Group Dynamics Notes PDF

Group Dynamics - the actions, processes, and changes that occur within groups and between groups - The influential actions, processes, and changes that occur within and between groups over time; also, the scientific study of those processes What is a Group? - Two or more individuals...

Group Dynamics - the actions, processes, and changes that occur within groups and between groups - The influential actions, processes, and changes that occur within and between groups over time; also, the scientific study of those processes What is a Group? - Two or more individuals who are connected by and within social relationships - A group is a collection of individuals who have relations to one another” (Cartwright & Zander) - A group is a social unit which consists of a number of individuals who stand in (more or less) definite status and role relationships to one another” (Sherif & Sherif, 1956) - A bounded set of patterned relations among members” (Arrow, McGrath, & Berdahl, 2000) Who Are Connected - The members of any given group are networked together like a series of inter connected computers. - These connections, or ties, may be based on strong bonds, like the links between the members of a family or a clique of close friends. - The larger the group, the more ties are needed to join members to each other and to the group. By and Within Social Relationships - Definitions of the word group vary, but many stress one key con sideration: relationships among the members. - Just as people who are friends are joined in friendship or all the senior members of a law firm are part of a partnership, people in a group are said to be linked by their membership - Group relationships link each member to one another and to the group as a whole - They also define who is in the group itself, for groups, unlike networks, have boundaries Membership - The state of being a part of, or included within, a social group. Network - A set of interconnected individuals or groups; more generally, any set of social or nonsocial objects that are linked by relational ties. Social Identity - Aspects of the self-concept that derive from relationships and memberships in groups; in particular, those qualities that are held in common by two or more people who recognize that they are members of the same group or social category Describing Groups - Each one of the billions of groups that exist at this moment is a unique configuration of individuals, processes, and relationships. - A group of five students in university library reviewing material for an upcoming test displays tendencies and qualities that are unlike any other study group that has ever existed or ever will exist Interaction (Robert F. Bales. 1950, 1999) “What do people do when they are in groups?” - Group members exchanged information with each other, through both verbal and nonverbal communication; they got into arguments, talked over issues, and made decisions. - They upset each other, gave one another help and support, and took advantage of each other’s weaknesses. - They worked together to accomplish difficult tasks, but they sometimes slacked off when they thought others would not notice. off when they thought others would not notice. - Group members taught each other new things and they touched each other literally and emotionally. Group interaction is as varied as human behavior itself. Bales concluded that the countless interactions he had witnessed were of two basic types: 1. Relationship interaction (or socio emotional interaction) - Actions performed by group members that relate to or influence the emotional and interpersonal bonds within the group, including both positive actions (social support, consideration) and negative actions (criticism, conflict). 2. Task interaction - Actions performed by group members that pertain to the group’s projects, tasks, and goals. - All group behavior that is focused principally on the group’s work, projects, plans, and goals. In most groups, members must coordinate their various skills, resources, and motivations so that the group can make a decision, generate a product, or achieve a victory Goals (Joseph E. McGrath’s, 1984) - Circumplex Model of Group Tasks brings order to the many goal-related activities that groups undertake - McGrath’s model distinguishes among four basic group goals: generating ideas or plans, choosing a solution, negotiating a solution to a conflict, or executing (performing) a task. Circumplex Model of Group Tasks - A conceptual taxonomy developed by Joseph McGrath that orders group tasks in a circular pattern based on two continua: cooperative–competitive and conceptual–behavioral. Generating: Groups that concoct the strategies they will use to accomplish their goals (Type 1: planning tasks) or to create altogether new ideas and approaches to their problems (Type 2: creativity tasks) Choosing: Groups that make decisions about issues that have correct solutions (Type 3: intellective tasks) or questions that can be answered in many ways (Type 4: decision making tasks). Negotiating: Groups that must resolve differ ences of opinion among members regarding their goals or decisions (Type 5: cognitive conflict tasks) or resolve competitive disputes among members (Type 6: mixed-motive tasks). Executing: Groups that do things, including taking part in competitions (Type 7: contests/ battles/competitive tasks) or working together to create some product or carry out collective actions (Type 8: Performances/psychomotor tasks). Interdependence - When people join groups they soon discover that they are no longer masters of their own fate. - Means that members depend on one another; their outcomes, actions, thoughts, feelings, and experiences are determined in part by others in the group - The state of being dependent to some degree on other people, as when one’s outcomes, actions, thoughts, feelings, and experiences are determined in whole or in part by others Structure - Group members are not connected to one another at random, but in organized and predict able patterns. - The most ephemeral groups, patterns and regularities emerge that determine the kinds of actions that are permitted or condemned: 1. who talks to whom 2. who likes whom and who dis likes whom 3. who can be counted on to perform particular tasks 4. whom others look to for guidance and help - Roles, norms, and other structural aspects of groups, although unseen and often unnoticed, lie at the heart of their most dynamic processes. Group Structure The underlying pattern of roles, norms, and relations among members that organizes groups. Role A coherent set of behaviors expected of people who occupy specific positions within a group. Norm A consensual and often implicit standard that describes what behaviors should and should not be per formed in a given context. Unity - A group, viewed holistically, is a unified whole; an entity formed when interpersonal forces bind the members together in a single unit with boundaries that mark who is in the group and who is outside of it - In consequence, when we speak about groups we refer to them as single objects: for example, a gang is menacing or the club meets tomorrow. - The quality of “groupness,” or solidarity, is determined, in part, by group cohesion. - Groupness is also related to entitativity. Even though an aggregation of individuals may not be very cohesive, those who observe the group—and even the members themselves—may believe that the group is a single, unified entity. Group Cohesion - The strength of the bonds linking individuals to and in the group. Entitativity - As described by Donald Campbell, the extent to which an assemblage of individuals is perceived to be a group rather than an aggregation of independent, unrelated individuals; the quality of being an entity Entitativity, according to Campbell, is substantially influenced by: Common fate: Do the individuals experience the same or interrelated outcomes? Similarity: Do the individuals perform similar behaviors or resemble one another? Proximity: How close together are the individuals in the aggregation? Types of Groups - Groups come in a variety of shapes and sizes and perform functions that are vast and varied, so the differences among them are as noteworthy as their similarities. 1. Primary Groups - A small, long-term group, such as fam ilies and friendship cliques, characterized by face-to- face interaction, solidarity, and high levels of member to-group interdependence and identification; - Charles Cooley believed such groups serve as the primary source of socialization for members by shaping their attitudes, values, and social orientation. - Primary groups, such as family, friends, or tight-knit peer groups, are relatively small, person ally meaningful groups that are highly unified.  - The members are very involved in the group, so much so that they feel a part of something larger than themselves. Thomas Theorem The theoretical premise, put forward by W. I. Thomas, which maintains that an individual’s understanding of a social situation, even if incorrect, will determine how he or she will act in the situation; “If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences Essentialism The belief that all things, including individuals and groups, have a basic nature which makes them what they are and distinguishes them from others; this basic essence, even though hidden, is relatively unchanging and gives rise to surface-level qualities. Primary groups are primary in the sense that they give the individual his earliest and completest experience of social unity, and also in the sense that they do not change in the same degree as more elaborate relations, but form a comparatively permanent source out of which the latter are ever springing. 2. Social Groups - in earlier eras, individuals belonged only to small, primary groups (Cooley, 1909). They could live out their entire lives without leaving their small, close-knit families, tribes, or communities. - As societies became more complex, so did their groups. These groups drew people into the larger community, where they joined with others in social groups. Social Group A relatively small number of individuals who interact with one another over an extended period of time, such as work groups, clubs, and congregations  3. Collectives - A collective, if taken literally, would describe any aggregate of two or more individuals and, hence, would be synonymous with the term group (Blumer, 1951). - Collectives are larger groups whose members act in similar and sometimes unusual ways. - A list of collectives would include a street crowd watching a building burn, an audience at a movie, a line (queue) of people waiting to purchase tickets, a mob of college students protesting a government policy, and a pan icked group fleeing from danger. 4. Categories - A category is an aggregation of individuals who are similar to one another in some way. For example, people who live in New York City are New Yorkers, Americans whose ancestors were from Africa are African Americans, and those who routinely wager sums of money on games of chance are gamblers. Collective A relatively large aggregation or group of individuals who display similarities in actions and outlook. Category An aggregation of people or things that share some common attribute or are related in some way. SUMMARY IN OUTLINE Observation A measurement method that involves watching and recording individual and group actions. 1. Overt Observation - Openly watching and recording group behavior with no attempt to conceal one’s research purposes 2. Covert Observation - Watching and recording group behavior without the participants’ knowledge 3. Participant Observation - Watching and recording group behavior while taking part in the social process. Hawthorn Effect A change in behavior that occurs when individuals know they are being studied by researchers Institutional Review Board (IRB) A group, usually located at a university or other research institution, that is responsible for reviewing research procedures to make certain that they are consistent with ethical guidelines for protecting human participants. Structuring Observations Qualitative Study - A research procedure used to collect and analyze nonnumeric, unquantified types of data, such as text, images, or objects. Structured Observational Method - A research procedure that classifies (codes) group members’ actions into defined categories. Quantitative Study - A research procedure used to collect and analyze data in a numeric form, such as frequencies, proportions, or amounts. Interaction Process Analysis (IPA) - A structured coding system developed by Robert Bales used to classify group behavior into task- oriented and relationship-oriented categories. Systematic Multiple Level Observation of Groups (SYMLOG) - A theoretical and structured coding system developed by Robert Bales which assumes that group activities can be classified along three dimensions: dominance versus submissiveness, friendliness versus unfriendliness, and acceptance of versus opposition to authority. Reliability and Validity of Observations - Structured observation systems, because they can be used to record the number of times a particular type of behavior has occurred, make possible com parison across categories, group members, and even different groups. - if observers are carefully trained, structured coding system such as IPA and SYMLOG will yield data that are both reliable and valid. Reliability - The degree to which a measurement technique consistently yields the same conclusion at different times. For measurement techniques with two or more components, reliability is also the degree to which these various components all yield similar conclusions Validity - The degree to which a measurement method assesses what it was designed to measure. Self-Report Measures - An assessment method, such as a questionnaire, test, or interview, that ask respondents to describe their feelings, attitudes, or beliefs. - Despite their variations, are all based on a simple premise: if you want to know what a group member is thinking, feeling, or planning, then just ask him or her to report that information to you directly. - In interviews the re searcher records the respondent’s answer to various questions, but questionnaires ask respondents to record their answers themselves. - Some variables, such as members’ beliefs about their group’s cohesiveness or their perceptions of the group’s leader, may be so complex that researchers need to ask a series of interrelated questions. Sociometry - Jacob Moreno (1934), a pioneer in the field of group dynamics, used self-report methods to study the social organization of groups of young women living in adjacent cottages at an institution. - A research technique developed by Jacob Moreno that graphically and mathematically summarizes patterns of intermember relations Sociogram - A graphic representation of the patterns of intermember relations created through sociometry. In most cases each member of the group is depicted by a symbol, such as a lettered circle or square, and the types of relations among members (e.g., communication links, friendship pairings) are depicted with capped lines - A sociogram yields information about individual members, relationships between pairs of members, and the group’s overall structure. - Depending on their place in the group’s sociogram, and the number of times they are chosen by others, members can be compared and contrasted: 1. Populars, or stars, are well-liked, very popular group members with a high choice status: they are picked by many other group members 2. Unpopulars, or rejected members, are identified as disliked by many members and so their choice status is low 3. Isolates, or loners, are infrequently chosen by any group members 4. Positives, or sociables, select many others as their friends 5. Negatives select few others as their friends 6. Pairs are two people who choose each other, and so have reciprocal bonds 7. Clusters are individuals within the group who make up a subgroup, or clique RESEARCH METHODS IN GROUP DYNAMICS 1. Case Studies - One of the best ways to understand groups in general is to understand one group in particular. - Case study is an in-depth examination of one or more groups - Case study A research technique that involves examining, in as much detail as possible, the dynamics of a single group or individual Groupthink - A strong concurrence-seeking tendency that interferes with effective group decision making, identified by Irving Janis. Advantages - By focusing on a limited number of cases, researchers often provide richly detailed qualitative descriptions of naturally occurring groups. - If the groups have disbanded and researchers are relying on archival data, they need not be concerned that their research will substantially disrupt or alter naturally occurring group processes - Case studies also tend to focus on bona fide groups that are found in everyday, natural contexts Disadvantages - Researchers who use the case study method must bear in mind that the group studied may be unique, and so its dynamics say little about other groups’ dynamics. - Researchers rarely use quantitative measures of group processes when conducting case studies, so their interpretations can be influenced by their own assumptions and biases. - The essential records and artifacts may be inaccurate or unavailable to the researcher. - Case studies only imply but rarely establish causal relationships among important variables in the group under study. Bona Fide Group - A naturally occurring group (particularly when compared to an ad hoc group created by a researcher in a laboratory study), such as an audience, board of directors, club, or team 2. Experimental Studies Scapegoat An individual or group who is unfairly held responsible for a negative event and outcome; the innocent target of interpersonal hostility. Experiment A research design in which the investigator manipulates at least one variable by randomly assigning participants to two or more different conditions and measuring at least one other variable.  Independent Variable Those aspects of the situation manipulated by the researcher in an experimental study; the causal variable in a cause–effect relationship. Dependent Variable The responses of the participant measured by the researcher; the effect variable in a cause–effect relationship. Advantages - Researchers who design their experiments carefully can make inferences about the causal relationships linking variables. - If the investigators keep all variables constant except for the independent variable, and the dependent variable changes, then they can cautiously conclude that the independent variable caused the dependent variable to change. - Experiments, if properly con ducted, can therefore be used to detect causal relationships between variables (Hoyle, 2005) Disadvantages - Researchers cannot always control the situation sufficiently to manipulate the independent variable or to keep other variables constant. - To maintain control over the conditions of an experiment, researchers may end up studying closely monitored but artificial group situations. - Experimenters often work in lab oratories with ad hoc groups that are created just for the purpose of research, and these groups may differ in important ways from bona fide groups. - Although an experimenter can heighten the impact of the situation by withholding information about the study, such deception can be challenged on ethical grounds. - experiments can be conducted in the field using already existing groups, but they will almost necessarily involve the sacrifice of some degree of control and will reduce the strength of the researchers’ conclusions. - the major advantage of experimentation—the ability to draw causal inferences—can be offset by the major disadvantage of experimentation—basing conclusions on contrived situations that say little about the behavior of groups in more naturalistic set tings. 3. Correlational Studies - Researchers use correlational designs whenever they wish to know more about the relationship between variables. -  Reference Group A group or collective that individuals use as a standard or frame of reference when selecting and appraising their abilities, attitudes, or beliefs; includes groups that individuals identify with and admire and categories of noninteracting individuals Correlational Study A research design in which the investigator measures (but does not manipulate) at least two variables and then uses statistical procedures to examine the strength and direction of the relationship between these variables. Correlation Coefficient A statistic that measures the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables. Often symbolized by r, correlations can range from −1 to +1. THEORETICALPERSPECTIVES IN GROUP DYNAMICS Motivational and Emotional Perspectives Motivations are psychological mechanisms that give purpose and direction to behavior. motivation Wants, needs, and other psychological processes that energize behavior and thereby determine its form, intensity, and duration Emotions often accompany these needs and desires; feelings of happiness, sadness, satisfaction, and sorrow are just a few of the emotions that can influence how people act in group situations. The words motivation and emotion both come from the Latin word movere, meaning “to move.” Jennifer George’s (1995) theory of group affective tone takes a more emotion-focused approach to explaining group behavior. Emotion A subjective state of positive or negative affect often accompanied by a degree of arousal or activation. Group affective tone The collective emotional mood of a group. Behavioral Perspectives 1. Skinner’s behaviorism was based on two key assumptions. First, Skinner believed that psychological processes, such as motives and drives, may shape people’s reactions in groups, but he also believed that such psychological processes are too difficult to index accurately. He therefore recommended measuring and analyzing how people actually behave in a specific context rather than speculating about the psychological or interpersonal processes that may have instigated their actions.  Second, Skinner believed that most behavior was consistent with the law of effect—that is, behaviors that are followed by positive consequences, such as rewards, will occur more frequently, whereas behaviors that are followed by negative consequences will become rarer. Behaviorism A theoretical explanation of the way organisms acquire new responses to environmental stimuli through such conditioning processes as stimulus–response associations and reinforcement. 2. John Thibaut and Harold Kelley’s(1959)social exchange theory extended Skinner’s behaviorism to groups. Social Exchange Theory An economic model of inter personal relationships which argues that individuals seek out relationships that offer them many rewards while ex acting few costs. Systems Theory Perspectives - A systems theory approach assumes groups are complex, adaptive, dynamic systems of interacting individuals. - The members are the units of the system, who are coupled one to another by relationships. - Just as systems can be deliberately designed to function in a particular way, groups are sometimes created for a purpose, with procedures and standards that are designed with the overall goal of the system in mind. Systems Theory A general theoretical approach which assumes that groups are systems—collections of individual units that combine to form an integrated, complex whole. Input–Process–Output (I–P–O) Model Any one of a number of general conceptual analyses of groups that assumes group processes mediate the relationship between individual, group, and situational input variables and resulting group outcomes. Cognitive Perspectives - A group’s dynamics, in many cases, become understandable only by studying the cognitive processes that allow members to gather information, make sense of it, and then act on the results of their mental appraisals. - John Turner’s (1991, 1999) self-categorization theory, or SCT, offers a cognitive explanation for a range for group processes, including intergroup perception and stereotyping. Cognitive Process Mental processes that acquire, organize, and integrate information. Cognitive processes include memory systems that store data and the psycho logical mechanisms that process this information. Self-Categorization Theory A conceptual approach developed by John Turner and his colleagues that explains a range of group behavior, including the development of social identity and intergroup relations, in terms of the social cognitive categorization processes. Biological Perspectives - One biological perspective—evolutionary psychology—argues that these processes may be genetically determined, part of the species’ biological programming that has evolved through natural selection. - This perspective argues that in the last 15 million years, the human species has evolved so cially as well as physically. - Evolutionary psychology offers insight into a range of group processes, including affiliation, intergroup conflict, and aggression Evolutionary Psychology A biological approach to understanding behavior which assumes that recurring patterns of behavior in animals ultimately stem from evolutionary pressures that increase the likelihood of adaptive social actions and extinguish nonadaptive practices. INCLUSION AND IDENTITY FROM ISOLATION TO INCLUSION - Most theorists, when identifying the funda mental psychological processes that drive humans’ actions across a range of situations and settings, include a need to belong on their list (Maslow, 1970; Pittman & Zeigler, 2007) - All human beings, write Roy Baumeister and Mark Leary (1995, p. 497), “have a pervasive drive to form and main tain at least a minimum quantity of lasting, positive, and impactful interpersonal relationships”. The Need to Belong - Aristotle famously suggested that “Man is by nature a social animal; and an unsocial person who is un social naturally and not accidentally is either unsatisfactory or superhuman.” - Spending time alone, away from others, can be a rejuvenating, pleasurable experience - People, when surveyed about their reactions to isolation, report enjoying the self-discovery, contemplation, and increased spirituality that occurs when one is physically isolated from interactions with and observations by others (Long et al., 2003). - But even though people express a desire for privacy, most people spend the majority of their waking hours in the company of other people— only unmarried or widowed adults over the age of 45 reported spending more time alone than with others. - Americans are above average in their involvement in voluntary associations, but some countries’ citizens—the Dutch, Canadians, Scandinavians—are “groupier” still (Curtis, Baer, & Grabb, 2001). - People also satisfy their need to belong, at least temporarily, by joining in larger collectives and categories The Pain of Exclusion - The strength of the need to belong is seen even more clearly when this need is thwarted. - Most people, both young and old, find protracted periods of social isolation disturbing (Zubek,1973).  - The diaries of individuals who have been isolated from others for long periods of time (stranded explorers, scientists working in seclusion, and prisoners in solitary confinement) often stress the psychological costs of their ordeal rather than physical deprivations. - As their isolation wears on, they report fear, insomnia, memory lapses, depression, fatigue, and general confusion. - Prolonged periods of isolation are also marked by hallucinations and delusions, as when one solo sailor at sea was startled when he thought he saw a pirate steering his life raft (Burney,1961). Social Capital The degree of functional interconnected ness of a group of people thought to promote coordinated action for mutual benefit; analogous to other forms of capital, such as human or economic capital. Ostracism - People’s need to belong is slaked when a group accepts them, but they are most satisfied when a group actively seeks them out. - Excluding a person or group of people from a group, usually by ignoring, shunning, or explicitly banishing them. Fight-or-Flight Response A physiological response to stressful events characterized by the activation of the sympathetic nervous system (increased heart rate, pupil dilation) that readies the individual to counter the threat (fight) or to escape the threat (flight) Tend-and-Befriend Response An interpersonal response to stressful events characterized by increased nurturing, protective, and supportive behaviors (tending) and by seeking out connections to other people (befriending). Cyberostracism (Williams, 1997) - Groups no longer meet only in face-to-face situations but also in multi-user forums, email discussions, and game sites on the Internet. - The exclusion of one or more individuals from a technologically mediated group interaction, such as a computer-based discussion group Sociometer Theory - One of the surest ways to lower individuals’ self-esteem is to reject them. - A conceptual analysis of self-esteem proposed by Mark Leary that argues self-esteem is not an index of perceived self-worth, but instead is a psychological monitor of one’s degree of inclusion and exclusion in social groups Evolution and Inclusion in Groups The Herd Instinct - The idea that humans are instinctively drawn to gather with other humans is not a new one. - Over a century ago, William McDougall (1908) argued that humans are inexorably drawn to “the vast human herd,” which “exerts a baneful attraction on those outside it” - Humans’ capacity to introspect, to read the emotion in others’ faces, to understand the meaning of others’ vocal utterances, and even the ability to consider what future event may become more likely if a specific action is undertaken now may all reflect adaptations that were shaped by natural selection. FROM INDIVIDUALISM TO COLLECTIVISM - Palmer and Gorman personify the differences between individualism and collectivism. Individualism - A tradition, ideology, or personal outlook that emphasizes the primacy of the individual and his or her rights, independence, and relationships with other individuals. - Is based on the independence of each individual. - This perspective assumes that people are autonomous and must be free to act and think in ways that they prefer, rather than submit to the demands of the group - Each person is also unique—a true individual—and all people are encouraged to strive to achieve outcomes and goals that will personally benefit them. Collectivism - A tradition, ideology, or personal orientation that emphasizes the primacy of the group or community rather than each individual person - Recognizes that human groups are not mere aggregations of independent individuals, but complex sets of interdependent actors who must constantly adjust to the actions and reactions of others around them. - Each person, if even recognized as an independent entity, is inseparably connected to the group or community.  - Social existence is centered on group relations, for it is the group that creates social obligations based on respect, trust, and a sense of community. - People are group members first, individuals second (Lukes, 1973) Social Relations - Both individualism and collectivism recognize the human need for belonging and connection, but a collectivistic orientation puts more value on these relationships. - Collectivists feel close affinity with one another and, so, are more likely to adopt a communal orientation to their groups (Moemeka, 1998). - Collectivists, compared to individualists, have a more favorable attitude to ward group-level rewards for collective work (Haines & Taggar, 2006), and they are more likely to be corporate citizens who help coworkers rather than compete with them (Leung, 2008). - Individualists stress their superiority over others on attributes that pertain to autonomy and independence, but collectivists think of themselves as more relational and self-sacrificing than others (Sedikides, Gaertner, & Toguchi, 2003). Exchange and Communal Relations - Individualists and collectivists tend to differ in their overall conceptualization of relationships themselves, with individualism associated with the exchange of resources and collectivism focusing on sharing communal resources - Individuals in exchange relationships monitor their inputs into the group, strive to maximize the rewards they personally receive through membership, and will become dissatisfied if their group becomes too costly for them. Exchange Relationship An interpersonal association between individuals based on each person’s desire to increase the rewards they receive from others in the relationship. Communal Relationship An interpersonal association between individuals who are more concerned with what others get rather than what they themselves receive. Norm of Reciprocity A social standard that enjoins individuals to pay back in kind what they receive from others. Equity Norm A social standard that encourages distributing rewards and resources to members in proportion to their inputs. Equality Norm A social standard that encourages distributing rewards and resources equally among all members. Social Obligations Social Contract As described by Jean Jacques Rousseau, an agreement, often only implicitly recognized, that obligates the individual to support the “general will” of society as an “indivisible part of the whole.” Self-Sserving Emphasizing one’s own needs, perspective, and importance, particularly in contrast to those of other individuals or the group (egocentric). Group-Serving Emphasizing the group’s needs, perspectives, and importance, particularly in contrast to those of individual members or oneself (sociocentric). Ultimatum Game An experimental bargaining situation in which one individual, the allocator, must propose a division of a shared resource to other members; if they reject the allocator’s proposal, no one receives any of the resource. Social Self - A communal orientation is not just about relationships and obligations. As people adopt a more other-centered orientation they also change the way they think about themselves - Unique, individualistic qualities—traits, beliefs, skills, and so on—constitute the personal identity. Personal Identity The “me” component of the self concept that derives from individualistic qualities such as traits, beliefs, and skills. Social Identity (or collective self) The “we” component of the self-concept that includes all those qualities attendant to relationships with other people, groups, and society. Independent (or idiocentric) An individual who is dis positionally predisposed to put his or her own personal interests and motivations above the group’s interests and goals. Interdependent (or allocentric) An individual who is dispositionally predisposed to put the group’s goals and needs above his or her own. Optimal Distinctiveness Theory A conceptual analysis proposed by Marilyn Brewer that assumes individuals strive to maintain a balance between three basic needs: the need to be assimilated by the group, the need to be connected to friends and loved ones, and the need for autonomy and differentiation. Cultural Differences People from individualistic and collectivistic cultures even insult one another differently. Personal insults, such as “You are stupid,” characterize conflicts in individualistic cultures, whereas remarks about one’s family and group typify disputes between two collectivists (Semin & Rubini, 1990). The very idea of self may differ across cultures. In Japan, a relatively collectivistic culture, the word for self, jibun, means “one’s portion of the shared space” (Hamaguchi, 1985). To the pendent from the environment is very foreign,” as people are not perceived apart from the existing social context (Azuma, 1984, p. 973). FROMPERSONAL IDENTITY TO SOCIAL IDENTITY Social Identity Theory: The Basics Social Identity Theory A theoretical analysis of group processes and intergroup relations that assumes groups influence their members’ self-concepts and self-esteem, particularly when individuals categorize themselves as group members and identify with the group. Minimal Intergroup Situation A research procedure developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner in their studies of intergroup conflict that involved creating temporary groups of anonymous, unrelated people. Social Categorization The perceptual classification of people, including the self, into categories. Prototypes (or Stereotypes) A socially shared set of cognitive generalizations (e.g., beliefs, expectations) about the qualities and characteristics of the typical member of a particular group or social category. Self-Stereotyping (or Autostereotyping) Accepting socially shared generalizations about the prototypical characteristics attributed to members of one’s group as accurate descriptions of oneself. Social Identification Accepting the group as an extension of the self, and therefore basing one’s self-definition on the group’s qualities and characteristics.  Motivation and Social Identity Evaluating the Self - Michael Hogg (2005) suggests that at least two basic motives influence the way social categorization and identification processes combine to shape one’s sense of self: - Individuals are motivated to think well of themselves, and since their groups comprise a significant portion of their selves, they maintain their self-worth by thinking well of their groups - Hogg suggests that self-understanding is a core motive for most people, and that groups offer people a means of understanding themselves. Collective Self-Esteem A person’s overall assessment of that portion of their self-concept that is based on their relationships with others and membership in social groups. Basking in Reflected Glory (BIRGing) Seeking direct or indirect association with prestigious or successful groups or individuals. Cutting off Reflected Failure (CORFing) Distancing oneself from a group that performs poorly Ingroup–Outgroup Bias The tendency to view the in group, its members, and its products more positively than other groups, their members, and their products. Ingroup favoritism is more common than outgroup rejection. Social Creativity Restricting comparisons between the ingroup and other groups to tasks and outcomes where the ingroup is more successful than other groups and avoiding areas in which other groups surpass the ingroup.