GE 217 Science, Technology and Society Past Paper PDF

## GE 217 Science, Technology and Society ### Module 1: General Concepts and Historical Developments #### Lesson 2 #### Historical antecedents of S&T **Introduction** This lesson will discuss how the developments in science and technology has impacted the social, cultural, political and economic...

## GE 217 Science, Technology and Society ### Module 1: General Concepts and Historical Developments #### Lesson 2 #### Historical antecedents of S&T **Introduction** This lesson will discuss how the developments in science and technology has impacted the social, cultural, political and economic contexts throughout history. An antecedent is a thing that comes before something else - therefore, we will be studying the beginnings of the things that are existing today. The statement "Necessity is the mother of invention" inevitably requires an author of the necessity. That would be humanity itself. Throughout history man is the recipient as well as the author of the scientific and technological developments. If the present generation will know and understand how the past generations had influenced and were influential in the development of S&T, then they will be prudent decision-makers for the proper applications of S&T. Succinct indeed is the quotation from our beloved national hero “Ang hindi marunong lumingon sa pinanggalingan ay hindi makakarating sa paroroonan.” - Jose Rizal **Learning Outcomes** At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Explain the nature of S&T 2. Discuss the historical antecedents of S&T across time; and 3. Explain how S&T affected the society and environment and vice versa. To better appreciate the importance of S&T, Laconsay-Agsalud (2012) made the following statements on their nature and root functions: * **Technology** is that form of human activity that is devoted to the production of technics - or technic-related intellectual products – and whose root function is to expand the realm of practical possibilities. * **Science** is that form of human activity which is devoted to the production of theory-related knowledge of natural phenomena and whose root function is to attain an enhanced understanding of nature. ### The nature and historical antecedent of science **Introduction** The first undertaking by the first scientists (philosophers of nature) towards understanding the natural world was to name and classify the objects found in nature. **Activity 2.1. In the beginning...** It has been said that science is as old as the world itself. Could the biblical account of creation in Genesis 2:8-9, 19-20 support this claim? * Genesis 2:8 And the LORD God planted a garden eastward in Eden; And there he put the man whom he had formed. * Genesis 2:9 And out of the ground made the LORD God to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight, and good for food; the tree of life also in the midst of the garden, and the tree of knowledge of good and evil. * Genesis 2:19 And out of the ground the LORD God formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air; and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof. * Genesis 2:20 And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field; This being the case, can it be rightly claimed that Adam was the first scientist? **Let's think about it!** If Adam is the first scientist, what kind of scientist was he - * a) a taxonomist? Describe briefly how he went about his task as a taxonomist. * b) a botanist? Describe briefly how he went about his task as a botanist. * c) a zoologist? Describe briefly how he went about his task as a zoologist. Then he must be and incredible one, because he is all of the kinds – taxonomist, botanist, zoologist, and more – in one. **Let's do it!** **Abstraction** Contrary to the common belief that science and religion are mutually exclusive, there is much science in the Bible. Let us take a very common example - circumcision: * Gen 17:12 And he that is eight days old shall be circumcised among you, every man child in your generations, he that is born in the house, or bought with money of any stranger, which is not of thy seed. Why did God specifically instruct the Israelites to perform circumcision on the 8th day? The scientific explanation for this practice is explained in this video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V3e1MYLQdP4. Modern science has recently found out that there is least bleeding on the 8th day after birth due to the presence of vitamin K. **Want to know more?** There are several modern scientific findings that support Bible facts. A few of them are discussed in the video "6 Amazing Scientific facts of the Bible" https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EvOWr83qYk0. The video discusses specifically the blood as the liquid of life, sanitation practices, understanding germs, ship engineering, quarantine, and food regulations. For a more comprehensive collection of recent scientific findings explaining Biblical accounts could be found in the Bible-Science Guy Blog (https://biblescienceguy.wordpress.com/contents/). So what does it take to make science? What does it take to become a scientist? How do scientists generate new knowledge? As discussed in the previous lesson, we use the scientific method to acquire knowledge of the natural world. Recall that the five key descriptors for the scientific method are: empirical, replicable, provisional, objective and systematic (https://sciencing.com/five-characteristics-scientific-method-10010518.html). Whenever a scientist notices something unusual, he observes it systematically - employing the scientific method. But can all present observable events be studied repeatedly in the controlled conditions of the laboratory? Can we conduct experiments in the laboratory to explain how the Grand Canyon was formed? This particularly case is a historical phenomenon which obviously defies experimentation. So how could the pursuit of knowledge be achieved? We must therefore recognize that there are two categories of science that would take care of these differing circumstances: operation (experimental) science and origins (historical) science. The following discussion on these categories is taken from the video entitled "Evolution, creation and religion" (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DcQcyEl1 ho). Operation or experimental science is that what has been described above. In fact, if experiments continue to be successful in testing the predictive power of hypothesis, then there might be enough amount of scientific evidence to back up the hypothesis to the degree that it eventually becomes accepted as scientific theory. Origins (historical) science, on the other hand, use reliable eyewitness testimony (if ever available) and observable evidence to determine the past, unobservable, unrepeatable event(s) which produced the observable evidence we see in the present. So, if we are investigating the Grand Canyon, we would be asking what happened in the past to produce the mile-deep rock layers causing the formation of the huge hole on the ground. Since we cannot design and perform experiments to investigate this specific phenomenon, we have to use the evidence of the present to reconstruct the events of the past. Under this category belongs geology, palaeontology, archaeology, cosmogony, and criminal investigation (forensics). Both the operational and origins scientists have assumptions way before they will embark on any investigation. These assumptions will determine which data or facts may be considered relevant to the study, as well as how things are viewed and finally, how they are interpreted. Thus, even if the same data is presented to both scientists, they will be analyzed and interpreted differently because of the different lenses through which the data are viewed. Maybe we can better understand this idiosyncrasy if we consider the very common situation, usually presented in psychology and philosophy classes: the case of the half-full or the half-empty glass. Simply explained, it could just be a matter of optimistic and pessimistic view. However, is it not amazing that this seemingly simple situation has been viewed from several perspectives as shown below: **The glass half-full or half-empty: College Major Edition** * **Psychology:** How does this glass of water make you feel? * **Human Nutrition:** There isn't enough water for a person's daily needs * **Engineering:** This glass has 50% overall inefficiency * **Business/Marketing:** Will the glass sell better marketed as half full or half empty? * **English Literature:** What is the symbolism of the glass not being completely full? * **Women Studies:** Would you give a man a full glass? * **Undeclared:** I'm not really sure. Can you ask me later? * **Philosophy:** How do I know the glass is there? * **Law:** What do you want it to be? * **Accounting:** The glass is 50% in the red * **Art:** The water doesn't complement the air above it **Let us now discover how science grew...** The original version of the article "The Scientific Revolution" presented below can be read from the link: https://www.sps186.org/downloads/basic/588506/ch22 1.pdf. (The links to the references are intentionally maintained, should you desire further study on the topics.) ### The Scientific Revolution **Main Idea:** **SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY** In the mid-1500s, scientists began to question accepted beliefs and make new theories based on experimentation. **Why it matters now:** Such questioning led to the development of the scientific method still in use today. **Terms & Names:** * geocentric theory * heliocentric theory * scientific method * Scientific Revolution * Galileo Galilei * Isaac Newton **SETTING THE STAGE** As you recall, the period between 1300 and 1600 was a time of great change in Europe. The Renaissance, a rebirth of learning and the arts, inspired a spirit of curiosity in many fields. Scholars began to question ideas that had been accepted for hundreds of years. Meanwhile, the religious movement known as the Reformation prompted followers to challenge accepted ways of thinking about God and salvation. While the Reformation was taking place, another revolution in European thought had begun, one that would permanently change how people viewed the physical world. **The Roots of Modern Science** Before 1500, scholars generally decided what was true or false by referring to an ancient Greek or Roman author or to the Bible. Few European scholars challenged the scientific ideas of the ancient thinkers or the church by carefully observing nature for themselves. **The Medieval View** During the Middle Ages, most scholars believed that the earth was an immovable object located at the center of the universe. According to that belief, the moon, the sun, and the planets all moved in perfectly circular paths around the earth. Common sense seemed to support this view. After all, the sun appeared to be moving around the earth as it rose in the morning and set in the evening. This earth-centered view of the universe was called the **geocentric theory**. The idea came from Aristotle, the Greek philosopher of the fourth century B.C. The Greek astronomer, Ptolemy (TOL・a・mee) expanded the theory in the second century A.D. In addition, Christianity taught that God had deliberately placed the earth at the center of the universe. Earth was thus a special place on which the great drama of life unfolded. **A New Way of Thinking** Beginning in the mid-1500s, a few scholars published works that challenged the ideas of the ancient thinkers and the church. As these scholars replaced old assumptions with new theories, they launched a change in European thought that historians call the **Scientific Revolution**. The Scientific Revolution was a new way of thinking about the natural world. That way was based upon careful observation and a willingness to question accepted beliefs. **A combination of discoveries and circumstances led to the Scientific Revolution and helped spread its impact.** During the Renaissance, European explorers traveled to Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Such lands were inhabited by peoples and animals previously unknown in Europe. These discoveries opened Europeans to the possibility that there were new truths to be found. The invention of the printing press during this period helped spread challenging ideas—both old and new—more widely among Europe’s thinkers. **The age of European exploration also fueled a great deal of scientific research, especially in astronomy and mathematics.** Navigators needed better instruments and geographic measurements, for example, to determine their location in the open sea. As scientists began to look more closely at the world around them, they made observations that did not match the ancient beliefs. They found they had reached the limit of the classical world’s knowledge. Yet, they still needed to know more. **A Revolutionary Model of the Universe** An early challenge to accepted scientific thinking came in the field of astronomy. It started when a small group of scholars began to question the geocentric theory. **The Heliocentric Theory ** Although backed by authority and common sense, the geocentric theory did not accurately explain the movementsof the sun, moon, and planets. This problem troubled a Polish cleric and astronomer named Nicolaus Copernicus (koh•PUR•nuh•kuhs). In the early 1500s, Copernicus became interested in an old Greek idea that the sun stood at the center of the universe. After studying planetary movements for more than 25 years, Copernicus reasoned that indeed, the stars, the earth, and the other planets revolved around the sun. Copernicus’s **heliocentric,** or sun-centered, theory still did not completely explain why the planets orbited the way they did. He also knew that most scholars and clergy would reject his theory because it contradicted their religious views. Fearing ridicule or persecution, Copernicus did not publish his findings until 1543, the last year of his life. He received a copy of his book, *On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies*, on his deathbed. While revolutionary, Copernicus’s book caused little stir at first. Over the next century and a half, other scientists built on the foundations he had laid. A Danish astronomer, Tycho Brahe (TEE koh brah), carefully recorded the movements of the planets for many years. Brahe produced mountains of accurate data based on his observations. However, it was left to his followers to make mathematical sense of them. After Brahe’s death in 1601, his assistant, a brilliant mathematician named Johannes Kepler, continued his work. After studying Brahe’s data, Kepler concluded that certain mathematical laws govern planetary motion. One of these laws showed that the planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits instead of circles, as was previously thought. Kepler’s laws showed that Copernicus’s basic ideas were true. They demonstrated mathematically that the planets revolve around the sun. **Galileo’s Discoveries** An Italian scientist named Galileo Galilei built on the new theories about astronomy. As a young man, Galileo learned that a Dutch lens maker had built an instrument that could enlarge far-off objects. Galileo built his own telescope and used it to study the heavens in 1609. Then, in 1610, he published a small book called *Starry Messenger*, which described his astonishing observations. Galileo announced that Jupiter had four moons and that the sun had dark spots. He also noted that the earth’s moon had a rough, uneven surface. This shattered Aristotle’s theory that the moon and stars were made of a pure, perfect substance. Galileo’s observations, as well as his laws of motion, also clearly supported the theories of Copernicus. **Conflict with the Church** Galileo’s findings frightened both Catholic and Protestant leaders because they went against church teaching and authority. If people believed the church could be wrong about this, they could question other church teachings as well. In 1616, the Catholic Church warned Galileo not to defend the ideas of Copernicus. Although Galileo remained publicly silent, he continued his studies. Then, in 1632, he published *Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems*. This book presented the ideas of both Copernicus and Ptolemy, but it clearly showed that Galileo supported the Copernican theory. The pope angrily summoned Galileo to Rome to stand trial before the Inquisition. Galileo stood before the court in 1633. Under the threat of torture, he knelt before the cardinals and read aloud a signed confession. In it, he agreed that the ideas of Copernicus were false. With sincere heart and unpretended faith I abjure, curse, and detest the aforesaid errors and heresies [of Copernicus] and also every other error contrary to the Holy Church, and I swear that in the future I will never again say or assert anything that might cause a similar suspicion toward me. GALILEO GALILEI, quoted in *The Discoveries* Galileo was never again a free man. He lived under house arrest and died in 1642 at his villa near Florence. However, his books and ideas still spread all over Europe. (In 1992, the Catholic Church officially acknowledged that Galileo had been right.) **The Scientific Method** The revolution in scientific thinking that Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo began eventually developed into a new approach to science called the **scientific method**. The scientific method is a logical procedure for gathering and testing ideas. It begins with a problem or question arising from an observation. Scientists next form a hypothesis, or unproved assumption. The hypothesis is then tested in an experiment or on the basis of data. In the final step, scientists analyze and interpret their data to reach a new conclusion. That conclusion either confirms or disproves the hypothesis. **Major Steps in the Scientific Revolution** * **Nicolaus Copernicus** began the Scientific Revolution with his heliocentric theory. * **Francis Bacon**, an English statesman and writer, had a passionate interest in science. He believed that by better understanding the world, scientists would generate practical knowledge that would improve people’s lives. In his writings, Bacon attacked medieval scholars for relying too heavily on the conclusions of Aristotle and other ancient thinkers. Instead of reasoning from abstract theories, he urged scientists to experiment and then draw conclusions. This approach is called **empiricism**, or the experimental method. * **René Descartes** also took a keen interest in science. He developed **analytical geometry**, which linked algebra and geometry. This provided an important new tool for scientific research. Like Bacon, Descartes believed that scientists needed to reject old assumptions and teachings. As a mathematician, however, he approached gaining knowledge differently than Bacon. Rather than using experimentation, Descartes relied on mathematics and logic. He believed that everything should be doubted until proved by reason. The only thing he knew for certain was that he existed—because, as he wrote, *I think, therefore I am*. From this starting point, he followed a train of strict reasoning to arrive at other basic truths. Modern scientific methods are based on the ideas of Bacon and Descartes. Scientists have shown that observation and experimentation, together with general laws that can be expressed mathematically, can lead people to a better understanding of the natural world. **Newton Explains the Law of Gravity** By the mid-1600s, the accomplishments of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo had shattered the old views of astronomy and physics. Later, the great English scientist Isaac Newton helped to bring together their breakthroughs under a single theory of motion. **Changing Idea: Scientific Method** * **Old Science** Scholars generally relied on ancient authorities, church teachings, common sense, and reasoning to explain the physical world. * **New Science** In time, scholars began to use observation, experimentation, and scientific reasoning to gather knowledge and draw conclusions about the physical world. Newton studied mathematics and physics at Cambridge University. By the time he was 26, Newton was certain that all physical objects were affected equally by the same forces. Newton’s great discovery was that the same force ruled motion of the planets and all matter on earth and in space. The key idea that linked motion in the heavens with motion on the earth was the law of universal gravitation. According to this law, every object in the universe attracts every other object. The degree of attraction depends on the mass of the objects and the distance between them. **Isaac Newton's law of gravity explained how the same physical laws governed motion both on earth and in the heavens.** In 1687, Newton published his ideas in a work called *The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy*. It was one of the most important scientific books ever written. The universe he described was like a giant clock. Its parts all worked together perfectly in ways that could be expressed mathematically. Newton believed that God was the creator of this orderly universe, the clockmaker who had set everything in motion. ### The Scientific Revolution Spreads As astronomers explored the secrets of the universe, other scientists began to study the secrets of nature on earth. Careful observation and the use of the scientific method eventually became important in many different fields. **Scientific Instruments** Scientists developed new tools and instruments to make the precise observations that the scientific method demanded. The first microscope was invented by a Dutch maker of eyeglasses, Zacharias Janssen (YAHN•suhn), in 1590. In the 1670s, a Dutch drapery merchant and amateur scientist named Anton van Leeuwenhoek (LAY•vuhn•HUK) used a microscope to observe bacteria swimming in tooth scrapings. He also examined red blood cells for the first time. In 1643, one of Galileo’s students, Evangelista Torricelli (TAWR•uh•CHEHL•ee), developed the first mercury barometer, a tool for measuring atmospheric pressure and predicting weather. In 1714, the German physicist Gabriel Fahrenheit (FAR•uhn・HYT) made the first thermometer to use mercury in glass. Fahrenheit’s thermometer showed water freezing at 32°. A Swedish astronomer, Anders Celsius (SEHL•see uhs), created another scale for the mercury thermometer in 1742. **Celsius’ scale showed freezing at 0°.** **Medicine and the Human Body ** During the Middle Ages, European doctors had accepted as fact the writings of an ancient Greek physician named Galen. However, Galen had never dissected the body of a human being. Instead, he had studied the anatomy of pigs and other animals. Galen assumed that human anatomy was much the same. A Flemish physician named Andreas Vesalius proved Galen’s assumptions wrong. Vesalius dissected human corpses and published his observations. His book, *On the Structure of the Human Body* (1543), was filled with detailed drawings of human organs, bones, and muscle. In the late 1700s, British physician Edward Jenner introduced a vaccine to prevent smallpox. Inoculation using live small-pox germs had been practiced in Asia for centuries. While beneficial, this technique could also be dangerous. Jenner discovered that inoculation with germs from a cattle disease called cowpox gave permanent protection from smallpox for humans. Because cowpox was a much milder disease, the risks for this form of inoculation were much lower. Jenner used cowpox to produce the world’s first vaccination. **Discoveries in Chemistry** Robert Boyle pioneered the use of the scientific method in chemistry. He is considered the founder of modern chemistry. In a book called *The Sceptical Chymist* (1661), Boyle challenged Aristotle’s idea that the physical world consisted of four elements—earth, air, fire, and water. Instead, Boyle proposed that matter was made up of smaller primary particles that joined together in different ways. Boyle’s most famous contribution to chemistry is **Boyle’s law**. This law explains how the volume, temperature, and pressure of gas affect each other. The notions of reason and order, which spurred so many breakthroughs in science, soon moved into other fields of life. Philosophers and scholars across Europe began to rethink long-held beliefs about the human condition, most notably the rights and liberties of ordinary citizens. These thinkers helped to usher in a movement that challenged the age-old relationship between a government and its people, and eventually changed forever the political landscape in numerous societies. ### The 4 Industrial Revolutions **Throughout history, people have always been dependent on technology.** Of course, the technology of each era might not have the same shape and size as today, but for their time it was certainly something for people to look at. People would always use the technology they had available to help make their lives easier and at the same time try to perfect it and bring it to the next level. This is how the concept of the industrial revolution began. Right now, we are going through the fourth industrial revolution, aka Industry 4.0. Here is a few information in the three previous industrial revolutions, leading to today! **The first Industrial Revolution 1765** The first industrial revolution followed the proto-industrialization period. It started at the end of the 18th century to the beginning of the 19th. The biggest changes came in the industries in the form of mechanization. Mechanization was the reason why agriculture started to be replaced by the industry as the backbone of the societal economy. At the time people witnessed massive extraction of coal along with the very important invention of the **steam engine** that was the reason for the creation of a new type of energy that later on helped speed up the manufacturing of railroads thus accelerating the economy. **The second Industrial Revolution 1870** Following the first Industrial Revolution, almost a century later we see the world go through the second. It started at the end of the 19th century, with massive technological advancements in the field of industries that helped the emergence of a new source of energy. **Electricity, gas, and oil.** The result of this revolution was the creation of the internal combustion engine that started to reach its full potential. Other important points of the second industrial revolution was the development for steel demand, chemical synthesis and methods of communication such as the telegraph and the telephone. Finally, the inventions of the automobile, and the plane in the beginning of the 20th century are the reasons why, to this day, the Second Industrial Revolution is considered the most important one! **The Third Industrial Revolution 1969** Another century passes and we bear witness to the Third Industrial Revolution. In the second half of the 20th century, we see the emergence of yet another source of untapped, at the time, energy. Nuclear energy! The third revolution brought forth the rise of electronics, telecommunications and of course computers. Through the new technologies, the third industrial revolution opened the doors to space expeditions, research, and biotechnology. In the world of the industries, two major inventions, **Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)** and **Robots** helped give rise to an era of high-level automation. **Industry 4.0** For many people, Industry 4.0 is the fourth Industrial Revolution, although there is a large portion of people that still disagree. If we were to view Industry 4.0 as a revolution then we would have to admit that it is a revolution happening right now. We are experiencing it everyday and its magnitude is yet unknown. Industry 4.0 started in the dawn of the third millennium with the one thing that everyone uses every single day. **The Internet**. We can see the transition from the first industrial revolution that rooted for technological phenomenon all the way to Industry 4.0 that develops virtual reality worlds, allowing us to bend the laws of physics. The 4 Industrial Revolutions shape the world. Worldwide economies are based on them. There are programmes and projects being implemented all around the world, focusing on helping people take advantage of the marvels of the fourth revolution during their everyday lives. Projects like the **RESTART** project, are being funded by the EU aiming at involving the industrial sector in the transformation of VET systems, in order to meet the need of digital skills consistent with the technological developments in industries. **Negative Impacts of technological advances** At this point, it may well be for us to discuss at least three negative impacts of technological advances. 1. The first case is the development of the social media. https://prezi.com/vwgzk6halaiq/negative-effects-of-technology/ Consciously or unconsciously, everybody is exposed to a myriad of social media every minute of our life - awake or asleep. The chart shows that in three out of the four social media services, those between ages 16-24 are the more active groups. Only in the use of facebook did the 25-34 year-old users outnumber the 16-24 year old users. Social skills are learned. Social media is a distraction that puts children in a solitary mode, distancing them from others. As a result, they don't develop the necessary social skills needed for healthy interactions with others. The near-universal access to digital technology, starting at ever younger ages, is transforming modern society in ways that can have negative effects on physical and mental health. The only difference between smartphone addiction and any other is that it’s socially accepted. But that doesn’t mean it’s not detrimental. 2. A second case in point is the development of missiles and nuclear weapons. The first record of murder was the killing of Abel by his brother Cain. What weapon could have Cain used? Anyway, it was man-to-man battle. Later, it grew to tribal wars, then to the two world wars. With the present military capacity of developed nations, how worse can it be? How can the human race survive? In the context of today’s CoViD crisis classroom management platforms, can we have an analogy of this advancement in technology as: from the actual face to face (classroom) battle with bows and arrows (chalk and board) to the virtual nation to nation (computer) battle with missiles (internet)? 3. Finally, the food processing and agricultural industry are racing for discoveries to feed the fast growing population in the face of a depleted environment. **The tale of three apples:** * Three apples that changed the world completely * 1. Eaten By Eve * 2. Fallen on Newton * 3. Created by Steve Using your understanding of our lesson thus far, write down the ideas the creator of this must have in mind. 1. Locate where these three apple eras could be found along the timeline. 2. Make a brief description of significant technological advances that occurred during the three apple eras. **Closure:** Both scientific and industrial developments were aimed at improving the quality of life of humanity. Clearly, the industrial revolutions determine the world economy. Let us ponder how has these developments impacted the economic condition and values of people? **Salute to the creativity of this artist.** **Before Having A Meal** **Photo credits:** 1. Emojis. * https://www.dictionary.com/e/emoji/thinking-face-emoji/ * https://www.iconfinder.com/icons/5241490/face-alarmed-saddened-sad-emoji-icon * https://www.dreamstime.com/pointing-presenting-emoticon-happy-finger-up-image116517043 2. **Scientist.** * https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/268949408972333853/?nic_v2=1a1nrVzp 3. **Scientific method.** * https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/the-scientific-method/ 4. **Evolution, science and religion.** * https://www.ctvn.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/1402-Evolution-Science-or-Religion.pdf 5. **Glass half-full half-empty.** * http://mylifeyoga.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/GlassHalfFull3.jpg 6. **Rizal Shrine gallery.** * https://www.tupanggala.com/calamba-rizal-shrine/ 7. **Simple machines.** * https://sites.google.com/site/apphysics1online/unit-4-work-energy/simple-machines 8. **Bike.** * https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bicycle 9. **Stone tools.** * https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/collection-stone-age-tools-weapon-prehistoric-1579163359 10. **Three apples.** * https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/736057132831374042/ 11. **Arrows.** * https://weaponsandwarfare.com/2020/05/23/the-longbow-in-the-wars-of-the-roses/ 12. **Missiles.** * https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/missile-weapon-attack-as-a-nuke-or-nuclear-war-threat-concept-as-a-136780140.html 13. **Mother and child.** * https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/75294625004625648/ 14. **Einstein quote.** 15. **Why read.** * https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/238127899022277195/ 16. **Brains.** * https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/589056826233264905/ 17. **Tillage rake.** * https://www.google.com/search?q=stock-photo-tillage-rake-for-planting-crops&rlz=1C1GCEJ_enPH915PH915&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=mGy9Vr1GbaA8M%252CePOvI2uBusYHIM%252C_&vet=1&usg=AI4_ 18. **Tractor. ** * https://www.google.com/search?q=image+tractor+planting&rlz=1C1GCEJ_enPH915PH915&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=nvuWBoTCQS3MEM%252CG6D jOuGmUmX4M%252C_&vet=1&usg=AI4-kQstT6TTCFZYenbcc0cKKQSZHoHhw&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwijvcaamoPsAhWIIaYKHQUJCF0Q9QF6BAgKED4#imgrc=lJgfrbl-NEoHAM&imgdii=uY3j2CadVF4pIM\ 19. **It is not just a tree.** * https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/688558230507030649/ 20. **Amazon. ** * https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/307159637061656084/ 21. **McDonalds.** * https://me.me/i/this-society-mcdonalds-selling-poison-civilized-selling-real-food-uncivilized-43e005c6ac3f4faf8accd742288c959f 22. **Beggars.** * https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/316940892528561485/ 23. **Watermelon burger. ** * https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/708050372644554400/ 24. **Ocean garbage.** * https://imgur.com/gallery/Rhttm 25. **Three apples.** * https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/736057132831374042/ 26. **Rich man, poor man.** * https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/820429257097539810/ 27. **Before meals.** * https://innocentreads.blogspot.com/2020/05/where-is-evolution.html