General Biology 1 PDF

**3 MAIN BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY** 1. 2. 3. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **TRADITIONAL BRANCHES** | +=======================================================================+ | A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H....

**3 MAIN BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY** 1. 2. 3. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **TRADITIONAL BRANCHES** | +=======================================================================+ | A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **MODERN BRANCHES** | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | A. B. C. D. E. F. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **TRADITIONAL BRANCHES** A. **TAXONOMY** - Science that deals with naming, describing, and classification of all living organisms. B. **CYTOLOGY** - Study of cells. C. **EMBRYOLOGY** - Study of the development of organisms from fertilized egg to birth. D. **ANATOMY** - Study of structures of organisms E. **PHYSIOLOGY** - Study of functions of organisms and their parts F. **BIOCHEMISTRY** - Study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. G. **GENETICS** - Study of heredity and variation in organisms. H. **EVOLUTION** - The changes in the proportions of biological types in a population over time. I. **ECOLOGY** - Study of interactions between organisms and their environments. **MODERN BRANCHES** A. **BIOINFORMATICS** - Study of biological data using computer programs. B. **GENOMICS** - Study of the entire genomic material of an organism. C. **MOLECULAR BIOLOGY** - Study of molecules that make up the cells of living organisms. D. **PHARMACOGENOMICS** - Study of how genes affect drug response. E. **SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY** - Creation of an artificial biological system. F. **SYSTEMS BIOLOGY** - Study of computational and mathematical modeling of biological systems. LIFE AND ITS BEGINNINGS **ABIOGENESIS** **(Spontaneous Generation)** - - **BIOGENESIS** **(Non Spontaneous Generation)** - - A. **REDI'S EXPERIMENT** B. **NEEDHAM\'S EXPERIMENT** C. **SPALLAZANI'S EXPERIMENT**  D. **PASTEUR'S EXPERIMENT** CELL THEORY ***FUN FACT!*** - - FIRST MICROSCOPE - Created by Hans and Zacharias Jansen (late 1500s) CELL - - - - **Prokaryotes:** Microscopic **Eukaryotes:** Only **YEAST** is microscopic **ROBERT HOOKE** - Coined the term "cell" due to its box-shaped structure that reminded him of the cells or rooms in monasteries. **ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK** - "Father of Microbiology" - - - ***3 German men: CELL THEORY*** - - - **THE CELL THEORY** 1. 2. 3. **MODERN CELL THEORY** 1. 2. 3. 4. ***All living cells have:*** nucleus, cell membrane, and cytoplasm. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION **INTRODUCTION** - - **ANIMAL CELL**  **PLANT CELL** **CELL ORGANELLES** - **PLASMA MEMBRANE** - -  - - +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ***Parts of cell membrane:*** | | | | - - - | | | | | | | | - - - - - - - | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - - - - - ***Cell Wall Differences:*** - - - - - - - - **MEMBRANE-BOUND ORGANELLES** - - - - - - - - - - - - +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM** | | | | - - | | | | **SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM** | | | | - - | | | | | | | | - - | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **PLASTIDS** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **COMPONENTS OF CYTOSKELETON on** | | | | - - - | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - - - - - - **NON-MEMBRANE-BOUND ORGANELLES** - - - - - - **CELL SURFACES AND JUNCTIONS** - - - - - **EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX** - A layer mic of proteins and polyssacharides (glycoproteins). - - **SCHOOL ANALOGY FOR CELL STRUCTURE & FUNCTION** **CELL PART** **SCHOOL ANALOGY** **REASON** ----------------------- ----------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Cell Membrane Security Guard The guard chooses who can enter or leave the school, only those student I.D can enter. Cytoplasm School Perimeter It is where all the parts and processes of the school can be found. Nucleus Principal The principal is the person in authority inside the school especially in terms of management and decision making. Nucleolus Deped They are the ones responsible for hiring and producing teachers like how nucleolus produce ribosomes. Ribosomes Teachers Teaches the students. Golgi Body Classrooms It is where the students are taught and packaged physically, mentally, socially, and spiritually. Mitochondria Canteen The food gives energy to the students. Lysosome Janitor They get rid of trash by cleaning the school premises. Endoplasmic Reticulum Hallways And Corridor They are the passageway that could be used to transport services. Vacuole Cabinets They store books, papers, and other stocks needed by the school. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **VOCABULARY** | +=======================================================================+ | - **ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM:** Group of membranes that help in | | manufacturing, storting, and distributing proteins. | | | | - **HISTONES:** A special group of proteins that package the DNA, | | forming chromatin. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ MICROSCOPES **MICROGRAPH** - Images produced by the microscope. **MAGNIFICATION** - The measure of optical measurements for an object to appear larger than its actual size. **RESOLUTION** - Indicates the clarity of an image. **TYPES OF MICROSCOPES** **COMPOUND MICROSCOPE** - - - **STEREOMICROSCOPE** -- Used to examine external structures of a specimen (e.g., insects). **PHASE-CONTRAST MICROSCOPE** -- Used to examine highly transparent objects (e.g., unstained cells) **ELECTRON MICROSCOPE** -- Uses steams of electrons to enlarge objects up to 10,000 000x. - - **FLUOROSCENT MICROSCOPES** - Illuminates objects stained with **fluorescent** dyes that glow in the dark. - **CONFOCAL SCANNING MICROSCOPES** - - THE CELL CYCLE INTERPHASE (I) - **Gap 1 (**[*G*~1~]{.math.inline}**)** - - - - - - **Synthesis (S)** - - - - - **Gap 2 (**[*G*~2~]{.math.inline}**)** - - RATE OF CELL DIVISION **COMMON CELL LIFESPAN** -------------------------------------- --------------------------- **CELL TYPE** **APPROXIMATE LIFE SPAN** Skin cell 14 days Red blood cell 120 days Liver 300 - 500 days The internal lining of the intestine 4 - 5 days Smooth muscle of the intestine 16 years - - - **Gap 0 (**[*G*~0~]{.math.inline}**)** - - - MITOSIS - - - PROPHASE \| START OF MITOSIS - - +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ***Procedure:*** | | | | 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+  METAPHASE \| CHROMOSOMES AT THE CENTER - ANAPHASE \| CHROMATIDS TO OPPOSITE POLES - - - ***Animal cells:*** Look elongated since some of the microtubules lengthen. ***Plant cells:*** No change because of the cell wall. TELOPHASE \| REFORMATION OF THE NUCLEI - - - CYTOKINESIS - - +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ***In animal cells:*** | | | | - - | +=======================================================================+ | ***In plant cells:*** | | | | - - - | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+  REGULATION OF CELL CYCLE - - ***Cells are activated by internal & external factors:*** EXTERNAL FACTORS +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **PHYSICAL EXTERNAL FACTOR** | +=======================================================================+ | Physical signals (cell-to-cell contact) exist between cells. | | | | - **CONTACT INHIBITION:** Happens when a *[cell touches another | | cell]*, it stops dividing. | | | | - **ANCHORAGE DEPENDENCE:** Cells only grow if a *[surface is | | available]* and stop dividing when detached from the | | culture dish. | | | | There are **RECEPTORS** found on neighboring cells binding each other | | and causing the cell's cytoplasm to form structures that can block | | the signal, thus, stopping the continuous division. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **CHEMICAL INTERNAL FACTOR** | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Chemical signals released by the cell (e.g., growth factors) provide | | instructions for the cells to grow. | | | | - **GROWTH FACTORS:** Proteins that stimulate cell division, which | | can activate specific genes to trigger cell growth. | | | | - Some growth factors affect the growth of other cells. | | | | | | | | - - | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ INTERNAL FACTORS - - - **KINASE** - An enzyme that transfers a phosphate group from one molecule to the target molecule. This mechanism accelerates the energy of the target molecule or changes its shape. **CYCLINS** - Activates the kinases that help control the cell cycle. - - **APOPTOSIS** - - - MEIOSIS [***Watch this link:*** ] GENETIC DISORDER **NONDISJUNCTION -** A process where chromosomes or chromatids fail to separate during meiosis. - - **ANEUPLOIDY** - Having an abnormal chromosome number. - - - **PATAU SYNDROME \[TRISOMY 13\]** - A genetic disorder caused by the presence of an extra chromosome 13 (trisomy 13). - **TURNER SYNDROME** - A monosomy disorder in humans having only one X chromosome. - - +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ***Affected individuals have the following characteristics:*** | | | | - - | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **TRISOMY X \[47, XXX\]** - The abnormal presence of an extra X chromosome, which affects 1 in 1,000 females. - +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ***Affected individuals have the following characteristics:*** | | | | - - | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **KLINEFELTER SYNDROME \[47, XXY\]** - A chromosomal abnormality affecting the development of males. ***Affected individuals have the following characteristics:*** - **DOWN SYNDROME \[TRISOMY 21\]** - The most common disorder of trisomy, wherein the twenty-first chromosome has three instead of two chromosomes. - - +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ***Affected individuals have the following characteristics:*** | | | | - - - - | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ COMMON TYPE OF GENETIC DISORDERS **CYSTIC FIBROSIS** --- Cause: mutation in which the CTFR gene which regulates the movement of salt & water in and out of cells. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ***Affected individuals have the following characteristics:*** | | | | - Causes the production of thick, sticky mucus in the lungs and | | digestive system | | | | | | | | - Cough and lung infections | | | | - Difficulty breathing and wheezing | | | | - Poor growth and weight gain despite a good appetite | | | | - Frequent lung infections | | | | - Digestive problems | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **SICKLE TICKLE DISEASE (ANEMIA)** - Cause: Two mutations in the HBB gene (one from each parent), which affect the structure of hemoglobin in red blood cells, leading to a misshapen (sickle-shaped) red-blood cells that can block blood flow. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ***Affected individuals have the following characteristics:*** | | | | - - - - - | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **TAY-SACHS DISEASE** - Cause: Mutation in the HEXA gene, which leads to the accumulation of fatty substances in the brain, and affective nerve cells, causing severe neurological damage. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ***Affected individuals have the following characteristics:*** | | | | - - - - - | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **PROGERIA (HUTCHINSON-GILFORD PROGERIA SYNDROME)** - Cause: mutation in LMNA gene, which leads to abnormal production of a protein called **progerin.** - +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ***Affected individuals have the following characteristics:*** | | | | - - - - | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+