropology, and Social history have tried to define the concept of family. For example, Smith and Preston (1982) defined a family as a social group whose members are related through common ancestry or marriage and are bound by moral and economic rights and duties. Burgess and Locke (1953, cited in Anele, 2003) see the family as group of persons united by the ties of marriage, blood, or adoption, constituting a single household interacting and intercommunicating with each other in their respective social role of husband and wife, mother, and father, brother and sister: creating a common culture. The above definition can easily pass for the traditional meaning of the family. However, with the current transition the family is undergoing as occasioned by globalization and modernization there are contemporary definitions of the family which give room to the ever changing structure and role of the family institution. For instance, Benokraitis (2008) defined marriage as a unit made up of two or more people who are related by blood, marriage or adoption, live together, form an economic units; and bear and raise children. In the same vein, but in a more complex form, Benokraitis (2012) view modern family as an intimate group of two or more people who live together in a committed relationship, care for one another and any children, and share activities and close emotional tie. The comprehensive modification in the structure of the family, its membership roles, and the definition of the concept of marriage have impacted adversely on the contemporary meaning of the family. The upsurge and the ever increasing acceptability of family aberrations such as the gay family, same sex marriage, single parenting and cohabiting family have altered the definition of the family. Types of Families The family institution differs across cultural lines, historical epoch, authority/power wielded by parties involved, and membership composition. Below are types of family across cultural boundaries. a. Nuclear family- A nuclear family comprises the assemblage of the father, mother, and dependent children living together as unit. The nuclear family is the most basic in the entire family structure. Some Social Anthropologist call it ―elementary family‖. It is a universal human social grouping. 0kaba (2005) distinguished between conjugal and orientation nuclear family. According to him, the family of procreation is  the conjugal family, while the family where one is born is the orientation nuclear family. In Africa traditional societies a nuclear family might have a single house or a group of huts within a compound, with each hut having it own cooking, sleeping and toilet arrangement( Anele,2008) b. Extended family- It is an extension of the nuclear family both in size and composition. Usually the extended family is enlarged with the addition of other kinsmen( i.e relative of the nuclear family considered intimate to the family (Anele, 2003:102).Generally, in the third world countries like Africa where kinship affinity is held at high esteem extended family structure is prevalent because it is believed to provide socio economic support and culture balance. Haralambos and Holborn (2000:504) cited in Anele (2003) opined that an extended family can be incorporated into vertical and horizontal extension. The former include members of the family from the third generation such as the spouses parent and grand -parent. The later, on the other hand refers to family members of the same generation such as husband‘s bother, wife‘s sisters and additional spouses. c. Compound family- The term compound is associated with third world societies of Africa, referring to a group of houses built in clustered form around a square yard. The compound family is structured in such a way that there is a central household head (always a male) at the top echelon of power and authority structure. In a family where polygny is practiced, the man‘s wives and concubines form the lower echelon of power. Each of the wives is expected to be heads of respective names with their children and other relatives in subjection to the authority flow. According to Erebagha e tal (2008) compound family organization can be seen as overlapping set of nuclear families with the same man as family head. d. Blended Families- This type of family structure is a product of remarriage. Often time cases of divorce/separation or the death of a spouse (widow or widower) is a prelude to blended family. Blended family is sometime used interchangeably with stepfamilies. It is a type of family that accommodates siblings and children from previous marri