Introduction to Group Dynamics (2) PDF

Introduction to Group Dynamics Chapter 1 Overview n n n n n What is a group? Types of groups What are some common characteristics & descriptors of groups? Group Dynamics: What assumptions guide researchers in their studies of groups and the processes within groups? What fields and what topics a...

Introduction to Group Dynamics Chapter 1 Overview n n n n n What is a group? Types of groups What are some common characteristics & descriptors of groups? Group Dynamics: What assumptions guide researchers in their studies of groups and the processes within groups? What fields and what topics are included in the scientific study of group dynamics? What is a Group? • § n n n n Definition: Two or more individuals who are connected to one another by and within social relationships. Definitions of groups vary, but they do have common characteristics (page 4) Size: dyads and triads to large collectives (this class, mobs, audiences) Connected: members are linked, networked (e.g., a task at work) - social, interpersonal connection with someone (e.g., family) Influential & purposeful What Is A Group n n n n n Billions of groups in the world – most groups tend to be relatively small (ranging from 2 to 7 members) Sociologist John James recorded the size of groups in Portland, Oregon (n = over 9000 from different settings – walking, shopping, playgrounds, etc.) and found that groups tend to gravitate to its smallest # = 2 No two groups are the same (they are unique in the characteristics – but groups do possess common characteristics Groups are beneficial, but are also flawed Not all group experiences are positive Types of Groups n n n n n Categories – a collection of people or things that share a common attribute or are related in some way Aggregate – a collection of individuals who are present in the same time and place but who do not form a unit Collective – any aggregate of 2 or more people (larger, spontaneous, and loose association) Groups and Aggregates can be psychologically fulfilling/satisfying Moving from a category/aggregate to a group Types of Groups n Cooley (1909) drew a distinction between primary and secondary groups n Types of groups: ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ Primary (intimate associates that fuses individuals in a common whole) Secondary (social groups) Planned (concocted and founded) Emergent (circumstantial and self-organizing) Types of Groups (cont’d) Type of Group Characteristics Examples Primary groups Small, long-term groups characterized by face-to-face interaction & high levels of cohesiveness, solidarity, & member identification Families, close friends, tight-knit peer groups, gangs, elite military squads Secondary groups Larger, less intimate, less commitment, more goalfocused groups typical of more complex societies Social groups such as congregations, work groups, unions, professional associations (Cooley, 1909) “What most people don’t know is that I have no relatives in Canada at all, and Tracy’s (Alex's wife) family are all in Australia,” said Baumann, “It is in these moments of life’s greatest challenges that we turn to our families for the love and support only they can provide. We missed having that support, and the tyranny of distance began to take its toll, which sparked our thinking it was time to consider leaving Canada earlier than planned.” Alex Baumann – Olympic Gold Medallist & Former CEO of Own the Podium Types of Groups (cont’d) n n n n Cartwright and Zander (1960) were reluctant to classify groups as Cooley did – underestimated the complexity of groups Planned Group – a group that is deliberately formed by its members or an external authority. Emergent Group – a group can result from basically nothing a group that is created gradually as individuals interact with the same subset of individuals. Types of Groups (cont’d) n n Arrow and her colleagues (2000) offer a more fine-grained analysis planned vs. emergent Concocted Founded Circumstantial Self-Organizing Type of Group Planned groups Concocted Founded Emergent groups Circumstantial Self-organizing Characteristics Examples Deliberately formed by the members themselves or by an external authority, usually for some specific purpose or purposes Planned by individuals or authorities outside the group. Production lines, military units, task forces, crews, professional sports teams Planned by one or more individuals Study groups, small who remain within the group businesses, clubs, associations Groups that form spontaneously as individuals find themselves repeatedly interacting with the same subset of individuals over time and settings Emergent, unplanned groups arising Waiting lines (queues), when external, situational forces set crowds, mobs, audiences, the stage for people to join together, bystanders often only temporarily, in a unified group Emerge when interacting Study groups, friendship individuals gradually align their cliques in a workplace, activities in a cooperative system of regular patrons at a bar – interdependence. Example Prof. Tony Nield Types of Groups (cont’d) n n n n Brian Lickel and colleagues presented 40 aggregates to U.S. & Polish undergraduate students Wanted to examine how participants perceived group entities and compare them with one another (known as entiativity) Used a 1 (not at all) to 9 likert scale (very much a group) on areas such as size, duration, intensity, etc. Clustered the answers Types of Groups (cont’d) Type of Group Characteristics Intimacy/Prim Small groups of moderate duration & ary groups permeability characterized by large levels of interaction amongst members, who value membership in the group Examples Families, romantic couples, close friends, street gangs Social/Task groups Work groups in employment settings and goal-focused groups in a variety of non-employment situations Teams, neighborhood associations Weak associations/ Collectives Aggregations of individuals that form spontaneously, last for brief periods, and have very permeable boundaries. Usual or unusual ways Crowds, audiences, clusters of bystanders Categories Aggregations of individuals similar to one another in terms of gender, ethnicity, religion, or nationality. Women, Asian Americans, physicians, U.S. citizens, New Yorkers What are some common characteristics of groups? n n n n n n Influence of Size Interaction: task and relationship Interdependence: sequential, reciprocal, mutual Structure: roles, norms, relations Goals: generating, choosing, negotiating, executing Perception of Membership Characteristics of Groups - Size n n n n n Group size influences the structure and features of groups Larger groups are connected to one another indirectly rather than directly (e.g., social media groups – LinkedIn) and are more permeable At times with larger groups people are connected to the group as a whole (e.g., York University) or subgroups (3430) and not directly linked to all members of the group While smaller groups have more direct ties (partners, parents, families) Connection Equation n(n-1)/2 Characteristics of Groups Interaction n n n n n n Groups are systems that create, organize, and sustain interaction among members What do people do in groups? – words, actions, instruction, support, emotions Task Interaction – actions performed by individuals pertaining to group’s tasks and goals (long term & short term) Different types of goals – process goals (e.g., discussion), performance (task), intellectual (decision making) Relationship Interaction – actions performed by the group relating to emotional and interpersonal bonds As groups increase in size the more task and relationship interaction is needed Characteristics of Groups Goals n n n Groups often strive towards common tasks/outcomes McGrath’s Circumplex Model of Group Tasks (2 dimensions – conflict/cooperation & conceptual/behavioural) 4 Quadrants specifying task performance ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ Generating – something is created/produced Choosing – selecting (from alternatives) Negotiation – group resolves conflict Executing – requires action Characteristics of Groups Interaction n n n n n n Groups are systems that create, organize, and sustain interaction among members What do people do in groups? – words, actions, instruction, support, emotions Task Interaction – actions performed by individuals pertaining to group’s tasks and goals (long term & short term) Different types of goals – process goals (e.g., discussion), performance (task), intellectual (decision making) Relationship Interaction – actions performed by the group relating to emotional and interpersonal bonds As groups increase in size the more task and relationship interaction is needed Characteristics of Groups Interdependence n n n n n n Experiences (emotions, actions, communication, etc.) are determined by other members of the group and vice versa Unilateral – one person influencing another Sequential – influence of one member to the next (flat/symmetrical or hierarchical). Reciprocal – two or more members may influence each other – relationship might be unequal Multilevel – the outcome of larger groups are influenced by the activities of smaller groups (subgroups) As groups increase in size and complexity they become more formal, subgroups form Interdependence Diagram Characteristics of Groups Structure n Groups’ structure are often organized in predictable patterns n Roles – set of behaviours expected of people who occupy certain positions n Norms – a consensual standard that describes what behaviours should and should not be performed in a given context Cohesiveness § § § Group Cohesion: the strength of the bonds linking individuals to the group Carron, Brawley, and Widmeyer (1998) defined cohesion as “a dynamic process that is reflected in the tendency of a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its instrumental objectives and/or for the satisfaction of member needs Attraction to specific group members and efforts to achieve goals More Grouplike? Donald Campbell’s Theory of Entitativity (1958) § § Entitativity is perceived groupness rather than an aggregation of independent, unrelated individuals Gestalt principles = groups are more than the some of its parts Common Fate – do individuals experience the same outcomes? Similarity – do individual perform similar behaviours or resemble one another Proximity – how close together are the individuals in the group Perception of Membership n n n n Membership – the amount someone perceives themselves to be part, or included within a group People are not part of a group unless they perceive themselves to be part of the group Thomas Theorem – if people define a group as real, then it has real consequences (W.I. Thomas, 1928) Minimal groups paradigm (Tajfel et al., 1971) – split into meaningless groups (Overestimaters vs. Underestimater of jellybeans, # of dots, etc.) – clear favouritism for their group, emotional attachment to the group Group Dynamics … the "field of inquiry dedicated to advancing knowledge about the nature of groups" (Cartwright & Zander, 1968) The influential action, processes, and changes that occur within & between groups (Forsyth, p. 2) § people subjectively have talked/written about the nature of man’s place in society for centuries § A formal field of student emerged in the late 1800s § was slow to emerge – too complex, too simplistic, too private, lack of agreement by theorists/researchers, which level of analysis? lack of assessment? § Industrial revolution, democracy, technology (led by developed countries = U.S.A.) Creating the Field n n n Group dynamics is a relatively young field – talk about for many years, yet emerged in the 1930s-1940's Rooted in many fields – psychology, sociology, anthropology, business, sport Norman Triplett (1898) – social facilitation Introduction to Group Dynamics The Nature of Groups Defining Groups The Nature…of Group a "field of inquiry Dynamics dedicated to advancing knowledge about nature of The Scientificthe Study of Groups groups" (Cartwright & Zander, 1968, p. 7). Describing Groups A Multilevel Approach to the Study of Groups Classifying Groups The Significance of Groups Perceiving Groups Topics in Contemporary Group Dynamics Group Dynamics is Dynamic The Nature of Group Dynamics Gustave le Bon, Psychologie des Foules The Scientific Study of Groups Wilhelm Wundt, Volkerpsychologie Emile Durkheim, collective consciousness Floyd Allport, group fallacy Kurt Lewin, interactionism B = f (P, E) Orientation (forming) Exchange of background personal information, uncertainty, tentative communication Tuckman’s theory of group development Conflict (storming) Dissatisfaction, disagreement, challenges to leader and procedures, cliques form Structure (norming) Cohesiveness, agreement on procedures , standards, and roles, improved communication Performance (performing) Focus on the work of the group, task completion, decision making, cooperation Dissolution (adjourning) Departures, withdrawal, decreased dependence, regret A Multilevel Approach to the Study of Groups Micro level: focus on the individual (psychological) Meso (group) level: focus on the group and social context (sociological) Macro level: focus on organizational/ community level Multi level: adopts multiple perspectives on groups The Significance of Groups Groups influence their members Groups influence society The usefulness of groups The “dark side” of groups Larger view à