GE 217 Science, Technology and Society Past Paper PDF

## GE 217 Science, Technology and Society ### Module 1: General Concepts and Historical Developments #### Lesson 2 #### Historical antecedents of S&T ##### Introduction This lesson will discuss how the developments in science and technology has impacted the social, cultural, political and econo...

## GE 217 Science, Technology and Society ### Module 1: General Concepts and Historical Developments #### Lesson 2 #### Historical antecedents of S&T ##### Introduction This lesson will discuss how the developments in science and technology has impacted the social, cultural, political and economic contexts throughout history. An antecedent is a thing that comes before something else - therefore, we will be studying the beginnings of the things that are existing today. The statement “necessity is the mother of invention” inevitably requires an author of the necessity. That would be humanity itself. Throughout history man is the recipient as well as the author of the scientific and technological developments. If the present generation will know and understand how the past generations had influenced and were influential in the development of S&T, then they will be prudent decision-makers for the proper applications of S&T. Succinct indeed is the quotation from our beloved national hero “Ang hindi marunong lumingon sa pinanggalingan Ay hindi makakarating sa paroroonan.” - Jose Rizal ##### Learning Outcomes At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Explain the nature of S&T 2. Discuss the historical antecedents of S&T across time; and 3. Explain how S&T affected the society and environment and vice versa. To better appreciate the importance of S&T, Laconsay-Agsalud (2012) made the following statements on their nature and root functions: - **Technology** is that form of human activity that is devoted to the production of technics - or technic-related intellectual products – and whose root function is to expand the realm of practical possibilities. - **Science** is that form of human activity which is devoted to the production of theory-related knowledge of natural phenomena and whose root function is to attain an enhanced understanding of nature #### The nature and historical antecedent of science ##### Introduction The first undertaking by the first scientists (philosophers of nature) towards understanding the natural world was to name and classify the objects found in nature. ##### Activity 2.1. In the beginning ... It has been said that science is as old as the world itself. Could the biblical account of creation in Genesis 2:8-9,19-20 support this claim? * Genesis 2:8 And the LORD God planted a garden eastward in Eden; and there he put the man whom he had formed. * Genesis 2:9 And out of the ground made the LORD God to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight, and good for food; the tree of life also in the midst of the garden, and the tree of knowledge of good and evil. * Genesis 2:19 And out of the ground the LORD God formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air; and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof. * Genesis 2:20 And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field; This being the case, can it be rightly claimed that Adam was the first scientist? ##### Analysis If Adam is the first scientist, what kind of scientist was he - * a) a taxonomist? Describe briefly how he went about his task as a taxonomist. * b) a botanist? Describe briefly how he went about his task as a botanist. * c) a zoologist? Describe briefly how he went about his task as a zoologist. Then he must be an incredible one, because he is all of the kinds – taxonomist, botanist, zoologist, and more – in one. ##### Abstraction Contrary to the common belief that science and religion are mutually exclusive, there is much science in the Bible. Let us take a very common example - circumcision: Gen 17:12 And he that is eight days old shall be circumcised among you, every man child in your generations, he that is born in the house, or bought with money of any stranger, which is not of thy seed. Why did God specifically instruct the Israelites to perform circumcision on the 8th day? The scientific explanation for this practice is explained in this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V3e1MYLQdP4 . Modern science has recently found out that there is least bleeding on the 8th day after birth due to the presence of vitamin K. ##### Want to know more? There are several modern scientific findings that support Bible facts. A few of them are discussed in the video: 6 Amazing Scientific facts of the Bible|| https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EvOWr83qYk0. The video discusses specifically the blood as the liquid of life, sanitation practices, understanding germs, ship engineering, quarantine, and food regulations. For a more comprehensive collection of recent scientific findings explaining Biblical accounts could be found in the Bible-Science Guy Blog (https://biblescienceguy.wordpress.com/contents/). ##### So what does it take to make science? What does it take to become a scientist? How do scientists generate new knowledge? As discussed in the previous lesson, we use the scientific method to acquire knowledge of the natural world. Recall that the five key descriptors for the scientific method are: empirical, replicable, provisional, objective and systematic (https://sciencing.com/five-characteristics-scientific-method-10010518.html). Whenever a scientist notices something unusual, he observes it systematically - employing the scientific method. ##### But can all present observable events be studied repeatedly in the controlled conditions of the laboratory? Can we conduct experiments in the laboratory to explain how the Grand Canyon was formed? This particularly case is a historical phenomenon which obviously defies experimentation. So how could the pursuit of knowledge be achieved? We must therefore recognize that there are two categories of science that would take care of these differing circumstances: **operation (experimental) science** and **origins (historical) science**. The following discussion on these categories is taken from the video entitled Evolution, creation and religion (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DcQcyEl1 ho). **Operation or experimental science** is that what has been described above. In fact, if experiments continue to be successful in testing the predictive power of hypothesis, then there might be enough amount of scientific evidence to back up the hypothesis to the degree that it eventually becomes accepted as scientific theory. **Origins (historical) science**, on the other hand, use reliable eyewitness testimony (if ever available) and observable evidence to determine the past, unobservable, unrepeatable event(s) which produced the observable evidence we see in the present. So, if we are investigating the Grand Canyon, we would be asking what happened in the past to produce the mile-deep rock layers causing the formation of the huge hole on the ground. Since we cannot design and perform experiments to investigate this specific phenomenon, we have to use the evidence of the present to reconstruct the events of the past. Under this category belongs geology, palaeontology, archaeology, cosmogony, and criminal investigation (forensics). Both the operational and origins scientists have assumptions way before they will embark on any investigation. These assumptions will determine which data or facts may be considered relevant to the study, as well as how things are viewed and finally, how they are interpreted. <br> <div align="center"> <img src="https://www.ctvn.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/1402-Evolution-Science-or-Religion.pdf" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 50%;" align="center"> </div> <br> It is very important to understand that our assumptions affect our scientific investigation in the following manner: 1. They influence or control the questions we ask. 2. They influence what we see in our research. 3. They influence what data we collect. 4. They influence or control our interpretations of the data. Thus, even if the same data is presented to both scientists, they will be analyzed and interpreted differently because of the different lenses through which the data are viewed. <br> <div align="center"> <img src="https://www.ctvn.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/1402-Evolution-Science-or-Religion.pdf" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 50%;" align="center"> </div> <br> Maybe we can better understand this idiosyncrasy if we consider the very common situation, usually presented in psychology and philosophy classes: the case of the half-full or the half-empty glass. Simply explained, it could just be a matter of optimistic and pessimistic view. However, is it not amazing that this seemingly simple situation has been viewed from several perspectives as shown below: <br> <div align="center"> <img src="http://mylifeyoga.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/GlassHalfFull3.jpg" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 50%;" align="center"> </div> <br> #### Let us now discover how science grew ... The original version of the article “The Scientific Revolution” presented below can be read from the link: https://www.sps186.org/downloads/basic/588506/ch22 1.pdf. (The links to the references are intentionally maintained, should you desire further study on the topics.) #### The Scientific Revolution ##### Main Idea: **SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY** In the mid-1500s, scientists began to question accepted beliefs and make new theories based on experimentation. ##### Why it matters now: Such questioning led to the development of the scientific method still in use today. ##### Terms & Names: - geocentric theory - heliocentric theory - scientific method - Scientific Revolution - Galileo Galilei - Isaac Newton ##### Setting the Stage. As you recall, the period between 1300 and 1600 was a time of great change in Europe. The Renaissance, a rebirth of learning and the arts, inspired a spirit of curiosity in many fields. Scholars began to question ideas that had been accepted for hundreds of years. Meanwhile, the religious movement known as the Reformation prompted followers to challenge accepted ways of thinking about God and salvation. While the Reformation was taking place, another revolution in European thought had begun, one that would permanently change how people viewed the physical world. #### The Roots of Modern Science Before 1500, scholars generally decided what was true or false by referring to an ancient Greek or Roman author or to the Bible. Few European scholars challenged the scientific ideas of the ancient thinkers or the church by carefully observing nature for themselves. The Medieval View During the Middle Ages, most scholars believed that the earth was an immovable object located at the center of the universe. According to that belief, the moon, the sun, and the planets all moved in perfectly circular paths around the earth. Common sense seemed to support this view. After all, the sun appeared to be moving around the earth as it rose in the morning and set in the evening. This earth-centered view of the universe was called the **geocentric theory**. The idea came from Aristotle, the Greek philosopher of the fourth century B.C. The Greek astronomer Ptolemy (TOL・a・mee) expanded the theory in the second century A.D. In addition, Christianity taught that God had deliberately placed the earth at the center of the universe. Earth was thus a special place on which the great drama of life unfolded. **A New Way of Thinking** Beginning in the mid-1500s, a few scholars published works that challenged the ideas of the ancient thinkers and the church. As these scholars replaced old assumptions with new theories, they launched a change in European thought that historians call the **Scientific Revolution**. The Scientific Revolution was a new way of thinking about the natural world. That way was based upon careful observation and a willingness to question accepted beliefs. A combination of discoveries and circumstances led to the Scientific Revolution and helped spread its impact. During the Renaissance, European explorers traveled to Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Such lands were inhabited by peoples and animals previously unknown in Europe. These discoveries opened Europeans to the possibility that there were new truths to be found. The invention of the printing press during this period helped spread challenging ideas-both old and new- more widely among Europe's thinkers. The age of European exploration also fueled a great deal of scientific research, especially in astronomy and mathematics. Navigators needed better instruments and geographic measurements, for example, to determine their location in the open sea. As scientists began to look more closely at the world around them, they made observations that did not match the ancient beliefs. They found they had reached the limit of the classical world’s knowledge. Yet, they still needed to know more. #### A Revolutionary Model of the Universe An early challenge to accepted scientific thinking came in the field of astronomy. It started when a small group of scholars began to question the geocentric theory. **The Heliocentric Theory** Although backed by authority and common sense, the geocentric theory did not accurately explain the movements of the sun, moon, and planets. This problem troubled a Polish cleric and astronomer named Nicolaus Copernicus (koh・PUR・nuh・kuhs). In the early 1500s, Copernicus became interested in an old Greek idea that the sun stood at the center of the universe. After studying planetary movements for more than 25 years, Copernicus reasoned that indeed, the stars, the earth, and the other planets revolved around the sun. <br> <div align="center"> <img src="https://www.sps186.org/downloads/basic/588506/ch22 1.pdf" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 50%;" align="center"> </div> <br> Copernicus's heliocentric, or sun-centered, theory still did not completely explain why the planets orbited the way they did. He also knew that most scholars and clergy would reject his theory because it contradicted their religious views. Fearing ridicule or persecution, Copernicus did not publish his findings until 1543, the last year of his life. He received a copy of his book, *On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies*, on his deathbed. While revolutionary, Copernicus's book caused little stir at first. Over the next century and a half, other scientists built on the foundations he had laid. A Danish astronomer, Tycho Brahe (TEE koh brah), carefully recorded the movements of the planets for many years. Brahe produced mountains of accurate data based on his observations. However, it was left to his followers to make mathematical sense of them. After Brahe’s death in 1601, his assistant, a brilliant mathematician named Johannes Kepler, continued his work. After studying Brahe’s data, Kepler concluded that certain mathematical laws govern planetary motion. One of these laws showed that the planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits instead of circles, as was previously thought. Kepler’s laws showed that Copernicus’s basic ideas were true. They demonstrated mathematically that the planets revolve around the sun. **Galileo’s Discoveries** An Italian scientist named Galileo Galilei built on the new theories about astronomy. As a young man, Galileo learned that a Dutch lens maker had built an instrument that could enlarge far-off objects. Galileo built his own telescope and used it to study the heavens in 1609. Then, in 1610, he published a small book called *Starry Messenger*, which described his astonishing observations. Galileo announced that Jupiter had four moons and that the sun had dark spots. He also noted that the earth’s moon had a rough, uneven surface. This shattered Aristotle’s theory that the moon and stars were made of a pure, perfect substance. Galileo’s observations, as well as his laws of motion, also clearly supported the theories of Copernicus. **Conflict with the Church** Galileo’s findings frightened both Catholic and Protestant leaders because they went against church teaching and authority. If people believed the church could be wrong about this, they could question other church teachings as well. In 1616, the Catholic Church warned Galileo not to defend the ideas of Copernicus. Although Galileo remained publicly silent, he continued his studies. Then, in 1632, he published *Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems*. This book presented the ideas of both Copernicus and Ptolemy, but it clearly showed that Galileo supported the Copernican theory. The pope angrily summoned Galileo to Rome to stand trial before the Inquisition. Galileo stood before the court in 1633. Under the threat of torture, he knelt before the cardinals and read aloud a signed confession. In it, he agreed that the ideas of Copernicus were false. <br> <div align="center"> <img src="https://www.sps186.org/downloads/basic/588506/ch22 1.pdf" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 50%;" align="center"> </div> <br> Galileo was never again a free man. He lived under house arrest and died in 1642 at his villa near Florence. However, his books and ideas still spread all over Europe. (In 1992, the Catholic Church officially acknowledged that Galileo had been right.) #### The Scientific Method The revolution in scientific thinking that Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo began eventually developed into a new approach to science called the **scientific method**. The scientific method is a logical procedure for gathering and testing ideas. It begins with a problem or question arising from an observation. Scientists next form a **hypothesis**, or unproved assumption. The hypothesis is then tested in an experiment or on the basis of data. In the final step, scientists analyze and interpret their data to reach a new conclusion. That conclusion either confirms or disproves the hypothesis. <br> <div align="center"> <img src="https://www.sps186.org/downloads/basic/588506/ch22 1.pdf" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 50%;" align="center"> </div> <br> #### Major Steps in the Scientific Revolution Nicolaus Copernicus began the Scientific Revolution with his heliocentric theory. Bacon and Descartes The scientific method did not develop overnight. The work of two important thinkers of the 1600s, Francis Bacon and René Descartes, helped to advance the new approach. **Francis Bacon**, an English statesman and writer, had a passionate interest in science. He believed that by better understanding the world, scientists would generate practical knowledge that would improve people’s lives. In his writings, Bacon attacked medieval scholars for relying too heavily on the conclusions of Aristotle and other ancient thinkers. Instead of reasoning from abstract theories, he urged scientists to experiment and then draw conclusions. This approach is called **empiricism**, or the **experimental method**. In France, **René Descartes** also took a keen interest in science. He developed analytical geometry, which linked algebra and geometry. This provided an important new tool for scientific research Like Bacon, Descartes believed that scientists needed to reject old assumptions and teachings. As a mathematician, however, he approached gaining knowledge differently than Bacon. Rather than using experimentation, Descartes relied on mathematics and logic. He believed that everything should be doubted until proved by reason. The only thing he knew for certain was that he existed-because, as he wrote, *I think, therefore I am*. From this starting point, he followed a train of strict reasoning to arrive at other basic truths. Modern scientific methods are based on the ideas of Bacon and Descartes. Scientists have shown that observation and experimentation, together with general laws that can be expressed mathematically, can lead people to a better understanding of the natural world. #### Newton Explains the Law of Gravity By the mid-1600s, the accomplishments of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo had shattered the old views of astronomy and physics. Later, the great English scientist Isaac Newton helped to bring together their breakthroughs under a single theory of motion. <br> <div align="center"> <img src="https://www.sps186.org/downloads/basic/588506/ch22 1.pdf" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 50%;" align="center"> </div> <br> Newton studied mathematics and physics at Cambridge University. By the time he was 26, Newton was certain that all physical objects were affected equally by the same forces. Newton’s great discovery was that the same force ruled motion of the planets and all matter on earth and in space. The key idea that linked motion in the heavens with motion on the earth was the law of universal gravitation. According to this law, every object in the universe attracts every other object. The degree of attraction depends on the mass of the objects and the distance between them. In 1687, Newton published his ideas in a work called *The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy*. It was one of the most important scientific books ever written. The universe he described was like a giant clock. Its parts all worked together perfectly in ways that could be expressed mathematically. Newton believed that God was the creator of this orderly universe, the clockmaker who had set everything in motion. #### The Scientific Revolution Spreads As astronomers explored the secrets of the universe, other scientists began to study the secrets of nature on earth. Careful observation and the use of the scientific method eventually became important in many different fields. #### Scientific Instruments Scientists developed new tools and instruments to make the precise observations that the scientific method demanded. The first microscope was invented by a Dutch maker of eyeglasses, Zacharias Janssen (YAHN・suhn), in 1590. In the 1670s, a Dutch drapery merchant and amateur scientist named Anton van Leeuwenhoek (LAY・vuhn・HUK) used a microscope to observe bacteria swimmingin tooth scrapings. He also examined red blood cells for the first time. In 1643, one of Galileo’s students, Evangelista Torricelli (TAWR・uh・CHEHL・ee), developed the first mercury barometer, a tool for measuring atmospheric pressure and predicting weather. In 1714, the German physicist Gabriel Fahrenheit (FAR・uhn・HYT) made the first thermometer to use mercury in glass.. Fahrenheit’s thermometer showed water freezing at 32°. A Swedish astronomer, Anders Celsius (SEHL・see uhs), created another scale for the mercury thermometer in 1742. Celsius’ scale showed freezing at 0°. <br> <div align="center"> <img src="https://www.sps186.org/downloads/basic/588506/ch22 1.pdf" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 50%;" align="center"> </div> <br> #### Medicine and the Human Body During the Middle Ages, European doctors had accepted as fact the writings of an ancient Greek physician named Galen. However, Galen had never dissected the body of a human being. Instead, he had studied the anatomy of pigs and other animals.. Galen assumed that human anatomy was much the same. A Flemish physician named Andreas Vesalius proved Galen’s assumptions wrong. Vesalius dissected human corpses and published his observations.. His book, *On the Structure of the Human Body* (1543), was filled with detailed drawings of human organs, bones, and muscle. In the late 1700s, British physician Edward Jenner introduced a vaccine to prevent smallpox. Inoculation using live smallpox germs had been practiced in Asia for centuries. While beneficial, this technique could also be dangerous. Jenner discovered that inoculation with germs from a cattle disease called cowpox gave permanent protection from smallpox for humans. Because cowpox was a much milder disease, the risks for this form of inoculation were much lower. Jenner used cowpox to produce the world’s first vaccination. #### Discoveries in Chemistry Robert Boyle pioneered the use of the scientific method in chemistry. He is considered the founder of modern chemistry. In a book called *The Sceptical Chymist* (1661), Boyle challenged Aristotle’s idea that the physical world consisted of four elements-earth, air, fire, and water. Instead, Boyle proposed that matter was made up of smaller primary particles that joined together in different ways. Boyle’s most famous contribution to chemistry is Boyle’s law. This law explains howthe volume, temperature, and pressure of gas affect each other. The notions of reason and order, which spurred so many breakthroughs in science, soon moved into other fields of life. Philosophers and scholars across Europe began to rethink long-held beliefs about the human condition, most notably the rights and liberties of ordinary citizens. These thinkers helped to usher in a movement that challenged the age-old relationship between a government and its people, and eventually changed forever the political landscape in numerous societies. #### Assessment: How much have we learned? 1. Write a sentence explaining the significance for each term or name: - Geocentric theory - Scientific revolution - Heliocentric theory - Galileo Galilei - Scientific method - Isaac Newton 2. Identify events or circumstances that led to the scientific revolution. Which of them do you consider to be the most significant? Why? #### Let’s do it! ##### Application Why is it important that we learn science? Society, in general, benefits from the scientific breakthroughs. But we should not overlook the benefits that science has on the person. Employing the scientific method, the individual learns to ask questions, gather and organize data, analyze and interpret results. These new information has to be communicated, especially to the scientific community, otherwise, it will just be another case of useless information. Finally, since one important characteristic of a scientist is scepticism, then any new information must be scrutinized by the other scientists, and not just a matter of *“for your information”.* #### Closure: Isn’t it amazing to have learned the beginnings of science and how it has developed through time? Our next lesson is about science’s twin activity - technology. #### Part 2 #### The nature and historical antecedents of technology ##### Let's get started! ##### Activity These pictures were taken from the Rizal Shrine Gallery. Choose just one object or structure from each setting. Take pictures of equivalent objects or structures you are using today from your own homes. - Jose and his mother - Library and guest dining hall - Playhouse - Parents' bedroom - Kitchen - Rice storage bin <br> <div align="center"> <img src="https://www.tupanggala.com/calamba-rizal-shrine/" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 50%;" align="center"> </div> <br> ##### Let's think about it! ##### Analysis It should be evident even without much thought that our present-day equivalents are better versions of those of Rizal’s time. For example, instead of earthen pots which are heavy and fragile, we have now aluminium and stainless cooking pots which are lighter and sturdier. We are aware, however, that beyond our personal possessions are more sophisticated counterparts in the more developed world. There are available rice cookers, pressure cookers, electric ovens and non-stick pots, and many others which we may not imagine do exist. ##### Let's do it! ##### Abstraction At least among the baby-boomers who have seen the dramatic and accelerated changes in their lifetime, they could just behold in awe of the technologies we have today. Notwithstanding, we must keep in mind that all these amenities did have their humble beginnings – the simple machines. <br> <div align="center"> <img src="https://sites.google.com/site/apphysics1online/unit-4-work-energy/simple-machines" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 50%;" align="center"> </div> <br> ##### Figure 2.1. The six simple machines and the sample tools. Let us study at the anatomy of a bicycle. A bicycle is a composite of several simple machines. Describe where these simple machines are found on a bicycle: *lever*, *pulley*, and *wheel and axle*. <br> <div align="center"> <img src="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bicycle" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 50%;" align="center"> </div> <br> ##### Figure 2. The parts of a bicycle. When you ride a bike, energy is transferred from the force of your legs to the lever (pedal). Energy goes from the lever to the pulley (chain and gear), and finally to the wheel and axle, and then to the ground under the wheel, which makes your bike move. https://blog.pitsco.com/blog/how-do-bicycles-work-the-science-behind-this-simple-machine The idea of a simple machine originated with the Greek philosopher Archimedes around the 3rd century BC, who studied the Archimedean simple machines: *lever*, *pulley*, and *screw*. He discovered the principle of mechanical advantage in the lever. Archimedes’ famous remark with regard to the lever: “Give me a place to stand on, and I will move the Earth,” expresses his realization that there was no limit to the amount of force amplification that could be achieved by using mechanical advantage. Later Greek philosophers defined the classic five simple machines (excluding the inclined plane) and were able to calculate their (ideal) mechanical advantage. The complete dynamic theory of simple machines was worked out by Italian scientist Galileo Galilei in 1600 in *Le Meccaniche* (On Mechanics), in which he showed the underlying mathematical similarity of the machines as force amplifiers. He was the first to explain that simple machines do not create energy, only transform it. Going back to the stone age, we could see that their tools and weapons were unwittingly designed using the principles of simple machines. <br> <div align="center"> <img src="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/collection-stone-age-tools-weapon-prehistoric-1579163359" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 50%;" align="center"> </div> <br> ##### Figure 2.. Prehistoric stone-age tools and weapons. With the ultimate goal of improving the quality of life of humanity, there were gradual improvements on the works of the preceding time periods. The following discussion is taken from Chapter 1 of the book “Science, Technology and Society” by McNamara, DJ, VM Valverde and R Beleno III (2018). #### Historical Antecedents of Science and Technology Science and technology indeed play major roles in the everyday life. They make difficult and complicated tasks easier and allow people to do more with so little effort and time. The developments in this field are not just products of people’s imagination or a one-time thought process; they are also brought about by gradual improvements to earlier works from different time periods. The driving force behind this continuous progress is the desire to raise the quality of life of the people. #### I. ANCIENT TIMES In the ancient times, people were concerned with transportation and navigation, communication and record-keeping, mass production, security and protection, as well as health, aesthetics, and architecture. ##### Transportation was significant during that time because people were trying to go places and discover new horizons. They travelled to search for food and find better locations for their settlements. They also travelled to trade their surplus goods in exchange for things that they lacked. Navigation assisted them in their journeys to unfamiliar and strange areas in the world. It allowed them to return home after they discovered new places or completed an important trade with another group of people. ##### Communication was also essential in their endeavors to discover and occupy new places. They needed a way to communicate with the natives of the areas they visited so as to facilitate trade and prevent possible conflicts. *Record-keeping* was also important since they needed to remember the places they had been to and document the trades they made with each other. It was also vital to keep records of their history and culture so they could establish their identities as they tried to relate with other cultures and civilizations. ##### The increase in size and number of nations connoted increased demand for food and other basic necessities. This condition also implied that people must be able to produce food at a given time and space since resources were getting scarcer as more people struggled to share the basic necessities. The people thus needed a form of technology that would enable them to increase food supplies and other survival needs without them travelling more or working harder. ##### Weapons and armors were important as well in the discovery of new places or the establishment of new alliances with other tribes. At that time, there was always a risk of conflict when people met others with different culture and orientations. Conflicts were common especially if different groups struggled to control vital resources. Stronger nations tended to invade weaker ones so they could take much needed resources. As such, the development of weapons and armors for security and protection was considered a major achievement. ##### A primary challenge they faced was the b. The early people might have been successful in harnessing the rich resources that the world could provide, but their survival posed a great problem. Different illnesses and diseases, both natural and man-made, hampered the full potential of a human being. Given this predicament, science and technology played a major role in the discovery of cures to, if not the prevention of, illnesses. Moreover, in order to integrate their needs-for better transportation, establishment of structures for protection from human attacks and natural disasters, and construction of bigger and stronger infrastructures—people ventured into what is now known as the field of engineering. The development inthis field allowed humans to build structures that would address their specific needs and wants. Some of the structures built during the ancient times still exist today and continually awe people. ##### The development in engineering also ushered in the introduction of architecture. Others might see architecture as a mere style, but during the ancient times, elaborate architectural designs were signs of technological advancement of a particular civilization. In the generations to come, architecture would be considered a status symbol among nations of how advanced their technology is.It may also establish the identity of a nation. The people were not contented on beautifying only their infrastructures and surroundings. Being able to prolong life with the mass production of food and advancement of medical technology, as well as raise the quality of life by making complicated and difficult tasks easier, humans later on developed the technology to improve how they look. They discovered that people looked more visually presentable and appealing by adding some features and decorations in their body. With all these in mind, one can conclude that the developments in science and technology, aside from affecting the lives of the people, were the results of many prior antecedents. Out of necessity, people in ancient times were able to discover and invent things that would impact the lives of the modern people. The following discussions will tackle the different major technological advancements during the ancient times, which include some of the achievements of the early civilizations such as the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Egyptians. It will continue to describe the gradual application of knowledge up to the contemporary time. #### II. SUMERIAN CIVILIZATION Sumeria is located on the southernmost tip of ancient Mesopotamia. Sumerians are known for their high degree of cooperation with one another and their desire for great things. They are not contented with the basic things that life can offer. This desire pushed them to develop many things connected with science and technology. ##### 1. Cuneiform <br> <div align="center"> <img src="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/3100-2900%20BC" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 50%;" align="center"> </div> <br> ##### Figure 1.1 Cuneiform Tablet: Administrative Account Concerning the Distribution of Barley and Emmer, 3100-2900 BC, via The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York One of the major contributions of the Sumerians is the development of the first writing system known as cuneiform. It is a system that utilizes word pictures and triangular symbols which are carved on clay using wedge instruments and then left to dry. *Cuneiform* allowed the Sumerians to keep records of things with great historical value or their everyday life. ##### 2. Uruk City Another important contribution of the Sumerians is the City of Uruk. It is a great wonder not only because it is considered to be the first true city in the world but also for the way it was erected. There were no building stones in the location of this city and lumber was limited, making the construction a big challenge. The Sumerians were able to build the city using only mud or clay from the river, which they mixed with reeds, producing sun-baked bricks-a true engineering feat. They used the bricks to make houses that protected them from the harsh weather and to build a wall around the city that prevented wild animals and neighboring