Group Dynamics 7th Edition PDF

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Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  Fit your coursework into your hectic life. Make the most of your time by learning your way. Access the resources you need to succeed wherever, whenever. Gfive-step  et more from your time online with an easy-to-follow learning path. Spresentation  tay focused with an all-in-one-place, integrated of course content. Gwherever et the free MindTap Mobile App and learn you are. Break limitations. Create your own potential, and be unstoppable with MindTap. MINDTAP. POWERED BY YOU. cengage.com/mindtap Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  GROUP DYNAMICS SEVENTH EDITION Donelson R. FORSYTH University of Richmond Australia Brazil Mexico Singapore United Kingdom United States Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Group Dynamics, Seventh Edition © 2019, 2014 Cengage Learning, Inc. Donelson R. Forsyth Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage. Product Director: Marta Lee-Perriard ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright Product Manager: Star Burruto/Nedah Rose herein may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, Project Manager: Seth Schwartz except as permitted by U.S. copyright law, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Content Developer: Kendra Brown, LD Product Assistant: Leah Jenson For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Marketing Manager: Heather Thompson Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706. Digital Content Specialist: Allison Marion For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions. 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Printed in the United States of America Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2017 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  to Claire Llewellyn Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Brief Contents PREFACE xv 1 Introduction to Group Dynamics 1 2 Studying Groups 30 3 Inclusion and Identity 62 4 Formation 93 5 Cohesion and Development 126 6 Structure 156 7 Influence 192 8 Power 230 9 Leadership 264 10 Performance 301 11 Teams 338 12 Decision Making 372 13 Conflict 409 14 Intergroup Relations 444 15 Groups in Context 479 16 Growth and Change 514 17 Crowds and Collectives 545 REFERENCES 5 7 9 AUTHOR INDEX 6 6 7 SUBJECT INDEX 684 iv Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Contents PREFACE xv 1 Introduction to Group Dynamics 1 1-1 What Are Groups? 2 Defining Groups 3 Varieties of Groups 5 Characteristics of Groups 8 1-2 What Are Group Dynamics? 17 Dynamic Group Processes 17 Process and Progress over Time 19 1-3 Why Study Groups? 21 Understanding People 22 Understanding the Social World 25 Applications to Practical Problems 25 1-4 The Value of Groups 25 Chapter Review 27 Resources 29 2 Studying Groups 30 2-1 The Scientific Study of Groups 32 The Individual and the Group 32 The Multilevel Perspective 35 2-2 Measurement 37 Observation 37 Self-Report 43 2-3 Research Methods in Group Dynamics 46 Case Studies 46 Correlational Studies 47 Experimental Studies 50 Studying Groups: Issues and Implications 51 v Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  vi CONTENTS 2-4 Theoretical Perspectives 53 Motivational Perspectives 53 Behavioral Perspectives 54 Systems Perspectives 55 Cognitive Perspectives 56 Biological Perspectives 57 Selecting a Theoretical Perspective 57 Chapter Review 58 Resources 60 3 Inclusion and Identity 62 3-1 From Isolation to Inclusion 63 The Need to Belong 64 Inclusion and Exclusion 66 Inclusion and Human Nature 72 3-2 From Individualism to Collectivism 75 Creating Cooperation 76 The Social Self 79 3-3 From Personal Identity to Social Identity 83 Social Identity Theory: The Basics 83 Motivation and Social Identity 86 Chapter Review 90 Resources 92 4 Formation 93 4-1 Joining Groups 94 Personality Traits 95 Anxiety and Attachment 98 Social Motivation 100 Men, Women, and Groups 102 Attitudes, Experiences, and Expectations 103 4-2 Affiliation 105 Social Comparison 106 Stress and Affiliation 108 Social Comparison and the Self 111 4-3 Attraction 114 Principles of Attraction 114 The Economics of Membership 120 Chapter Review 122 Resources 124 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  CONTENTS vii 5 Cohesion and Development 126 5-1 Sources of Cohesion 127 Social Cohesion 128 Task Cohesion 130 Collective Cohesion 131 Emotional Cohesion 132 Structural Cohesion 134 Assumptions and Assessments 136 5-2 Developing Cohesion 137 Theories of Group Development 137 Five Stages of Development 137 Cycles of Development 142 5-3 Consequences of Cohesion 144 Member Satisfaction and Adjustment 144 Group Dynamics and Influence 145 Group Productivity 146 5-4 Application: Explaining Initiations 148 Cohesion and Initiations 149 Hazing 151 Chapter Review 153 Resources 155 6 Structure 156 6-1 Norms 158 The Nature of Social Norms 158 The Development of Norms 159 The Transmission of Norms 161 Application: Norms and Health 162 6-2 Roles 164 The Nature of Social Roles 164 Role Theories 166 Bale’s SYMLOG Model 170 Group Socialization 172 Role Stress 175 6-3 Intermember Relations 178 Status Relations 178 Attraction Relations 180 Communication Relations 182 6-4 Application: Social Network Analysis 185 Mapping Social Networks 185 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  viii CONTENTS Applying Social Network Analysis 187 Chapter Review 188 Resources 190 7 Influence 192 7-1 Majority Influence: The Power of the Many 194 Conformity and Independence 194 Conformity or Independence 196 Conformity across Contexts 197 Who Will Conform? 202 7-2 Minority Influence: The Power of the Few 205 Conversion Theory of Minority Influence 205 Predicting Minority Influence 206 Dynamic Social Impact Theory 208 7-3 Sources of Group Influence 210 Implicit Influence 211 Informational Influence 212 Normative Influence 213 Interpersonal Influence 215 When Influence Inhibits: The Bystander Effect 218 7-4 Application: Understanding Juries 220 Jury Dynamics 220 How Effective Are Juries? 223 Improving Juries 224 Chapter Review 226 Resources 228 8 Power 230 8-1 Obedience to Authority 231 The Milgram Experiments 231 Milgram’s Findings 233 The Power in the Milgram Situation 236 8-2 Social Power in Groups 238 Bases of Power 238 Bases and Obedience 243 Power Tactics 243 8-3 Social Status in Groups 246 Claiming Status 247 Achieving Status 249 Status Hierarchies and Stability 251 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  CONTENTS ix 8-4 The Metamorphic Effects of Power 253 Changes in the Powerholder 253 Reactions to the Use of Power 257 Who Is Responsible? 260 Chapter Review 261 Resources 263 9 Leadership 264 9-1 Leading Groups 265 Leadership Defined 266 What Do Leaders Do? 268 Leadership Emergence 270 The Leader’s Traits 271 Intellectual and Practical Skills 274 The Leader’s Look 276 9-2 Theories of Leadership Emergence 278 Implicit Leadership Theory 278 Social Identity Theory 282 Social Role Theory 282 Terror Management Theory 283 Evolutionary Theory 284 9-3 Leader Effectiveness 285 Styles and Situations 285 Leader–Member Exchange Theory 289 Participation Theories 291 Transformational Leadership 294 The Future of Leadership 295 Chapter Review 297 Resources 299 10 Performance 301 10-1 Social Facilitation 303 Performance in the Presence of Others 303 Why Does Social Facilitation Occur? 306 Conclusions and Applications 310 10-2 Social Loafing 313 The Ringelmann Effect 313 Causes of and Cures for Social Loafing 315 The Collective Effort Model 318 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  x CONTENTS 10-3 Working in Groups 320 The Process Model of Group Performance 320 Additive Tasks 322 Compensatory Tasks 322 Disjunctive Tasks 324 Conjunctive Tasks 326 Discretionary Tasks 328 Process Gains in Groups 328 10-4 Group Creativity 330 Brainstorming 330 Improving Brainstorming 332 Alternatives to Brainstorming 333 Chapter Review 335 Resources 337 11 Teams 338 11-1 Working Together in Teams 339 What Is a Team? 340 When to Work in Teams 340 Varieties of Teams 342 A Systems Model of Teams 346 11-2 Input: Building the Team 347 The Team Player 348 Knowledge, Skill, and Ability (KSA) 350 Diversity 352 Men, Women, and Teams 354 11-3 Process: Working in Teams 356 Interlocking Interdependence 357 Coordinated Interaction 358 Compelling Purpose 360 Adaptive Structures 360 Cohesive Alliance 361 11-4 Output: Team Performance 364 Evaluating Teams 364 Suggestions for Using Teams 366 Chapter Review 368 Resources 370 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  CONTENTS xi 12 Decision Making 372 12-1 The Decision-Making Process 373 Orientation 375 Discussion 377 The Difficulty of Discussion 380 Making the Decision 382 Implementation 384 12-2 Decisional Biases 387 Judgmental Biases 387 The Shared Information Bias 390 Group Polarization 392 12-3 Victims of Groupthink 395 Symptoms of Groupthink 396 Defective Decision Making 399 Causes of Groupthink 399 The Emergence of Groupthink 400 Alternative Models 402 Preventing Groupthink 403 Chapter Review 405 Resources 408 13 Conflict 409 13-1 The Roots of Conflict 411 Winning: Conflict and Competition 411 Sharing: Conflict over Resources 417 Controlling: Conflict over Power 421 Working: Task and Process Conflict 422 Liking and Disliking: Relationship Conflict 423 13-2 Confrontation and Escalation 424 Uncertainty ! Commitment 425 Perception ! Misperception 426 Soft Tactics ! Hard Tactics 426 Reciprocity ! Retaliation 429 Irritation ! Anger 429 Few ! Many 430 13-3 Conflict Resolution 431 Commitment ! Negotiation 431 Misperception ! Understanding 433 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  xii CONTENTS Hard Tactics ! Cooperative Tactics 434 Retaliation ! Forgiveness 436 Anger ! Composure 437 Many ! Few 437 The Value of Conflict: Redux 438 Chapter Review 440 Resources 442 14 Intergroup Relations 444 14-1 Intergroup Conflict: Us versus Them 447 Competition and Conflict 447 Power and Domination 450 Intergroup Aggression 452 Norms and Conflict 454 Evolutionary Perspectives 455 14-2 Intergroup Bias: Perceiving Us and Them 457 Conflict and Categorization 457 The Ingroup–Outgroup Bias 458 Cognitive Biases 459 Stereotype Content Model 461 Exclusion and Dehumanization 462 Categorization and Identity 465 14-3 Intergroup Conflict Resolution: Uniting Us and Them 466 Intergroup Contact 466 Cognitive Cures for Conflict 470 Learning to Cooperate 473 Resolving Conflict: Conclusions 475 Chapter Review 475 Resources 477 15 Groups in Context 479 15-1 Places 481 A Sense of Place 482 Stressful Places 485 Dangerous Places 488 15-2 Spaces 489 Personal Space 489 Reactions to Spatial Invasion 492 Seating Arrangements 495 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  CONTENTS xiii 15-3 Locations 497 Types of Territoriality 498 Group Territories 499 Territoriality in Groups 502 15-4 Workspaces 506 The Person–Place Fit 506 Fitting Form to Function 508 Chapter Review 510 Resources 512 16 Growth and Change 514 16-1 Growth and Change in Groups 515 Therapeutic Groups 516 Interpersonal Learning Groups 521 Support Groups 525 16-2 Sources of Support and Change 527 Universality and Hope 527 Social Learning 530 Group Cohesion 532 Disclosure and Catharsis 534 Altruism 535 Insight 535 16-3 The Effectiveness of Groups 536 Empirical Support for Group Treatments 536 Using Groups to Cure: Cautions 539 The Value of Groups 541 Chapter Review 541 Resources 544 17 Crowds and Collectives 545 17-1 Collectives: Forms and Features 547 What Are Collectives? 547 Gatherings 550 Crowds 552 Mobs 554 Panics 555 Collective Movements 558 Social Movements 560 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  xiv CONTENTS 17-2 Collective Dynamics 563 Contagion 563 Convergence 565 Deindividuation 566 Emergent Norms 570 Social Identity 571 17-3 Collectives Are Groups 572 The Myth of the Madding Crowd 573 Studying Groups and Collectives 575 Chapter Review 576 Resources 578 REFERENCES 579 AUTHOR INDEX 667 SUBJECT INDEX 684 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Preface W elcome to the study of groups and their dynamics. The theories, research findings, definitions, case studies, examples, tables, and figures that fill this book’s pages have just one purpose: to describe and explain all things related to people and their groups. Why do we join groups? What holds a group together? Do our groups change over time? How do groups influence us and how do we influence them? When does a group become a team? Why do some groups get so little done? What causes conflict in and between groups? What are groups, and what are their essential qualities? These are just a few of the questions asked, explored, and answered in Group Dynamics. Understanding people—why they think, feel, and act the way they do— requires understanding their groups. Human behavior is so often group behavior that people must be studied in context—embedded in their families, friendship cliques, teams, organizations, and so on—rather than in isolation. Understanding the social world—its politics, institutions, cultures, and conflicts—also requires understanding the intersecting and continually interacting groups that form soci- ety. Understanding yourself—why you think, feel, and act the way you do in any given situation—also requires understanding groups. In groups you define and confirm your values and beliefs and take on or refine your identity. When you face uncertain situations, you gain reassuring information about your problems and security in companionship in groups. You are most who you are when you are with others in groups. Understanding groups is also eminently practical. Much of the world’s work is done by groups and teams, so efficiency, achievement, and progress—success itself— depend on understanding the strengths and weaknesses of groups. Productivity in the workplace, problem-solving in the boardroom, learning in the classroom, and even therapeutic change—all depend on group-level processes. Groups, too, hold the key to solving such societal problems as racism, sexism, and international conflict. Any attempt to change society will succeed only if the groups within that society change. FEATURES This book is about groups, but it is not based on experts’ opinions or common- sense assumptions. It offers, instead, a scientific analysis that draws on theory and research from any and all disciplines that study groups. The book reviews xv Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  xvi PREFACE hundreds of theories and thousands of empirical studies that test those theories, all in an attempt to better understand what makes groups tick. Organization: The chapters progress from basic issues and processes to the analysis of more specialized topics. The first two chapters consider questions of definition, history, and methods, and they are followed by chapters dealing with group formation, cohesion, development, and structure. The book then turns to issues of influence and productivity in groups and teams, before examining groups in specific contexts. The order of chapters, however, is somewhat arbitrary, and many may prefer a different sequence. Cases: Each chapter begins with a description of one specific group and its processes. These cases are not just mentioned at the start of the chapter and then forgotten, but are used throughout the chapter to illustrate theoretical concepts, define terms, and explore empirical implications. All the cases are or were real groups rather than hypothetical ones, and the incidents described are documented events that occurred within the group (although some literary license was taken for the case used to illustrate the dynamics of juries). Citations and names: This analysis is based on the work of thousands of researchers, scholars, and students who have explored intriguing but unex- plained aspects of groups and their dynamics. Their influence is acknowledged by citations that include their names and the date of the publication of the research report or book. In some cases, too, the researcher or theorist is identified in the text itself, and those citations identify his or her discipline, first name, and last name. Terms, outlines, summaries, and readings: The text is reader-friendly and includes a number of pedagogical features, including a running glossary, chapter outline, detailed chapter summary, and suggested readings. The approximately 500 key concepts, when first introduced, are set in boldface type and defined at the bottom of the page. The first page of each chapter asks several questions examined in that chapter and also outlines the chap- ter’s contents. Each chapter uses three levels of headings, and ends with an outline summary and a list of sources to consult for more information. CHANGES FROM THE SIXTH EDITION This book follows in the footsteps of such classic works as Marvin Shaw’s Group Dynamics: The Psychology of Groups (1978), Paul Hare’s Handbook of Small Group Research (1976), and Dorwin Cartwright and Alvin Zander’s Group Dynamics (1968). But when those books were written, nearly all of the research on groups was conducted by psychologists and sociologists who mostly studied ad hoc groups working in laboratory settings. Now, nearly every science has something to say about groups, teams, and their dynamics. And not just anthropology, com- munication, education, management and organizational behavior, and political Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  PREFACE xvii science, but also legal studies, biology, and even physics offer insights into issues of group formation, process, and function. As the study of groups continues to thrive intellectually and scientifically, new findings are emerging to explain cohe- sion, conformity, development, identity, networks, justice, leadership, online groups, multicultural groups, negotiation, power, social comparison, hierarchy, and teams. This edition strives to summarize the current state of scientific research in the field. Changes to this edition include the following: Updating and clarification of the content: The book remains a research-oriented examination of group-level processes, within the psychological and socio- logical traditions. Topics such as influence, leadership, and cohesion are examined in detail, but so are emerging areas of interest, such as multilevel analyses, group composition and diversity, multiteam systems, social net- works, neural mechanisms, and new interpretations of classic studies (e.g., the Milgram experiments). Depth of coverage and engagement: To increase readability and engagement, each chapter has been revised to reduce its length, to improve the flow, and to increase clarity. High-interest material is presented in focus boxes, and each chapter includes self-assessment exercises that ask readers to apply chapter concepts to themselves and their groups. Increased focus on interdisciplinary work in the study of groups: Since many disci- plines study groups and their processes, the text continues to expand its coverage to draw on all fields that investigate groups and teams (e.g., team science, behavioral economics, and social network analysis), but grounds newer findings in foundational theories and methods. Both theory and application are amplified: Research findings are examined in detail, but when possible these findings are organized by more general theoretical principles. Given the use of groups in organizational, political, military, and industrial settings, the text examines such applied topics as team performance, productivity, leadership, and conflict. MINDTAP MindTap®, a digital teaching and learning solution, helps students be more successful and confident in the course—and in their work with clients. MindTap guides students through the course by combining the complete textbook with interactive multimedia, activities, assessments, and learning tools. Readings and activities engage students in learning core concepts, practicing needed skills, reflecting on their attitudes and opinions, and applying what they learn. Instructors can rearrange and add content to per- sonalize their MindTap course, and easily track students’ progress with real- time analytics. And, MindTap integrates seamlessly with any learning man- agement system. Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  xviii PREFACE INSTRUCTOR SUPPLEMENTS The instructor companion website (www.cengage.com/login) contains everything you need for your course in one place. Download chapter PowerPoint® presentations and the instructor’s manual. Access Cengage Learning Testing, powered by Cognero®, a flexible, online system that allows you to import, edit, and manipulate content from the text’s test bank or elsewhere—including your own favorite test questions—and create multiple test versions in an instant. For more information about these supplements, contact your Learning Consultant. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Most things in this world are accomplished by groups rather than by single indi- viduals working alone. This book is no exception. Although I am personally responsible for the ideas presented in this book, one group after another helped me along the way. The scientists who study groups deserve much of the credit, for this book summarizes the results of their intellectual work. Within that group, too, a subgroup of experts provided specific comments and suggestions, including Kevin Cruz, University of Richmond; Verlin Hinsz, North Dakota State University; Steve Karau, Southern Illinois University; Norb Kerr, Michigan State University; Glenn Littlepage, Middle Tennessee State University; Cheri Marmarosh, George Washington University; Scott Tindale, Loyola University; Chris von Rueden, University of Richmond; and Gwen Wittenbaum, Michigan State University. My colleagues and students at the University of Richmond also helped me fine tune my analyses of groups. The members of the production teams at Cengage and at Lumina Datamatics also deserve special thanks for their capable efforts. Kendra J. Brown, in particular, provided continual guidance as the manuscript was transformed into a published book. I have been lucky to have been part of many wonderful groups in my lifetime. But one group—that small coterie of Claire, David, Rachel, and Don—deserves far more than just acknowledgment. So, thanks as always to the best of all groups, my family, for their love and support. —Donelson R. Forsyth, Midlothian, Virginia Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Introduction to Group Dynamics C H A PTER 1 CHAPTER OVERVIEW CHAPTER OUTLINE Groups come in all shapes and sizes and their pur- 1-1 What Are Groups? poses are many and varied, but their influence is 1-1a Defining Groups universal. The tendency to join with others in 1-1b Varieties of Groups groups is perhaps the single most important char- acteristic of humans, and the processes that unfold 1-1c Characteristics of Groups within these groups leave an indelible imprint on 1-2 What Are Group Dynamics? their members and on society. Yet, groups remain 1-2a Dynamic Group Processes something of a mystery: unstudied at best, misun- 1-2b Process and Progress over Time derstood at worst. This investigation into the nature of groups begins by answering two funda- 1-3 Why Study Groups? mental questions: What is a group and what are 1-3a Understanding People group dynamics? 1-3b Understanding the Social World What are groups? 1-3c Applications to Practical Problems What are the four basic types of groups? 1-4 The Value of Groups What distinguishes one group from another? Chapter Review What are group dynamics? Resources Why study groups and their dynamics? 1 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  2 CHAPTER 1 The Adventure Expedition: Groups and Their Dynamics On May 10, 1996, just after midnight, the members The Adventure Expedition broke that rule. The of the Adventure Consultants Guided Expedition most experienced climbers reached the summit by early crawled from tents pitched high on Mt. Everest to afternoon, but other group members continued their begin the final leg of their journey to the top of the dogged ascent well after caution demanded they turn world. The group included ten clients who had paid around. Many of them suffered from oxygen depriva- hefty sums to join the expedition; guides who set the tion, for the atmosphere above 24,000 feet is so thin climbing lines, carried provisions, and helped climbers that most hikers breathe from tanks of compressed air. along the way; and Rob Hall, the team’s leader. Hall Even these supplements cannot counteract the exhaus- was one of the most experienced high-altitude clim- tion that comes of climbing treacherous, ice-coated bers in the world; he had scaled Everest four times terrain, and many suffered from confused thinking, before. nausea, and dizziness. Yet, they may still have managed The climb to the summit of Mt. Everest is a care- to climb to safety had it not been for the storm—a fully orchestrated undertaking. Teams begin the rogue blizzard with 60-knot winds that cut the climbers ascent in the middle of the night to reach the peak off from camp and any hope of rescue. When the storm and return in a single day. But if their progress up the lifted the next day, four members of the Adventure mountain is too slow, even a midnight departure is not Expedition were dead. The victims included two clients early enough to get them up to the top and back (Douglas Hansen and Yasuko Nanba), a guide (Andrew down safely. So groups typically establish and adhere Harris), and the group’s leader (Rob Hall). Hall guaran- to the turnaround rule: If you have not reached the teed his clients that they would reach the top of the summit by 2 PM—at the very latest—your group must mountain and return safely; he could not keep that turn back. promise (Krakauer, 1997). Groups are and always will be essential to human work, to the very large groups of people with life. Across all cultures and eras we have lived, whom we share an important quality that creates worked, thrived, and died in our families, tribes, a psychological bond between us all. Given we communes, communities, and clans. Our ancestors spend our entire lives getting into, getting out of, protected themselves from dangers and disasters by and taking part in groups, it’s best to not ignore joining together in groups. Early civilizations—the them. Even better, it’s best to understand them: Aztecs, Persians, Greeks, and Romans—organized to recognize their key features, to study the psycho- their societies by forming legions, assemblies, pub- logical and interpersonal processes that continually lics, legislative bodies, and trade associations. For shape and reshape them, and to learn ways to help time immemorial, people have gathered for civic them function effectively. and religious purposes, including worship, celebra- tions, and festivals. So why study these groups? The answer is not 1-1 WHAT ARE GROUPS? complicated: Groups hold the secret to the universe—the human universe, at any rate. The Fish swimming in synchronized unison are called a rare individual—the prisoner in solitary confine- school. A gathering of kangaroos is a mob. A three- ment, the recluse, the castaway—is isolated from some of crows cawing from their perch on a tele- all groups, but most of us belong to all manner of phone wire is a murder. A gam is a group of whales. groups: from our small, close-knit groups such as A flock of larks in flight is an exaltation (Lipton, families or very close friends to larger groups of 1991). But what is a collection of human beings associates and colleagues at school or where we called? A group. Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  INTRODUCTION TO GROUP DYNAMICS 3 What Groups Do You Belong To? Some may bemoan the growing alienation of Interpretation: Did you include your family? individuals from the small social groups that once The people you work or study with? How about linked them securely to society-at-large, but the sin- your roommates, housemates, or classmates? All of gle man or woman who has no connection to other the people you have friended on Facebook? How men and women is an extraordinarily rare human about people of your sex, race, and citizenship being. and those who share your political beliefs? Are African American men, Canadians, and Republicans Instructions: Most people belong to dozens of groups? Are you in a romantic relationship? groups, but we can become so accustomed to them Did you include you and your partner on your list that their influence on us goes unnoticed. Before of groups? Some people’s lists are longer than reading further, make a list (written or mental) of all others, but a list of 40 or more groups would not the groups to which you belong. be unusual. 1-1a Defining Groups evidenced by the criteria of gesticulation, laughter, smiles, talk, play or work” (James, 1951, p. 475). The Adventure Expedition was, in many respects, a He recorded pedestrians walking down the city unique collection of people facing an enormous streets, people shopping, children on playgrounds, challenge. Rob Hall, its leader, deliberately created public gatherings at sports events and festivals, patrons the group by recruiting its 26 members: climbers, during the intermissions at plays and entering movie guides, cooks, medical staff, and so on. Its members theaters, and various types of work crews and teams. were united in their pursuit of a shared goal, as is so Most of these groups were small, usually with only often the case with groups, but some of the members two or three members, but groups that had been put their own personal needs above those of the deliberately created for some specific purpose, such group. The members not only interacted with each as the leadership team of a company, tended to be other face-to-face in a physical space, but they also larger. His findings, and the results of studies con- used technology to communicate with one another ducted in other settings (e.g., cafeterias, businesses), and with people who were not part of the team. But suggest that groups tend to “gravitate to the smallest Adventure Expedition, although unique in many size, two” (Hare, 1976, p. 215; Jorgenson & Dukes, ways, was nonetheless a group: two or more individuals 1976; Ruef, Aldrich, & Carter, 2003). who are connected by and within social relationships. Two or More Individuals Groups come in a stag- Who Are Connected Definitions of the word gering assortment of shapes and sizes, from dyads (two group are as varied as groups themselves, but a com- members) and triads (three members) to huge crowds, monality shared by many of these definitions is an mobs, and assemblies (Simmel, 1902). Sociologist emphasis on social relations that link members to one John James was so intrigued by the variation in the another. Three persons working on math problems size of groups that he took to the streets of Eugene in separate rooms can hardly be considered a group; and Portland, Oregon, to record the size of the 9,129 they are not connected to each other in any way. If, groups he encountered there. He defined a group to however, we create relationships between them— be two or more people in “face-to-face interaction as for example, we let them send notes to each other or we pick one person to distribute the problems to the others—then these three individuals can be con- group Two or more individuals who are connected by sidered a rudimentary group. Neither would we call and within social relationships. people who share some superficial similarity, such as Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  4 CHAPTER 1 eye color, a favorite football team, or birth date, based on task-related interdependencies. In some group members for we expect them to be connected groups, members are friends, but in others, the to each other in socially meaningful ways. A family is members are linked by common interests or experi- a group because the members are connected, not just ences. Nor are the relationships linking members by blood but also by social and emotional relation- equally strong or enduring. Some relationships, ships. Adventure Expedition was a group because like the links between members of a family or a the members were linked by the tasks that they clique of close friends, are tenacious, for they have completed collectively and by friendships, alliances, developed over time and are based on a long history responsibilities, and inevitable antagonisms. of mutual influence and exchange. In others, the ties between members may be so fragile that they By and Within Social Relations The relations are easily severed. Every individual member of the that link the members of groups are not of one group does not need to be linked to every other type. In families, for example, the relationships are person in the group. In the Adventure Expedition based on kinship, but in the workplace, they are group, for example, some people were liked by all What Is a Group? No one definition can capture the many nuances of the and perceive themselves to be in a group” (Pen- word group. Some definers stress the importance of nington, 2002, p. 3). communication or mutual dependence. Still others sug- Relations: “Individuals who stand in certain rela- gest that a shared purpose or goal is what turns a mere tions to each other, for example, as sharing a aggregate of individuals into a bona fide group. Even the common purpose or having a common intention- minimal number of members needed for a true group is ality, or acting together, or at least having a debated, with some definitions requiring three members common interest” (Gould, 2004, p. 119). but others only two (Moreland, 2010; Williams, 2010). Shared identity: “Two or more people possessing Categorization: “Two or more individuals … a common social identification and whose exis- [who] perceive themselves to be members of the tence as a group is recognized by a third party” same social category” (Turner, 1982, p. 15). (Brown, 2000, p. 19). Communication: “Three or more people … who (a) Shared tasks and goals: “Three or more people think of themselves as a group, (b) are interdepen- who work together interdependently on an dent (e.g., with regard to shared goals or behaviors agreed-upon activity or goal” (Keyton, 2002, p. 5). that affect one another), and (c) communicate Size: “Two or more people” (Williams, 2010, p. 269). (interact) with one another (via face-to-face or tech- Social unit: “Persons who recognize that they nological means)” (Frey & Konieczka, 2010, p. 317). constitute a meaningful social unit, interact on Influence: “Two or more persons who are inter- that basis, and are committed to that social unity” acting with one another in such a manner that (Fine, 2012, p. 21; Kerr & Tindale, 2014). each person influences and is influenced by each other person” (Shaw, 1981, p. 454). Structure: “A social unit which consists of a number of individuals who stand in (more or less) definite Interdependence: “A dynamic whole based on status and role relationships to one another and interdependence rather than similarity” (Lewin, which possesses a set of values or norms of its own 1948, p. 184). regulating the behavior of individual members, at Interrelations: “An aggregation of two or more least in matters of consequence to the group” people who are to some degree in dynamic inter- (Sherif & Sherif, 1956, p. 144). relation with one another” (McGrath, 1984, p. 8). Systems: “An intact social system, complete with Psychological significance: “A psychological group boundaries, interdependence for some shared is any number of people who interact with each purpose, and differentiated member roles” other, are psychologically aware of each other, (Hackman & Katz, 2010, p. 1210). Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  INTRODUCTION TO GROUP DYNAMICS 5 Groups Primary groups Social groups Collectives Categories Families, close Men, Asian Coworkers, Audiences, friends, small Americans, teams, crews, queues, mobs, combat squads New Yorkers, study groups, crowds, social (fireteams), doctors, task forces, etc. movements, etc. etc. Britons, etc. F I G U R E 1.1 A fourfold taxonomy of groups and examples of each type. the other group members, but others had only a groups profoundly influence the behavior, feel- few friends in the group. In some cases, such as ings, and judgments of their members, for mem- groups based on ethnicity, race, or gender, the bers spend much of their time interacting with connection linking members may be more psycho- one another, usually in face-to-face settings with logical than interpersonal. But no matter what the many of the other members present. Even when nature of the relations, a group exists when some the group is dispersed, members nonetheless feel type of bond links the members to one another and they are still “in” the group, and they consider to the group itself (Bosse & Coughlan, 2016). the group to be a very important part of their lives. In many cases, individuals become part of primary 1-1b Varieties of Groups groups involuntarily: Every member of Adventure No one knows for certain how many groups exist at Expedition was born into a family that provided this moment, but given the number of people on the for their well-being until they could venture out planet and their groupish proclivities, 30 billion is a to join other groups. Other primary groups form conservative estimate. Groups are so numerous that when people interact in significant, meaningful the differences among them are as noteworthy as ways for a prolonged period of time. For exam- their similarities. Figure 1.1 brings some order to this ple, and unlike Adventure Expedition, some challenging miscellany by distinguishing between four climbing teams have summited so many moun- types of groups: primary groups, social groups, collec- tains on so many expeditions that these groups tives, and categories. are more like families than expeditions. They “continue, with more or less the same people in Primary Groups Sociologist Charles Horton them, for a very long time” (McGrath, 1984, Cooley (1909) labeled the small, intimate clusters p. 43), and affect the members’ lives in significant of close associates, such as families, good friends, and enduring ways. They are broad rather than or cliques of peers, primary groups. These limited in their scope. Cooley (1909) considered such groups to be primary because they transform individuals into primary group A small, long-term group characterized social beings. Primary groups protect members by frequent interaction, solidarity, and high levels of inter- from harm, care for them when they are ill, dependence among members that substantially influences and provide them with shelter and sustenance, the attitudes, values, and social outcomes of its members. but as Cooley explained, they also create the Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  6 CHAPTER 1 connection between the individual and society clubs, secretarial pools, congregations, study groups, at large: guilds, task forces, committees, and meetings, are extremely common (Schofer & Longhofer, 2011). They are primary in several senses, but chiefly When surveyed, 35.7% of Americans reported they in that they are fundamental in forming belonged to some type of religious group (e.g., a the social nature and ideals of the individual. congregation) and 20.0% said they belonged to a The result of intimate association, psycho- sports team or club. The majority, ranging from logically, is a certain fusion of individualities 50% to 80%, reported doing things in groups, such in a common whole, so that one’s very as attending a sports event together, visiting one self, for many purposes at least, is the another for the evening, sharing a meal together, common life and purpose of the group. or going out as a group to see a movie (Putnam, Perhaps the simplest way of describing this 2000). People could dine, watch movies, and travel wholeness is by saying that it is a “we.” singly, but most do not: They prefer to perform (Cooley, 1909, p. 23) these activities in social groups. Americans are above average in their involvement in voluntary asso- Social (Secondary) Groups In earlier eras, peo- ciations, but some countries’ citizens—the Dutch, ple lived most of their lives in primary groups that Canadians, Scandinavians—are groupier still (Curtis, were clustered together in relatively small tribes or Baer, & Grabb, 2001). communities. But, as societies became more com- plex, so did our groups. We began to associate with Collectives Some groups come into existence a wider range of people in less intimate, more pub- when people are drawn toget