Perth Transport and Urban Sprawl Analysis PDF

**SCOPE AND CAUSES TRANSPORT** The freeways and rail systems of Perth all focus upon the central business district leading to heavy congestion especially for daily commutors. Congestion leads to slower speeds and queing creating peak hours on major highways. As congestion is worsening these peak ho...

**SCOPE AND CAUSES TRANSPORT** The freeways and rail systems of Perth all focus upon the central business district leading to heavy congestion especially for daily commutors. Congestion leads to slower speeds and queing creating peak hours on major highways. As congestion is worsening these peak hours are extending. A 2019 study found that Mitchell and Kwinana Freeway are the most congested roads in Perth and Infrastrcuture Australias audit of WA found that by 2030 Perth will have 7/10 of the most congested roads. According to the 2016 Census 79% of people drive a car to work. There are various causes that have lead to this issue in Perth one being population growth. Perths population is expected to grow to 3.5 million by 2050. Main lines are already at capacity. The 200km of electrical rail needs to double to keep up with Perths projected population growth. It is also estimated that 200,000 people converge in the CBD daily however the streets are not designed for this as they are narrow and in a grid like pattern. Urban sprawl has lead to high leves of car dependency. Many outer suburbs lack access to public transport creating the rely on vehicles. It is found that 500,000 people in Perth have poor access to public transport. Globally transport is seen as a concern fro greenhouse gas emissions. The average Australian car produces twice its weight in CO2 each year. The cost of traffic congestion is estimated to be \$3.6 billion by 2031. Drivers are spending up to 20 minuted looking for a park. It can be frustrating and result in anti social behaviour. A 2020 RAC study had almost half of its members say that traffic negativey impact their wellbeing. Insurance commission WA found that crashes are more likely to occur during peak hours of 3pm-6pm. **SCOPE AND CAUSES URBAN SPRAWL** Urban sprawl is the outward spread of typically low density residential or urban development on the periphery of areas. Perth has been ranked among the worlds most liveable cities but unofficial holds the title for the most sprawled city. The urban boundary extends north to 2 rocks, south to Dawesville and east to the Lakes. It stretches 150km along the coast and takes 2 hours to drive end to end. This area is estimated to reach 250km by 2050. In 2022 the average distance away from the CBD was 21km but in 1991 it was 5km. the largest growth areas in past decades include ellenrbook and Baldivis. Planning policies have been a major cause of urban sprawl in Perth. The 1955 metropolitan regional scheme set scene for linear development in a north south direction along side major freeway construction. The corridor plan 1973 then allowed for the development of 4 urban growth corridors and many outer business districts. The 1990 metroplan then established the 5^th^ corridor towards the Ellenbrook direction. Car ownership has been another factor contributing to the sprawled nature of Perth. Between 1955 and 1985 car ownership grew faster in Perth then any other state. Highways begain to determane the morphorlogy of the urban area as they became the dominant mode of transport. The Australian dream of a ¼ acre block along the coast was another contributing factor leading to Perth being the fastest growing in coastal regions since 2011. Housing is becoming less affordable in the metro area with a 1.5% increase in 2022. This has lead to only 29% of the original vegetation remaining in perth. Poses a risk to fragile ecological communities and flora and fauna. The carnaby's black cockatoo saw a 50% decrease in the last 45 years. There is higher costs associated with building on periphery. Green field sites are estimated to be 3 times as expensive due to the lack of infrastructure. Currenntly the congestion on the freeway is costing \$2.5 billion a year. There is a lack of amenity. The average treen canopy cover in 2016 was 20%. Trees offer benefits and boost property prices by \$17000. 50000 residents in Ellenbrook have been waiting for the morley Ellenbrook line. **METRONET SUSTAINABILTY** MetroNet is a planning strategy currently being implemented by the Western Australian government in response to the transportation challenge that they are currently facing. Metronet aims to link diverse urban centres through transport while providing for greater density and infill development. It includes 72km of new rail and up to 22 new stations as well as station precincts. The WA government has a vision for a well connected Perth with more transport and housing opportunities'. Station precincts will have a range of housing options, employment, services and entertainment. They have also proposed other projects such as updating some stations and carparks. Approval for the project began in 2015 and it is expected to generate 20000 daily passenger trips including the Forrestfield airport link. Metronet provides much needed social benefits to areas of Perth that currently lack transport connections such as the eastern suburbs. The Forrestfield airport link alone is expected to generate 20,000 daily passenger trips. It will also reduce congestion and travel time meaning more time in a day for other needs. There is a strong focus on enhancing cultural heritage and the Noongar people. \$15 million has been allocated as the minimum spend with aboriginal business to help achieve this focus. There will be indigenous artworks found at Redcliffe and airport stations, a huge benefit for aboriginal communities and making people feel comfortable within the space helping its long term use. Areas of Ellenbrook and Dayton are currently extremely disconnected with little transportation infrastructure. The Noranda station should help with this issue. However as people begin to use metronet, parking spaces may become limited and people will be forced to park on roads narrowing the lanes. Due to the large cost of this strategy tax payers may suffer consequences. Metronet will give many environmental benefits due to the reduction in number of cars on the road. Train still produce emissions however it is much less than those produced by cars. Land clearing has occurred to create these rail lines which may lead to habitat fragmentation and disruption. The Forrestfield airport link is in close proximity to congested roads and it estimates that 15000 cars will be removed reducing emissions and travel times. While it is occurring on new land, a large portion will occur underground meaning minimal impact on terrestrial land. A water sensitive design will detect leaks and reduce water consumption by 11%. The FAL line aims to use at least 20% recycles content. The implementation on this strategy is a huge cost, with \$2 billion from the state government and \$3.7 billion from the Australian government to cover the cost. However for individuals the cost will reduce on fuel because it reduces a 20 minute delay from looking for parking. The manufacturing that is occurring in Bellevue wil create 200 additional jobs in this location alone during project completion. Multi story car parks will improve access meaning users can park within 300m Metronet provides many benefits to the people of Perth and will continue to meet the needs to future generations if it experiences enough use and maintenance continues. If people make the swap from driving to the train the environmental benefits will be huge as cars are taken off the road. Metronet is extremely sustainably for future generations if it will continue to be adapted to better suit and so people will make the swap from driving to train. **BICYCLE PLAN SUSTAINABILITY** The western Australian bicycle network plan involves the creation of new bike routes along some of Perth's busiest roads so that people will pursue the change from driving to cycling into the CBD. Safer streets and well designed connected infrastructure will have a significant impact on the amount of people who choose cycling as their mode of travel. This could contribute to a massive reduction in road congestion particularly along major transport routes into the CBD. The project involves improved cycling infrastructure, additional river and lake crossing and a continuous cycling network along major corridors. New Metronet stations will include bike storage and end of trip facilities such as toilets and changerooms to become more attractive to workers. The bicycle plan will provide significant environmental benefits in the long term due to less vehicle use. It is a clean mode of travel and will limit climate change. Using a bike instead of a car for short trips can reduce travel emissions by around 75%. For every 1km cycled there is a saving of more then 240 grams of carbon. The increase of cycling will also benefit the environment due to a reduction in noise pollution. Less land clearing is needed to create cycling infrastructure compared to road and rail networks leading to less habitat disruption. Environmentally, the bicycle plan offers huge benefits that will continue into the foreseeable future as more people take up cycling over driving into the CBD. Cycling is a huge saving economically for both people and governments. This strategy will be much cheaper to implement with a shelter that fits 64 bicycles costing around \$70,000 compared to a 50 bay car park that costs around \$448000. Other savings for government bodies includes less road construction and maintenance. It contributes to personal affordability in many ways including the fact the purchasing an maintaining a bike is much less then cars. In 2019 the average yearly transportation costs for a household was nearly \$18000, with bikes they offer far less fuel and insurance costs. However the cost of implementing this plan is great with 74 cycling projects across WA costing an estimated \$7.6 million. This is part of a government investment plan of \$220 million over the next 4 years. While the plan may be costing governments large amounts now, the benefits will be fulfilled if the new networks are used effectively. Socially the bicycle plan will provide benefits to many people including individuals who currently cycle on routes which may not be safe. The new network will be much safer and better considered reducing serious cycling injuries. As more people chose cycling the will begin to experience the health benefits such as reduced cardiovascular disease, obesity, depression and anxiety. The indigenous people have been incorporated in this plan by the use of artwork in underpasses. **URBAN INFILL SUSTAINABILITY** Urban infill is outlined in the state governments new planning strategy. The new document provides a geode of land use planning and infrastructure frameworks formulated to guide the future growth of Perth and peel as a compact, consolidated and connected city that can accommodate a population of 3.5 million by 2050. It looks to do this by changing existing patterns of housing development in the long-term through infill measures. Infill involves the development of new sites within existing urban areas. It will slow the spread of housing developments and urban sprawl. The document proposes that 47% of additional 1.5 million people expected to live in the metropolitan area by 2050 will be house by infill measures. This goal is slowly being achieves with 19 inner metropolitan councils have achieved a 43% infill rate in 2019. Smart urban infill implication will reduce environmental impacts on biodiversity because new population is being accommodated on already existing urban land therefore reducing future land cleared for developments. Urban infill lessens habitat fragmentation that occurs and limits disruption to fragile ecological communities and endemic flora and fauna. However these environmental benefits are not evident yet because 5150 new dwellings have been constructed on the rural urban fringe in 2020 alone, this is 1170 more then in infill areas. There are also reports that there is reduced canopy cover in infill areas. This is evident in ariel photographs in the GAWA textbook that clearly illustrate the differences in canopy cover in infill areas. This strategy has the potential to reduce environmental disruption but it must effectively implement green spaces in infill regions. Urban infill has the potential to save large amounts of money, giving positive benefits economically. The strategy has the potential to save the government \$94.5 million for every 1000 lots developed in inner suburbs due to decreased cost of providing infrastructure to new areas. It also will reduce long work trips from outer regions to inner suburbs, estimated to be reduced by a third. However urban infill has currently not provided residents with more affordable housing options due to the lack of diversity on offer. For the approval of an infill project, it requires studies on noise in the area and according to ABC news this process often takes years to be done. Due to the extent and inconvenience of these studies, organisations are less likely to undergo this process. According to ABC news there is vacant land in Dianella, close proximity to the CBD since 2015 yet to undergo infill. For this strategy to become more effective, governments must make effective use of land and begin to implement infill in more regions. Socially urban infill could create a large range of diverse housing options that are affordable and suitable to many groups of people however currently this is not the case. Urban infill must be done in a way that can improve quality, amenity and value of an area. Due to the type of urban infill currently dominating Perth there is fierce opposition by communities who fear that infill will deplete green spaces and stamp out individual character. Active engagement with the community during all phases of the process could cure worries and better communicate the vision and approach. There are many factors that currently steer individuals away from infill including small confined spaces, expensive prices, high crime rates. For this strategy to become more effective in the future the government should better work with communities to find a way of urban infill suited to the need of society otherwise this strategy will not be effective in addressing urban infill **METRONET LIVEABILITY** Metronet will enhance the liveability of Perth residents due to improved quality of life. It connects communities that didn't always have this infrastructure providing a sense of belonging. Stations will also be in walking distance of residential areas to help residents feel safe knowing that they are almost at their destination and have a reliable transport service. There will also be cultural recognition of indigenous artwork, improving the quality of life for the indigenous people who feel included and other populations who get to enjoy the artwork. This artwork is going to be implemented in Redcliffe and airport stations. Less traffic congestion will also improve quality of life meaning that Perth residents will have more time to do other things in their life. Metronet will also enhance liveability by increasing transport mobility and reducing cost of living. 72km of new line will provide much needed services to areas of Perth that are currently without basic infrastructure. There is also going to be up to 22 new stations which will allow for great extent to many of Perth's newer suburbs and regions. this will reduce the cost of living because catching public transport is estimated to be 4 times cheaper then driving a car. With rising fuel prices public transport is a highly suitable alternative allowing accessibility to all of Perth's residents. For Metronet to effectively improve liveability, people must use these rail lines to keep them up and running for the foreseeable future. Finally, metronet will enhance liveability due to greater access to services, the Forrestfield airport link will encourage both domestic and international travel while people do not have to worry about paying for parking and busy airport traffic. It will also allow areas to become high density active urban places with great community engagement promoting other businesses to relocate. This easy access to services will also allow people to feel more comfortable and at ease knowing that they can get wherever they need without worrying about driving during peak conditions. For this to continually enhance liveability, the west Australian government should ensure that they consider to expand metronet as Perth's population grows in order to continue meeting needs of society. **BICYCLE PLAN LIVEABILITY** The WA bicycle network plan will enhance liveability by increasing the quality of life. Cycling over driving saves time and is often faster during peak hours for distances under 10km. this increases quality of life by reducing time spent in unpleseant situations like sitting in traffic. Cycling is safe and easy regardless of experience level and pushes people out of their comfort zones. There are protected bike lanes in the CBD to ensure that people can feel safe and comfortable whilst cycling, making it an enjoyable experience. It also promotes mental health improvements and allows an escape for nature with routes along the swan river. This program will also enhance liveability by improving the health of Australians. 2/3 of Australians do not get enough exercise to maintain their health, a regular bike ride can reduce risks associated with lack of physical exercise such as type 2 diabetes, obesity and depression. Cycling will provide an enjoyable, scenic experience whilst residents also receive their daily exercise. Businesses with employees that regularly cycle have reported that productivity is increased due to improved fitness and mental health of workers who choose to ride rather then driving on congested roads. Cycling will significantly improve air quality and it is an effective way of reducing the number of vehicles that drive on Perth's roads daily. Vehicles emit carbon dioxide, medium petrol cars emit 192 grams of carbon dioxide per passenger kilometre whereas cycling produces 0 emissions and is a much better swap to improve climate change. Some concerns have been raised about cyclists being exposed to air quality along main roads but a UK study has shown that people in cars and buses spend longer in toxic air as opposed to cyclists on main roads. They did a study travelling 4km and cyclists were exposed to a total of 12m of pollution particles, almost half of what was encountered by those travelling by car or bus. **URBAN INFILL LIVEABILITY** Urban infill does not sufficiently enhance the liveability of its residents and many are experiencing a diminishing quality of life due to many reasons. The homes are poorly designed or have inaccessible open spaces. There is also absence of open private and outdoor spaces such as a balcony. This has severe impacts on mental and physical health as residents may feel claustrophobic and enclosed. Lack of a backyard means that unsupervised play is unavailable for children however this is essential for their development. 54% of regions have no walking paths which is not ideal for physical wellbeing. There is also a decreased sense of safety for residents living in infill areas but it is integral that this is not the case. 72% of residents rank this their number one consideration when buying a home. Infill areas and particularly apartments experience a higher level of criminal activity decreasing liveability for its residents. Burwood reports 60 incidents per 100 people however Iluka and burns beach report less then 2.36 incidents per 100 people so this does vary depending on location. Liveability is enhanced in infill areas due to a march large access to services and transport. The city of Melville, where infill measures take place is home to 7 child health centers, 4 ages care facilities and 21 pre schools. In some further out suburbs there is limited access to public transport therefore car usage is required for commuting to work. There is no agreed plan to increase services to infill areas made in the past 10 years. **SITE SITUATION INTERNAL EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY NEW YORK** New York is sited on undulating Atlantic coastal plain. It is generally flat land which promotes the outward growth of the city. The highest point is Todt hill on Staten island at 124.9m above sea level. New York is built on a series of faults made of quartz, feldspar and mica posing a moderate tectonics risk. Manhattans geology includes metamorphic schist that provides excellent stability for the islands high rise buildings. New York is located in the north east of the united states, 350km southwest of Boston and 430km northeast of Washington D.C. it is located in the extreme south eastern corner of new York state bordering New Jersey. The metropolitan area is made of 5 boroughs separated by various waterways. Morphology is the study of a shape. Manhattan has a linear morphology along the 21.6km length of the island. The entire area is multicellular and extends over 5 boroughs covering 790km2. The Hudson and east rivers dissect new York. The expansion of the cities external morphology began when bridge and tunnel technology overcome the physical barriers created by rivers. Road and rail links during the 20^th^ century allowed the development of outer boroughs in multicellular form. The Atlantic coastline restricts city development to the east and so do mountain ranges in the west. Central business district: the CBD of new York is multi nuclei with both the midtown and financial district. The financial district has irregularly shaped streets and a high level of land use competition creating vertical zonation of sky scrapers. The area also includes aggregation of commerce and finance with the new York stock exchange as a key factor site. The midtown shares a high level of accessibility with major rail and bus routes converging into stations such as the grand central station. This area provides different functions including retail and entertainment. There is large amounts of pedestrian movement with times square becoming pedestrian orientated. Inner mixed zone: includes older neighborhoods on the fringe of the CBD. It also includes warehouses, factories, restaurants, offices and apartments. It includes prior industrial areas such as SoHo and Chelsea which now contain designer boutiques, high end art galleries aswell as expensive lofts. Sites have undergone gentrification such as buildings in the lower east side neighbourhood that have been converted to trendy resturants. Processess of land use competition, invasion, succession account for the constant changes. Residential zones: most dominant in terms of spatial extent. Contains a variety of dwellings of different styles, ages and quality. Most expensive are in upper west and upper east side which share access to central park and the midtown. The median residential property sale price in Manhattan is \$17,000 per square meter. The residential density in Manhattan encourages high rise apartments. Redevelopment has been ongoing since the 1950s to remove former slums and blighted residential areas. Residential areas in long island and the outer boroughs are much larger and free standing compared to apartments. They are also free standing, less congestion and larger blocks. Outer business districts: each borough has numerous OBD and they are spread throughout the metropolitan area to aggregate central business functions and serve surrounding neighbourhoods. For example 2 multi story shopping centres in Brooklyn. Special purpose zone: the headquarters of the united nations is located in turtle bay Manhattan. Central park is an example of preservation of they cities natural vegetation. Airports such as the John F Kennedy is extensive. Inertia limites the changing in function. Amusement park on coney island still remains despite it cannot fulfill to a city of great size. Sport centres such as Madison Square Garden. Industrial zones: centrifugal forces have driven much of New York's manufacturing away from the cities core. Increased land use competition has affected the size of this industry. In 2006, 16 industrial zones created across the city. Agglomeration is a major process influencing the locations. Rural urban fringe: Westchester is a country on the rural urban fringe. There is no boundary and a constant encroachment and invasion into traditional agricultural areas. **DEMOGRAPHICS NEW YORK** Women are becoming more educated and entering the workforce, delaying childbirth and lowering fertility rates. 52% of the population in New York are women. According to the US census bureau data in 2021 the median age was 36.9. By 2030 it is projected that the median age will be 39 suggesting a general trend towards an aging population. In 2021 64% of the population was aged between 18 and 64 and 14% were 30-39 years of age, this being the largest category. This is due to young adults choosing to live in the city due to tertiary education and work opportunities'. Manhattan has the highest proportion of single person home occupants and will 69% of population being the working age between 18-64 years of age. This trend is linked to 14.7% of people being below 18 in Manhattan compared to 22% in Brooklyn which has a much larger proportion of family occupants. This is also due to Manhattan being the location with the financial district promoting many people to live here for job purposes. There are 3 distinct income zones in new York. The inner zone is where the rich commute by foot or public transport. A second zone includes outer boroughs such as Jamaica where the poor commute by public transport. The third zone includes county's such as Westchester where the rich drive, this is known as the tree change. In June 2022 the monthly rent in Manhattan was over \$5000 and was \$3800 in Brooklyn and \$1600 in the Bronx. This displays the income inequality from regions, likely due to the jobs available. Only 16% of people in Manhattan are classified as living in poverty which is much lower compared to the Bronx at 24%. The median income in Manhattan is \$89000 but only \$41000 in The Bronx. New York has a very ethically diverse population with 36% of people being foreign born in 2020. It has attracted immigrants from different locations for many years, particularly those searching for a better life. 30% of the population is white, 20% black, 28% Hispanic and 15% Asian. There is approximately 700 languages spoken but English dominates at 64% and Spanish at 19%. Staten island is the least diverse with 56% white. It is undesirable for new immigrants due to the public transport being limited. The Bronx has the greatest proportion of non white residents with 55% Hispanic and 28% black. Across all boroughs in the past decade there has been an increase in Asians. **TRANSPORTATION LIVEABILITY AND SUSTAINABILITY** Vision zero is a strategy being implemented in New York to address the transportation challenge and it aims to prevent serious collisions, injury and fatalities associated with pedestrians and cyclists. Road deaths have now reached their lowest since 1910. The city aims to achieve vision zero with education, enforcement, engineering and expanded bike lanes with pedestrian priority areas. Vision zero is based on the underlying ethical principle that is unacceptable that people are seriously injured or killed as a result of a poor public transport system. Priority areas with the most deaths or injuries have been identified. 90% of these areas have now been addressed. This has been a factor contributing to a 36% drop in pedestrian deaths at these locations. Vision zero includes a variety of elements in order to solve the issue, pedestrian islands in the middle of roads, changed angles on corners, widening footpaths and bicycle paths, and pedestrian orientated areas. All of these elements will contribute to the liveability of new York for its residents who will have improved safety, health and access to transport. Liveability will be enhanced by the improved safety of vulnerable populations. In 2014 vision zero identified children and seniors as 2 of its primary vulnerable populations. To improve the liveability of these residents, speed limites have been lowered to 40km per hour and pedestrian space has been expanded. Queens boulevard was identified as one of the main priority areas with 351 people injured between 2019 and 2023. The safety of residents in queens boulevard has been improved by adding more pedestrian space and protected bike lanes. This has lead to a 68% reduction in fatalities in this region alone. 3 travel lanes and pedestrian islands have also lead to a 22% injury reduction for seniors which were originally noted as one of the vulnerable populations. Therefore vision zero has successfully enhanced the liveability of the distinguished vulnerable groups of children and seniors. Improvements to health due to reduction of pollution is another way that vision zero has enhanced the liveability of new York. The increased size and availability of cycling lanes has promoted people to choose cycling over driving, removing cars of the road and therefore the emissions they create. There has been ann observed increase in cycling from 2014 to 2017 avoiding an estimated 3011 tonnes of CO2. This has been a key component contributing to the success of the cities clean up policy. Cycling has become much easier to do in the city with 2.0 lane miles of connection added through sunnyside. It is estimated that 2.6 million car trips are now avoided annually, which will make a massive difference to the climate and therefore the health of New York. A final reason how vision zero has enhanced the liveability of New York is by more equitable access to transportation. The increase in bike paths means that low income areas now have the option to purchase bikes rather then cars creating a significant saving while still providing a mode of transport. The city has had an increase of bike trips by 134% as people begin to choose cycling as their main mode of transport. The NYC DOT carshare program cuts back on harmful emissions to improve air quality and provides transportation for lower income neighbourhoods. It is a mode of car rental where people rent cars for a short period of time. It reduces the need for car ownership and therefore improves traffic in the city and harmful emissions. There are 283 parking locations in various areas. It aims to spread to cost effective shared mobility options citywide to benefits New Yorkers. It also brings predictable pricing to users with reliable parking included in the fee. CSO's currently pay annual fee of \$500 for every 2 spaces they use. 285 car share spaces leads to about 1140 cars being shed or suppressed. Social: - Health benefits reduced CO2 - 68% reduction in senior fatalities queens boulevard - 22% reduction seniors - Bike trips increased 134% Environmental: - From 2014-2017 observed increase of biking saved 3011 tonnes of CO2 - 2.6 million car trips saved annually - Contributes to the cities clean up policy Economic: - In May 2022 as a part of the 2023 executive budget the NYC mayor Eric Adams committed more that \$900 million to improve citywide traffic safety. - Takes the pressure of health care systems - Cheaper to purchase bikes rather then cars **HOUSING LIVEABILITY AND SUSTAINABILITY** Supportive housing is a strategy that provides safe, high quality and affordable homes. It addresses homelessness and housing instability creating and preserving affordable housing. It improves the health and safety of workers, designed to help vulnerable individuals and families. Provides a platform for health and recovery following a period of homelessness, hospitalisation or incarnation. It is owned by non profit organisations. This service can help people pay their rent on time and understand rights and responsibilities around lease and help people with chronic injuries or illness to manage diet and medicine properly. Tenants generally pay no more then 30% of their income. It is designed to blend in to other buildings and enhance liveability to attract people towards this form of housing. The Adams administrative committed to creating 15000 supportive housing apartments by 2028. According to studies conducted over past 20 years supportive housing has been the most successful intervention developed yet for ending homelessness among the most vulnerable. Share NYC is a strategy is currently being implemented to address the housing issue in New York. The cost to maintain and construct buildings in NYC is among the highest in the world. Land to build new housing is in short supply and extremely expensive. In 2022 the average cost to purchase one square meter in New York was \$10,000. Co living involves a modern from of communal living that accommodates typically 3 or more biologically related people within the same dwelling units. Co living spaces typically include a private bedroom and bathroom with communal eating and living areas. It explores innovative, affordable and high quality to better address affordable housing. The design uses a concept called layered intimacy intended to balance the need for privacy but also making the spaces as liveable and pleasant as possible. Common Roosevelt is an example with 253 rental apartments and 56 shared apartments among many buildings. Millennials are the most common age bracket for this form of living. Share NYC provides positive social benefits by providing affordable housing due to it including all utilities and furniture. There are 36 share housing opportunities in East Harlem of Manhattan. The units are designed to encourage a sense of community and create a home like environment. Residents have access to social services. Many shared apartments also offer shorten lease terms which is ideal for people travelling and looking for short term accommodation. The life at home report 2021 revealed that 67% of people co living state that it has had a positive impact on their mental health. However there is some privacy issues from shared bathrooms and kitchens meaning less personal space and lack of comfort. There is also potential for conflict due to differences in lifestyle and habits. There is some concerns for security due to the lack of constant changing of roommates. Share NYC provides more affordable housing then normal renting. Bills and expenses are factorised into monthly rent allowing residents to be in more control over their budgets. By living in a 'connected community' allowing residents to trade skills and knowledge. This provides a quicker transition for people settling into a new city. This housing option also may not be as affordable for the residents that need it the most. Only 15% of beds out of 300 in co living spaces are actually designated as affordable and therefore not really suitable for low income earners. This strategy does many things in order to become environmentally sustainable. They have heating and cooling systems, a green roof, a rear yard with native plants that is open to resident use. Spaces are sustainably designed and take advantage of modern advancements and energy efficient building materials. There is reduced energy consumption from electrical appliances. Increased housing density means that they take up less area which otherwise would be cleared for individual homes. The cypress hill redevelopment aims to retain all residents whilst they upgrade facilities to improve environmental benefits. If organisations like this continue to make these changes Share NYC will be extremely environmentally sustainable in the future. In a recent report NYC was ranked 58 out of 140 cities and was rated highly for culture and environment but was brought down due to higher risk of crime and terrorism. Share NYC enhances liveability due to it providing an increased sense of safety. 32% of New Yorkers live alone so share NYC is an option that can be used to provide residents with a companion. The life at home report 2021 revealed that 67% of people in shared units say it has improved their mental health. Having a sense of wellbeing and companion around you can cure worries and increase safety rather then being alone. Being a part of a larger organisation means that crimes are dealt with easier and faster rather then living in a private home **CLIMATE CHANGE** **Earth systems** The heat budget is the distribution of insolation through the atmosphere. Albedo is also known as surface reflectivity and refers to how much insolation is reflected by a surface 0 being none reflected and 1 is all reflected. All insolation that is sent to the earth will eventually be returned back to space otherwise the planet would heat up endlessly. The heat budget is the driving force of all other systems. Approximately 30% of solar energy is reflected immediately by clouds, particles. Then 19% is absorbed by water vapour, dust and ozone. 51% is absorbed by land and oceans. Therefore 70% is absorbed by the earths systems. Once insolation has been absorbed in these various ways t is reradiated back into the atmosphere as terrestrial radiation. The green house effect is essential for human life on earth and accounts for the absorption of 15% of terrestrial radiation. Gases in the atmosphere absorb this radiation and re radiate it back downwards. Therefore it slows the passage of heat leaving the atmosphere, keeping it warm. Without this effect the planet would be 30 degrees cooler. However due to the enhanced greenhouse effect more heat is retained in the atmosphere then necessary causing climate change. The hydrological cycle is the movement of water as a liquid and gas and solid through land oceans and atmosphere. Water constantly changes state to remove impurities and constantly recycle the earths fresh water supplies. The sun is the driving force leading to evaporation where water changes its state from liquid to gas and rises into the atmosphere leaving behind salt and impurities. As it rises it becomes cooler and laten heat is released, water droplets then combine. Here it may take liquid or solid form depending on temperatures. When it has condensed and the atmosphere can no longer support its weight it falls from clouds to the earth as precipitation. When precipitation falls water soaks into the Earth and can be collected as ground water which will seep into lakes or rivers. Run off is also collected in these areas. Snow and ice can evaporate directly from their solid form known as sublimation. Plant routes absorb water through photosynthesis and then transpiration occurs from the pores in the plant leaves. The hydrological cycle is important in maintaining the earths water supplies and regulating many elements of weather, The carbon cycle involves the natural biogeochemical cycling of carbon to control temperatures and ensure that not all CO2 is in the atmosphere at once. It involves natural carbon sinks such as trees and oceans that absorb atmospheric carbon through natural processes. The oceans are responsible for 25% of carbon dioxide and store it in lower sedimentary layers for millions of years until it is brought up by heat. It then evaporates into the atmosphere and is released. Soils are also responsible for 1500 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide. Plants exchange CO2 continuously with the atmosphere. Plants remove CO2 via photosynthesis where it is then used for energy. After this it is released as a waste product when they exhale. The carbon cycle keeps a balance to ensure that not all CO2 is in the atmosphere or the lithosphere like maintaining a thermostat. The slow carbon cycle works over a few hundred thousand years as it swings between colder glacial periods and warmer interglacial period. The movement of tectonics plates may change the way that carbon dioxide seeps into the atmosphere. The carbon cycle plays a critical role in exchanging atmospheric carbon and maintaining internal temperature with the enhanced greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide can also be released into the atmosphere via anthropogenic activities causing the enhanced green house effect. Since the industrial revolution. carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere has risen by 48% this has contributed by a rise in average temperatures by 1.1 degrees Celsius. **Projected and present** Oceans Oceans are a natural environment suffering the impacts of climate change. Past decades have seen dramatic rise on Ocean temperatures subsequently leading to sea level rise due to the melting of glaciers. Currently oceans are rising 3.6mm per year and since 1880 have risen approximately 20cm. a third of this rise has occurred since 2002. Oceans are projected to rise at a faster rate compared to 1970-2010. By the end of 2100 a rise is expected to be seen in 95% of the ocean. The Australian coastline will rise 0.61m by 2100 and 1m under a high emissions scenario. These ocean rises will have significant problems leading to 250000 individual homes being at risk under 1.1m of water. It will also impact the seasonal migration of sea life. With a 1.1 degree temperature rise today the united nations predicts that 60% of the marine ecosystem has been degraded. The is currently also 400 marine dead zones no longer habitable to marine life. The projected impacts for sea level rise due to melting of glaciers from increased ocean temperatures will bring many negative impacts on both people and the environment. Another impact of climate change on a natural environment of the oceans is ocean acidity. 30% of CO2 that humans put in the atmosphere is diffused into the Ocean as the Ocean serves as a major carbon sink. Usually this will be stored in sediment for thousands of years but due to increased temperatures, it circulated the ocean and is released into the atmosphere. This increases the acidity of the ocean having adverse impacts on biodiversity. Under a low emissions scenario oceans will increase in acidity by 17% and under a high emissions scenario it will increase by 100%. Already oceans re 26% more acidic then prior to the industrial revolution however clearly this is only the beginning. Ocean acidification will impact the minerals in many corals and shells. The degradation of coral environments will also impact tourism industries in locations such as the great barrier reef. By 2050 it is estimated that 68% of global population will live in urban settlements. Sea level rise and more frequent weather events are some of the key impacts of climate change on urban settlements. Climate change has a key impact on the oceans which is extremely significant to Perth western Australia where 78% of the population lives in the urban settlements. The urban settlements and infrastructure in Perth are extremely low lying due to the early developments of the city near the coast for shipping import and export. Currently, sea levels measured in Fremantle have risen 3.4 inches measured between 1990 and 2019. Under a low to intermediate emissions scenario where temperatures are kept below 2 degrees above pre-industrial temperatures, sea levels are projected to rise a further 0.46m by 2090, according to the West Australian government. Under a high emission scenario, where we continue with the same daily lifestyles, sea levels measured in Freemantle are projected to rise 6.1m by 2090. It is also projected that under 2 meters of water, many areas of Rockingham will be no longer habitable and under water. The projected impact of climate change in regards to the ocean will have a detrimental impact on urban settlements of Perth Western Australia. Climate change is also significantly impacting the cryosphere in regard to frequency and intensity of weather events. Currently according to the Western Australia government, there are 4.2 days on average with a severe fire danger rating. Currently there are also 28 days over 35 degrees and 4 days over 40 degrees. Under an intermediate emissions scenario, the western Australia government projects there will be 43 days over 35 degrees by 2090 and 9.7 days yearly over 40 degrees by 2090. Under a high emissions scenario it is projected that by 2090 the number of severe fire danger rating will increase to 6.9, a 64% increase. There is high confidence in the prediction that there will be much harsher and severe fire weather. It is predicted with medium confidence that there will be more intense rainfall events. It is also predicted with very high confidence that temperatures will increase in all seasons and be significantly higher than current averages. All of these temperature and precipitation impacts on the cryosphere will lead to more severe fire and rain weather events. Under intermediate and high emissions scenarios, the urban settlements of Perth western Australia will experience high sea levels putting people and infrastructure at risk of flooding as well as more intense fire seasons leading to more people in urban settlements being at risk. **BRAZIL VS AUS LAND MANAGEMENT** Land management in Australia can be privately owned and sold but all transactions are recorded by the government. 20% of land in Australia is protected and 40% of this is indigenous protected areas. Freehold land only represents 8% in Australia. Brazil has a high level of land ownership inequalities with 45% of the land owned by less then 1% of the population. 12% of the land is used for mining and this often occurs on indigenous land which creates conflict. Government policies in Australia are strict in terms of rehabilitation of mine sites and other deforested areas. The argyle mines were closed in 2020 but prior to this they were responsible for producing 90% of the worlds pink diamonds. The mandated rehabilitation will take 5 years and then it will be returned to its previous owners. The WA forestry management plan 2023-2033 includes restrictions on 400000 hectares of jarrah karri and wandoo. Throughout Brazil's history the government has promoted its economic growth and recognised the amazon as a large area with huge potential. As a result from 1978 to 1988 an average of 20,000km2 were cleared. However there has now been a change in policies causing deforestation to slow by 83%. SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL AND TEMPERATURE Areas of high rainfall occurs at low latitudes near the equator due to the strong heating by the sun which creates a large uplift of moist air forming heat lows that result in frequent thunderstorms and heavy showers. Cherapunji in north eastern India receive as much as 10,000 millimetres per year driven by monsoons and the Himalayas. Midlatitude and temperate regions experience moderate to high levels of rainfall created by the development of cold fronts within mid latitude low pressure systems. An example of this is New Zealand which receives 16000 millimetres. Coastal areas also experience higher levels of rainfall due to water vapour carried across the land by trade winds. Regions close to the coast in Indonesia have up to 1800 millimetres. Finally windward slopes of mountains receive more rainfall due to the orographic effect. Kalamunda is on the windward slope of the darling escarpment and receives 1060mm but York receives just 406mm. Areas of low rainfall includes areas of high pressure causing cool air to descend and eventually warm reducing condensation and resulting in clear skies. For example the sahara desert in the northern hemisphere that receives less then 250mm. in polar regions there is also lack of rainfall due to the lack of evaporation and moisture in the aire because sun energy is dispersed across a larger area causing a heat deficit, when small amounts of moisture do from the cold air does not allow it to rise sufficiently. Antarctica is the driest continent receiving less then 166mm annually. Areas of high temperature occurs near the equater rather then the poles due to it receiving more direct insolation. These areas have an average surface temperature of 25 degrees or higher. A global transfer of heat is required to heat the poles via atmospheric circulation. Some equatorial reasons do not experience these high temperatures due to rainfall patterns. Parts of the great sandy and tanami desert in Australua experience day temperatures of up to 50 degrees but much cooler night time temperatures. Areas of low albedo absorb more insolation and therefore also experience higher temperatures. Areas of low temperature includes regions close to the poles known as the heat deficit zone. This is due to the angle of incidence that insolation hits the earth. North Canada and antarctica are examples of this. Antarcticas annual average temperature is -49 degrees. Areas of high albedo reflect ore insolation and therefore also experience lower temperatures