Gender and Society PDF

Gender and Society Covering topics: - Theoretical Perspective on Gender - Gender Identity Role and Development - Gender and Sexuality - Gender and Families - Gender and Education - Gender and Work Sociological Theories' Perspective on Gender Sociological Theories...

Gender and Society Covering topics: - Theoretical Perspective on Gender - Gender Identity Role and Development - Gender and Sexuality - Gender and Families - Gender and Education - Gender and Work Sociological Theories' Perspective on Gender Sociological Theories - Functionalist Perspective - Conflict Perspective - Symbolic Interactionist Perspective Functionalist perspective "Gender" helps all of society work well. - The functionalist perspective emphasizes the interconnectedness of society by focusing on how each part influences and is influenced by other parts. - Explores the "what ought to be" of a particular individual - The functionalist perspective sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. - This approach looks at society through a macro-level orientation and broadly focuses on the social structures that shape society as a whole.  - Functionalists argue that gender roles were established well before the pre-industrial era when men typically took care of responsibilities outside of the home, such as hunting, and women typically took care of the domestic responsibilities in or around the home - The roles were considered functional because women were often limited by the physical restraints of pregnancy and nursing and unable to leave the home for long periods of time - Once established, these roles were passed on to subsequent generations since they served as an effective means of keeping the family system functioning properly. Conflict perspective Karl Marx - As societies evolve from agricultural to industrial this leads to the development of two classes of two people: - Bourgeoisie (owners of factories, farms and businesses) dominant - Proletariat (the workers) subordinate Friedrich Engels - The same owner-worker relationship exists in the household, with women assuming the role of the proletariat. - Modern conflict theorists suggest that when women become wage earners, they can gain power in the family. "Gender" is a structural system that distributes power and privilege to some, and gives disadvantage to others. Conflict Theory - Asserts that social problems occur when dominant groups mistreat subordinate ones, and thus advocates for a balance of power between genders. Symbolic Interactionist Perspective - Symbolic interactionism aims to understand human behavior by analyzing the critical role of symbols in human interactions - Our identity or sense of self is shaped by social interaction. - "Gender" is something that a person "does" (clothes, hairstyles, behavior, expressions, etc). - When people perform tasks, or possess characteristics based on the gender role assigned to them, they are said to be "doing gender". - Whether we are expressing our masculinity or femininity, West and Zimmerman (1987) argue, we are always "doing gender". Thus gender is something we do or perform, not something we are Gender Roles Gender - is the - ascribed to males and females. These roles which are learned, change over time and vary widely within and between cultures. It is socially learned behavior and expectations that distinguish between masculinity and femininity. - "Gender roles are learned behaviors in a given society, community or other social group, they condition activities, tasks and responsibilities are perceived as male or female. - Gender roles are affected by age, class race, ethnicity and religion, and by the geographical, economic and political environment" (Pavlic, Sam-Vargas, 2000). - Gender Roles are a range of behaviors and attitudes considered acceptable and appropriate based on the assigned sex. Society expects people to adhere to their gender roles. However, the division between man and woman is based on the most basic difference between the two: Child bearing. This cultivated simplistic generalization on men and women. Gender Equality and Equity - Gender equality, equality between men and women entails the concepts that all human beings, both men and women, are free to develop their personal abilities and make choices without the limitations set by stereotypes, rigid gender roles and prejudices. - It does not mean that women and men have to become the same, but that their rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether they are born male or female. - Gender equity, meanwhile, is about fairness. The process to achieve gender equality Gender Mainstreaming - A Strategy for making men and women's concerns and experiences as an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of policies and programs in all political, economic, and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. - To empower individualism to be accountable, and to ensure integration of efforts in making sure that gender mainstreaming is holistic rather than just a "band-aid" solution. Gender Identity, Role & Development Biological differences of Male and Female Chromosomes: The fundamental Cause of Gender Chromosomes are made by our DNA. The DNA that decides whether a newly fertilized ovum (Egg cells) becomes a male or female is found. 23rd pair of chromosomes (total of 46) identify the sex of the individual ○ XX – Female ○ XY – Male "All men were once women" At first, the embryo (the first stage of human development) has the same sex organs whether it has XY or XX chromosomes. ○ 6 weeks after conception and the Y chromosomes in males results in changes that lead to the gonads becoming testicles. ○ If Y chromosomes are not present then the gonads (testis/ovary) become ovaries. The female sex is considered a "fundamental" sex, because if a particular chemical prompting is absent, all fertilized eggs will develop into females. For a fertilized egg to become male, a cascade of chemical reactions must be present initiated by a single gene in the male Y chromosome called the SRY (Sex-determining Region of Y chromosomes). Females do not have any Y chromosome; hence they do not have the SRY gene. Both the male and female embryos have the same group cells that will potentially develop into male or female gonads or sex glands. However, the presence of the SRY gene initiates the development of the testes while suppressing the vital genes for female development. So we know that at its very core the cause of physical differences in men and women is due to biological differences in DNA.  Meanwhile, an individual's personal sense of maleness or femaleness is his or her gender identity. ○ Outward expression of gender identity, according to cultural and social expectations, is a gender role Hormones: The Biological Cause of Gender Hormones are chemicals in the body that regulate changes in our cells including our growth. ○ Hormones are very important in explaining our gender differences ○ Testosterone - produced by the testes; responsible for sexual activity, increased muscle and bone mass, appearance of hair, deepening of voice. ○ Estrogen - produced in the ovaries; responsible for development of female reproductive system, regulating the menstrual cycle, maintains pregnancy Psychological and Social Influences on Gender Identity Biological make up may play a major part on an individual's gender identity, however, psychosocial and societal factors still influence an individual’s view of himself/herself. Gender Identity Is ultimately derived from chromosomal makeup and physical appearance, but this derivation of gender identity does not mean that psychosocial influences are missing.. individual's personal sense of maleness or femaleness. Gender Socialization The process whereby a child learns the norms and roles that society has created for his or her gender, plays a significant role in the establishment of his/her sense of "femaleness" or "maleness". ○ If a child learns she is a female and is raised as a female, the child believes she is a female ○ If a child is told he is a male and is raised as a male, the child believes he is male. Beginning at birth, most parents treat their children according to the appearance of their genitals. Parents even handle their baby girls less aggressively than their baby boys. Children quickly develop a clear understanding that they are either female or male, as well as a strong desire to adopt gender-appropriate mannerisms and behaviors. This understanding normally occurs within 2 years of age, according to many authorities. ○ Biology sets the stage, but children's interactions with social environments determine the nature of gender identity. Gender Roles Gender roles or Sex roles - In society it means how we're expected to act, speak, dress, groom, and conduct ourselves based upon our assigned sex. - Outward expression of gender identity For example, girls and women are generally expected to dress in typically feminine ways and be polite, accommodating, and nurturing. Gender roles are both cultural and personal. - These roles determine how males and females think, speak, and interact within the context of society. - Learning plays a role in this process of shaping gender roles. - These gender schemas are deeply embedded cognitive frameworks regarding what defines masculine and feminine. Major Theories that can be attributed to the development of a person's identity: Psychoanalytic – Sigmund Freud Social-Learning – Albert Bandura Cognitive-Developmental – Lawrence Kohlberg Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud's theory of psychological development explained that children satisfy their basic biological motivations which were discovered through a treatment known as psychoanalysis – The examination of the unconscious. Thus, Psychoanalysis was the first comprehensive personality theory that attempted to explain the origins of what we now call "gender" (Ovesey, 1983).  Sigmund concluded that there were primary aspects of the psychoanalytic theory: id, ego, and superego. The personality combined the id(basic instincts such as hunger, desires, and aggression/personality for example, an infant is 100% id), ego (reality testing and rationalization/psychological and the superego (conscience, moral judgment/social) ○ Id - Operates on the pleasure principle. - Every wishful impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences - When the id achieves it demands, you experience pleasure; when it is denied, you experience "unpleasure or tension" ○ Ego - Operates according to the reality principle. - It works out realistic ways of satisfying the id's demands (often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of society). - The ego considered social realities and norms, etiquette and rules in deciding how to behave ○ Superego Freud's psychosexual development theory stage Age range Erogenous zone Behavioral focus oral 0-2 Mouth, lips, and Sucking, biting and tongue chewing anal 2-4 anus Bowel movements Phallic (crucial) 3-6 genitals Genital stimulation, attraction to opposite-sex parent, imitation of same-sex parent Latency 6 None (sexual Cognitive and impulses are social development suppressed) (education and social relationships) Genital puberty-adulthood genitals Development of sexual and intimate adult relationships  Freud's psychosexual development theory of gender development suggests that gender development takes place during third stage of his psychosexual theory of personality development ○ He called this phallic stage, which occurs between three and six years old. ○ In the phallic stage, the child's libido is focused on his or her genitals. Development of gender is psychoanalytic theory is different for boys and for girls: ○ Boys experience the Oedipus complex and identify with their father and take on a male gender role. ○ Girls experience the Electra complex and identify with their mother and take on a female gender role. Oedipus complex ○ In psychoanalytic theory, a desire for sexual involvement with the parent of the opposite sex and a concomitant sense of rivalry with the parent of the same sex a crucial stage in the normal development process. Electra Complex ○ Is a term used to describe the female version of the Oedipus complex It involves a girl, aged between 3 and 6, becoming subconsciously sexually attracted to her father and increasingly hostile toward her mother. Social-Learning Theory Social Learning theory Was proposed by Bandura as a way of explaining how children acquire their gender identity based on the influence of other people (particularly their parents) In Terms of Gender development, children receive praise if they engage in culturally appropriate gender displays and receive punishment if they do not. When aggressiveness in boys is met with acceptance, or a "boys will be boys" attitude, but a girl's aggressiveness earns them little attention, the two children learn different meanings for aggressiveness as it relates to their gender development. Thus, boys may continue being aggressive while girls may drop it out of their repertoire. Socialization of children is one of the major causes of gender differences between boys and girls Children are encouraged to do the appropriate sex-typed activities by the parents, media, and school Stages of development in social learning theory - These are four stages that a child goes through when developing gender behavior. These are: 1. Attention - This is merely where the behavior is noticed and observed 2. Memory - This is when the behavior is memorized and committed to memory 3. Imitation  - The behavior is performed or "reproduced" based on imitating what they see around them 4. Motivation - Their behavior is based on the desired consequences or what will be gained by the behavior, either immediately or in the near future. Cognitive-developmental theory This approach focuses upon the thought processes underlying learning. This theory gives importance to the internal states of the person as well as the environmental events; however, it is the thinking and perception that is the key factor. The term Cognition refers to the "knowledge" as well as the "process of knowing" The cognitive approach focuses upon the child's "understanding" ○ Information about gender is organized into sets of beliefs about the sexes. Cognitive learning States that children develop gender at their own levels. Children's own cognition are primarily responsible for gender role development The model, formulated by kohlberg, asserts that children recognize their gender identity around age three but do not see it as relatively fixed until the ages of five to seven. This identity marker provides children with a schema (A set of observed or spoken rules for how social or cultural interactions should happen.) In which to organize much of their behavior and that of others. Thus, they look for role models to emulate maleness or femaleness as they grow older ○ Example 1: Information about which toys are for girls and which toys are for boys form a schema that guides behavior. ○ Example 2: If a son sees his mother and sisters respected in the family, he will perceive women as respectable beings; and if he has seen his mother being battered and maltreated by his father he will perceive that women are taken as less valued individuals.