Thurs- Lecture 9 - Gender Inequality- SOC100- Prof. McIvor PDF

Gender & Inequality SOC100: Intro to Soc Lecture 9 Dr. Mitchell McIvor 1 Where we’re at We’re Here Tutorial #5 runs next week Debate Paper #3 is due in two weeks, but you...

Gender & Inequality SOC100: Intro to Soc Lecture 9 Dr. Mitchell McIvor 1 Where we’re at We’re Here Tutorial #5 runs next week Debate Paper #3 is due in two weeks, but you have until Nov.29th with the Grace Period 2  House Keeping- Paper Grades Paper #1 and #2 grades have been released. For feedback You all received an individual rubric and individual comments. If you're having trouble accessing your feedback, please see this video for how to access them In addition, we provide universal feedback (these are common problems and tips based on the papers that apply to everyone). You can find the universal feedback documents for each paper under the modules link on the Quercus page (specifically, the debate paper module). If you want further feedback (remember TA's have limited time with each paper), there are online office hours for the grading TA's in the next couple days (you can get feedback from any of the grading TA’s, it doe NOT need to be your grading TA- though you can go to them too. Please note, these office hours are NOT to contest grades, but to get further clarification and to ask questions about feedback or comments you received. The hours are… 3  House Keeping- Paper Hours Paper Office Hours # TA Day/Time Hours Zoom Link Meeting ID Passcode Jon Nov. 13: 2-4 pm 2 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/83247420984 83247420984 No passcode Jennifer Nov. 13: 3-5pm 2 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/88271523226 882 7152 3226 No passcode Marie Nov. 14: 9-11 am 2 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/81483049861 814 8304 9861 No passcode Maleeha Nov. 15: 9- 10am & 11- 12 pm 2 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/89064031321 890 6403 1321 653229 Kyla Nov. 15: 10-11 am 1 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/84537561113 845 3756 1113 546837 Paul Nov. 15: 2-3 pm 1 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/84702020706 847 0202 0706 No passcode Youngrong Nov. 15: 2-4 pm 2 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/9588512725?omn=82849690606 958 851 2725 SOC100SOC Dan Nov. 15: 2 –4 pm 2 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/87839088400 878 3908 8400 SOC100 Umaima Nov. 18: 9-11 am 2 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/82772590935 827 7259 0935 147644 Jenn Nov. 18: 2-4 pm 2 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/87384043767 873 8404 3767 No passcode Paul Nov.18: 2:30-3:30 pm 1 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/84074904757 840 7490 4757 No passcode Dan Nov. 18: 4-5 pm 1 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/87839088400 878 3908 8400 SOC100 Selay Nov. 19: 9:30-11:30 am 2 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/81452286968 814 5228 6968 515476 Shabnoor Nov. 19: 10:30 am-12:30 pm 2 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/85707344698 85707344698 663748 Jon Nov. 19: 12- 2pm 2 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/84808680109 84808680109 No passcode Umaima Nov. 19: 2-4 pm 2 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/82772590935 827 7259 0935 147644 Dan Nov. 19: 4-6 pm 2 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/87839088400 878 3908 8400 SOC100 Kyla Nov. 20: 10-11 am 1 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/84537561113 845 3756 1113 546837 Selay Nov. 20: 2:30-4:30 pm 2 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/81452286968 814 5228 6968 515476 Kyla Nov. 21: 10-11 am 1 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/84537561113 845 3756 1113 546837 Coop Nov. 21: 11 am-1 pm 2 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/83693910377 836 9391 0377 204570 4 Maleeha Nov. 22: 10-11 am 1 https://utoronto.zoom.us/j/89064031321 890 6403 1321 653229  House Keeping- Petitioning Paper Grades To request a paper re-grade you are required to write a minimum 1-page (single-spaced) explanation for why you deserve a higher-grade citing information in the writing guide, instructions, the grading rubric, the universal feedback document as well as the feedback you got from your TA (and you MUST speak to each of these). I also highly recommend you attend a TA office hours to get clarification on your feedback first. Any request for a re-grade that does not meet the above criteria and that does not cite information from the writing guide, instructions, the grading rubric, the universal feedback document as well as the feedback you got from your TA will not be considered. Submit these applications (including your one-page explanation) to the course email. Please be advised that it takes 2 weeks to receive a re-grade (this is the minimum time we can give TA’s to turn grading around). 5  House Keeping- Petitioning Paper Grades Please be advised that requesting a re-grade will NOT result in getting more feedback, you will just get a new rubric and a new grade. Please also be advised that when you request a re-grade your grade can go up or down. For full transparency, I’ll also mention that over the last three years we have seen hundreds of re-grade requests with grades as likely to go down as up and the biggest difference in grade being 3% and the most common difference being 1-2% either higher or lower. The team grades papers together and we use objective criteria to do the grading so that consistency is not unexpected. Remember that each TA also graded over 100 papers, so they have a really good sense of where a paper falls in the grade scale (i.e., A, B, C, etc.). Finally, please remember that if you are unhappy with your grade then you can submit a new paper for debate #3 and we’ll use your highest grade out of the two. 6  House Keeping- Midterm Class average was 68%, 30% of the class scored an A- to A+. I provide this just for transparency, these numbers indicate that the test met the expected difficulty; these are not provided to make anyone feel bad. Midterm Grade Replacement Policy: If your final exam grade is higher than your midterm grade then it will automatically replace your midterm grade (e.g., if you scored 70% on the midterm, then 80% on the final, then your midterm grade will change to 80% to match the final). If you midterm grade is higher than your final exam grade, then nothing happens/it is not replaced. Test was out of 50, but the weight of the midterm is 20% so that’s what your grade on Quercus is out of. To find out what you got out of 50→ (1) divide your score by 20, (2) times the resulting number by 50. 7  House Keeping- Midterm I released the official midterm with the grades. If you have any issues with some of the questions or want clarification, then please come to office hours and I am happy to discuss them with you. In addition, if you want to see your actual scantron then you can come to the Sociology department (700 University Ave., 17th Floor), Outside room 17-114 at the following times: TA Midterm Review Office Hours (in person) TA Midterm Review Office Hours (in person) Youngrong Thursday, Nov. 14: 9-10 am Shabnoor Wednesday, Nov. 20: 4–5 pm Paul Thursday, Nov. 14: 2-4 pm Maleeha Thursday, Nov. 21: 10:30-11:30 am Dan Friday, Nov. 15: 12- 2 pm Shabnoor Thursday, Nov. 21: 11:30-12:30 pm Marie Monday, Nov. 18: 2- 4 pm Umaima Thursday, Nov. 21: 2-3 pm Coop Tuesday, Nov. 19: 12-2 pm Kyla Friday, Nov. 22: 10 am-12 pm Roberta Wednesday, Nov. 20: 10 am-12 pm Umaima Friday, Nov. 22: 1-2 pm Maleeha Wednesday, Nov. 20: 2-3 pm Selay Friday, Nov.29 from 10am-12pm Please be advised- you can go to any TA’s Office Hours to see your scantron. 8 Office Hours Reminder Mondays, 4:15-5pm Thursdays, 12-12:45pm Fridays, 3:15-4pm 9  Gender & Inequality Part 1: Opening discussion 10  Studying Gender ❑ Remember our discussion in lecture 1 on social locations, i.e. the combination of factors including gender, race, social class, age, ability, religion, sexual orientation, geographic location, and many more traits that are particular to each individual and lead us all to have unique experiences of and perspectives on the world. Especially as we all primarily rely on anecdotal evidence and are prone to confirmation bias. ❑ Remember also the difference between ascribed and achieved statuses. Ascribed status: statuses assigned to individuals at birth or assumed involuntarily later in life” (Linton, 1936) Achieved status: statuses that individuals do have at least some control over (Foladare, 1969) 11  Studying Gender ❑ One new concept we must consider before our conversation today, is the concept of Master statuses: “The master status of an individual is one which, in most or all social situations, will overpower or dominate all other statuses. The term was coined by American sociologist Everett Hughes in the 1940s, with special reference to race” (Oxford, 2022). ❑ Not all statuses are created equally. For example, my status as a Professor (just as your occupational status will be later on) is something that is subtle or not clearly visible until I disclose it (or you see me at work). On the other hand, our race and/or our gender are statuses that are overt and clearly visible. This means that they have greater potential to shape all of our experiences and interactions. ❑ The concept of master statuses allow us to acknowledge that not all statuses are equal to the societies we live in. Some statuses matter more and have greater effects on our day-to-day lives. Gender/sex are master statuses. 12  Studying Gender ❑ I also want to refresh you on another term from our friend Max Weber: verstehen or “empathetic understanding of human behavior” (Oxford,2022), which can be more plainly stated as imagining walking in someone else’s shoes. ❑ To this point we have focused on Macro issues like environmental problems, globalization, and economics. These issues have micro/individual/subjective elements to them that we didn’t consider in great detail (for example, the experience of those working in sweatshops). ❑ This second half of the course we are going to take up issues like gender inequality and racial inequality. For these issues we must use verstehen and understand the micro level effects of these issues. For example, the majority of this class experiences gender inequality in their day-to-day lives and, therefore, this is much less just an academic exercise for them (indeed none of the issues we discuss are just academic exercises in that all have relevance to our lives, but some of the topics we take up moving forward are felt on a personal level by some of us more than others). 13  Studying Gender ❑ This is very important to recognize now because as you’ve probably noticed when it comes to gender, sex, and sexuality, I occupy only positions of privilege as a gender conforming heterosexual male. ❑ In other words, I have a social location bias and ignorance regarding the issues we take up today. I try my best to educate myself and remove this bias, but it’s there because I don’t experience these issues on a personal level in my day-to-day life. ❑ I just want to acknowledge this and apologize in advance before our discussion. I do my best to summarize the literature and Sociology’s knowledge on the issues we discuss today, but I’m out of my depth here. So if I say or cover anything that you feel reflects my social location bias, please let me know so that I can do better in the future ([email protected]), or if you would feel more comfortable, please let our course coordinator Patricia know who can keep your name anonymous if you want ([email protected]). 14  Studying Gender ❑ Standpoint Theory by Sandra Harding helps us understand this issue a little bit further. ❑ Standpoint theory discusses how “knowledge stems from social position” (Britannica, 2022). It rejects that science is objective because of the exclusion of different perspectives like women, racial minorities, the 2SLGBTQIA+ community, those from lower socio-economic statuses, and others. ❑ This argument is focused on Epistemology—“the branch of philosophy that examines the nature and origins of knowledge” (Britannica, 2022)—and argues that knowledge is always socially situated. ❑ For example, while everything we learn today is from Sociological knowledge, I decided a lot of what material is included and not included (affected by my social position). Further, the systemic discrimination extending from the historical marginalization of women from Sociology, means I was trained poorly on these issues. When I draw from scholars like Marx & Weber I do so from memory, for feminist scholars I had to do my own research and learn on my own. 15  Studying Gender ❑ An example of standpoint theory in Sociology can be seen in the work of Canadian Sociologist Dorothy Smith. ❑ In her book ‘The Everyday World as Problematic: A Feminist Sociology’ (1989), Dr. Smith asserted that Sociology has ignored women and the result is a tremendous opportunity to ask new questions by grounding them in women’s everyday experiences. ❑ She argued, however, that the challenge for scholars from marginalized communities like women, is that there is a constant separation between the world as they experience it and the dominant views and culture within academia. ❑ For example, she argued that women being the primary caregivers in society allowed men to dedicate energy to macro, abstract concepts free of subjective experiences and feelings. This then became the standard for academia, which made perspectives on micro-issues and subjective experiences seem out of place and inappropriate. Because of this, marginalized scholars face an alienation from there true selves and experiences when required to fit into an academic culture developed without their input or participation. To Smith, this is the challenge and potential for marginalized scholars. 16  Studying Gender ❑ Extending Standpoint Theory further was Sociologist Patricia Hill Collins in her book ‘Black Feminist Thought.’ ❑ Collins extended standpoint theory to include the experiences of Black women. She argued that the combined disadvantages associated with being female, Black, and systematically economically marginalized (which Dr. Collin’s referred to as a ‘matrix of oppression’), gave Black women a unique perspective on which to draw from when approaching topics. ❑ We discussed in Lecture 1 how we all have different social locations and that these imbue us with different perspectives and insights. We also discussed why this makes it incredibly important to be inclusive when discussing and studying topics, because without this inclusivity we will always miss part of the story (i.e. we will have an incomplete understanding of issues). ❑ This is an argument and insight developed by Feminist thinkers and best articulated by Standpoint theory. 17  Studying Gender ❑ Finally, before we begin, let’s define feminism and let’s understand its relationship to being a feminist. ❑ Being a feminist is defined as “the belief in social, economic, and political equality for the sexes” (Britannica, 2022). ❑ Being a feminist means supporting feminism, but this is complicated by there being no one true or universal definition of feminism or it’s tenets. ❑ Just like all of the other theories we consider (conflict theory, structural functionalism, symbolic interactionism, etc.), Feminism as a theoretical category and a movement is an ‘ideal type’ (i.e. “a mental construct or thought-exercise where you observe things of the same type and try to find their common elements to form an ideal construct based on what they all have in common”) ❑ Like all theories, there is debate, difference, and diversity within feminism and between feminist thinkers. This is a good thing in keeping with inclusivity and respecting diversity. 18  Feminism ❑ The four tenets of feminism, as a theoretical ideal type, are as follows. Feminism… 1. …focuses on various aspects of patriarchy, the system of male domination in society. Patriarchy, feminists contend, is at least as important as class inequality in determining a person’s opportunities in life, and perhaps more so; 2. …holds that male domination and female subordination are determined not by biological necessity but by structures of power and social convention. From this point of view, women are subordinate to men only because men enjoy more legal, economic, political, and cultural rights; 3. …examines the operation of patriarchy in both micro and macro settings; 4. …contends that existing patterns of gender inequality can and should be changed for the benefit of all members of society. The main sources of gender inequality include differences in the way boys and girls are raised, barriers to equal opportunity in education, paid work, and politics; as well as the unequal division of domestic responsibilities between women and men. 19 Gender & Inequality Part 2: Spectrums 20  Studying Gender ❑ Gender studies as an academic discipline is still fairly new (last 150 years) and it is sometimes invalidated by those arguing that it is not a worthy or important subject. ❑ For example, Hungary—a wealthy and developed country with roughly 10 million citizens—recently (2018) saw its populist government ban gender studies from college. 21  Studying Gender ❑Why is this occurring? Why are gender studies resisted by some? 22  Studying Gender ❑Some definitions to get us started: Sex: a person’s biological classification as male, female, or intersex. Sexuality: “a person’s sexual orientation, which comprises that person’s sexual attraction, behavior, and identity” (Britannica, 2022) Gender: a socially constructed identity that traditionally corresponded to the binary sexes, male and female, but also includes non-binary identities (NonbinaryWiki, 2022) Non-binary: “any gender identity that is not strictly male or female all the time, and so does not fit within the gender binary” (NonbinaryWiki, 2022) Cisgender: “a person for whom their gender identity matches the sex they were assigned at birth” (NonbinaryWiki, 2022). 23  Studying Gender ❑Some definitions to get us started: Gender Identity: “is each person’s internal and individual experience of gender. It is a person’s sense of being a woman, a man, both, neither, or anywhere along the gender spectrum” (Ontario Human Rights Commission, 2022). Gender Expression: the way in which a person presents themselves in terms of gender. For example, masculine, feminine, or non-binary expressions that can be within or outside of the traditional gender spectrum. Gender Roles “[the] parts of gender that are prescribed by society, outside of one's self… the rules [associated with a] gender role are made by the society, not by the individual. This is in contrast with how the individual is the only one who can recognize their own gender identity, which may have little to do with society's rules” (NonbinaryWiki, 2022). 24  Why do some take issue with Gender Studies? ❑Most of the backlash against gender studies is associated with a backlash against the 2SLGBTQIA+ community and traditional binary understandings of sex and gender. ❑In particular, the backlash is derived from gender studies acknowledging and challenging the notion that there are two binary genders (man & woman) and sexes (male & female) ❑Instead of looking at humans as binary (e.g., Male and Female), gender studies looks at how gender identity, gender expression, sex, and sexuality exist on a spectrum or continuum, but also sometimes outside of the traditional binary continuum. 25 Why do some take issue with Gender Studies? ❑ I provide this to show the non-binary continuums or spectrums, but we must also recognize that there are sexualities that DO NOT fit on this spectrum (such as asexual: “a person that usually does not feel sexual attraction to anyone). There are also gender expressions and identities that do not fit such as Agender: “not having a gender identity or having a neutral identity”; parts of Polygender: “characteristics of multiple genders, deliberately refuting the concept of only two genders”; and/or Xenogender “a nonbinary gender identity that cannot be contained by human understandings of gender” (nonbinarywiki, 2022). Xenogender fills what we call a Lexical Gap—an absence of a word in a particular language (Macmillan Dictionary, 2022); for example: “When people talk about nonbinary gender, they often find that there aren't any words for their experiences” and Xenogender is often used as an umbrella term for referencing such experiences (nonbinarywii, 2022). 26  Gender Expression as a Spectrum ❑Not many would argue against gender expression existing on a spectrum. For example, that some men can display characteristics traditionally considered to be feminine and some woman can take on traits more typically associated with masculinity. 27  Biology as a Spectrum ❑A lot more people, however, take issue with a biological sex spectrum. The idea being that you either have a penis or a vagina and that’s all there is to it. ❑Question: are ALL people born biologically male or female? No! 28  Biology as a Spectrum ❑ Many people are born Intersex: a general term used for the variety of ways in which a person is born with an anatomy that doesn’t fit the conventional biological definitions of female or male. How many people do you think are born intersex? ❑ Roughly 1.7% of all children born have a biologically ambiguous sex by traditional definitions, i.e. a child is born not fitting with the traditional chromosomes, reproductive hormones, or genitals associated with male or female. Fun Fact: 1.7% of Canadians is roughly 561,000 people! For example: Caster Semenya 29  The Case of Caster Semenya ❑Caster Semenya is a professional runner from South Africa that in 2016 won an Olympic gold medal in the 800-meter race. ❑In 2009 when she was 18, the IAAF (International Association of Athletics Federation) ordered her to undergo sex verification testing to ensure she was female. They withdrew her from competition for months until multiple doctor’s confirmed that she is biologically female. ❑However, they did report that Semenya has NATURALLY occurring higher than normal testosterone levels for a female. 30  The Case of Caster Semenya ❑As a result of her winning gold in 2016, in 2018 the IAAF changed the rules on testosterone levels to force any female with unusually high testosterone levels to take medication that lowers their testosterone. ❑In other words, she MUST change her natural body chemistry to compete, even though she is medically and biologically female. ❑They changed the rule only for the 400m, 800m, and 1500m race (i.e. the races Semenya competed in and the rule so far has only affected Semenya). 31  The Case of Caster Semenya ❑ Semenya appealed the ruling to the IAAF and lost, she then appealed to the Swiss Supreme Court but they also upheld the World Athletics/IAAF’s new testosterone rule. ❑ What do you think? Should Ms. Semenya be forced to take medication so she can compete in international events because she has naturally high testosterone levels? ❑ Is testosterone the basis on which sex should be determined (as it is here)? If not testosterone, what should be used to determine sex (sex organs/genitalia, facial hair, height, weight, muscle mass)? 32  Biology as a Spectrum ❑ Biological sex is most commonly defined by the following traits: 1. Chromosomes such as XX (female), XY (male), but also other non-binary configurations such as X, XXY, XXYY, and so on. 2. Based on internal reproductive organs (e.g. testicles, ovaries, etc), which are primarily responsible for hormone production. 3. Based on different reproductive hormones like testosterone and estrogen, as well as the effects they have on the body. 4. Based on external reproductive genitals, which is what most people think of and what is most commonly used at birth as the determining factor. 5. Based on the ability to bear children. 33  Biology as Non-Binary ❑ Problems arise with using these the aforementioned traits as determinants of biological sex because they can differ greatly within each category of sex (male and female) and they also differ over the life course. ❑ For example, and drawing on the case of Caster Semenya, the amount of reproductive hormones a person has is influenced by their diet, environment, age, stress levels, and many other factors. For example, men significantly lose testosterone as they age. 34  Biology as Non-Binary ▪ The new IIAF rule forces any women with testosterone over 500 (ng/dL) to take medication. ▪ The average woman’s testosterone levels are 70 (ng/dL) ❑ By the IIAF’s definition of the testosterone levels that qualify one to participate as a female in sporting events, most men over the age of 45 will be below the testosterone requirement. Do they cease to be male at this point? 35  Biology as Non-Binary ❑ This example illustrates the extent to which even biological sex is in many ways a social construct—i.e. an idea created and accepted by the people in a society through interactions and social processes. ❑ For example, the idea that there are two ‘natural’ biological sexes with clear distinguishing features shared consistently within each sex category with no grey area or overlap is simply false. This socially constructed belief objectively does not fit with reality. ❑ Further, to argue that variations in biological sex is unnatural is empirically and objectively wrong. 36  Biology as Non-Binary ❑ Take Evolutionary Theory within Sociology. This theory rejects the notion that humans are above or separate from nature, and instead embraces the extent to which humanity extends from and is the product of nature and natural processes like evolution—i.e. the change in the characteristics of a species over several generations through the process of natural selection. ❑ Evolutionary Theory highlights how diversity is the characteristic through which nature ensures survival. In other words, diversity within any species is nature’s way of ensuring that however environmental stimuli change, there will be diversity in the species that leads some members to survive better. ❑ In other words, diversity on all traits IS natural and expected. To suggest less common characteristics or traits are unnatural is to reject the fundamental truth of nature and the principle of diversity. 37  Biology as Non-Binary ❑ For example, being over 7 feet tall occurs in roughly 0.000038% of the population but we do not consider this to be unnatural or a biological defect. ❑ Another example, is that the typical person has an arm wingspan approximately 2.1 inches longer than their height. However, Michael Phelps has a wingspan of 80 inches despite being only 75 inches tall. This is an extremely uncommon trait that made him one of the greatest Olympic swimmers of all time. ❑ The reason Michael Phelps is not barred from competition for this exceptional trait is because it’s not something we associate with sex (compared to Caster Semenya for example). 38  Sexuality as Non-Binary ❑ Beyond sex and gender expression, we also know that human diversity includes differences in sexuality across a spectrum and outside of the spectrum as well. ❑ Drawing primarily from recent tradition and religious principles, our modern societies have been organized around Heteronormativity—the belief that sexual activity between people of the ‘opposite’ sex is the natural expression of sexuality. ❑ However, heteronormativity is again a social construct. For example, same sex relationships are a recorded part of the ancient history of all cultures and in many ancient societies same-sex relationships were accepted and even promoted. For example, in ancient Greece which many consider the foundation or bed- rock of modern western society, same-sex relationships were normal and promoted by important historical figures like Aristotle and Plato. 39  Gender Identity as Non-Binary ❑ Finally, gender identity as “each person’s internal and individual experience of gender” also exists on a spectrum as well as outside of the traditional spectrum. ❑ This is probably more familiar to you given that it is a more common part of current political debate and rhetoric. Specifically, the debate around Trans rights. ❑ Trans: “an umbrella term covering all gender identities or expressions that transgress or transcend society's rules and concepts of gender. To be trans most typically means to identify as a gender other than the gender one was assigned at birth” (Nonbinary Wiki, 2022) 40  Gender Identity as a Spectrum ❑ The debate on Trans rights centers on things like bathroom use, but much of this debate as a political issue can be considered the result of Cultural Diffusion—the spreading of ideas and issues between countries—especially from Canada’s neighbors to the south (i.e. the United States). In other words, the majority of Canadians are supportive of trans rights. ❑ For example, recent polls find that 84% of Canadians support gender identity being added as a protected status under Canada’s human rights act. 70% of Canadians agree that adopting a more fluid concept of gender is a good thing, and 59% of Canadians support removing gender from identification cards (CBC, 2016). ❑ Finally, 67% of Canadians agree that trans people should be permitted to use whatever washroom corresponds to their gender identity (ibid). 41  Gender Identity as a Spectrum ❑ This is not to suggest that there is not still a great deal of work and progress to be made on issues of gender identity in Canada. It is also not to suggest that there is not still very real and horrific stigmatization and discrimination on the basis of gender identity, sexuality, and/or sex in Canada. ❑ It is just to acknowledge where the majority of Canadians stand on the issue and to also acknowledge that this is a much more divisive issue in other nations, which also have a great amount of work to do in this area. 42 Gender Identity as a Spectrum 43  Why are Gender Studies Important? ❑ So why do we need gender studies? ❑ Gender is a major part of all of our lives. It’s one of the most basic and primary distinctions we make between each other. In other words, it is a Master Status. Think ❑ For example, consider the concept of linguistic relativity– how our language shapes our perceptions, thoughts, and worldview—and then consider how central gender is to almost all language from titles (Actress/Actor), designations (Mr, Ms., Mrs.), etc. ❑ How we are treated by society differs greatly by sex, sexuality, and gender and this has important consequences for things like mental health (for example, pain expressing itself or manifesting more commonly through addiction for men and depression for women). ❑ It is important to acknowledge the full spectrum of human diversity and to reject binary definitions of sex, gender, and sexuality because the true nature of these characteristics is that they ARE NOT binary. 44 Gender & Inequality Part 3: Culture 45  Culture & Gender Inequality ❑ To understand the current drivers of gender inequality, let’s refresh our understanding of Culture- “the symbolic-expressive dimension of social life[including] the cultivation of “civilized” habits of mind, the creative products associated with the arts, or the entire way of life associated with a group or society. Among sociologists, “culture” often refers to the beliefs that people hold about reality, the norms that guide their behavior, the values that orient their moral commitments, or the symbols through which these beliefs, norms, and values are communicated” (Oxford, 2022). 46  Culture & Gender Inequality ❑ Much of gender inequality in society extends from our culture. It is a culture that is influenced heavily by history and by path dependency—i.e. “when the outcome of a process depends on its past history, on a sequence of decisions made by agents and resulting outcomes, and not only on contemporary conditions” (Oxford, 2022). It’s a culture that reflects a ‘liquid modernity’ or a constant state of flux and change with no ability to impose order or stability on it (Bauman, 1999). And it’s something that is completely constructed by people (we have complete agency over it), but that significantly structures people's lives in a way that they have little to no control over. This is, of course, referring to the process of Socialization: The lifelong process of an individual or group learning the expected norms and customs of a group or society through social interaction (sociologydictionary.org, 2022). ❑ Now that we have refreshed some prior concepts, let’s use culture to understand the current state of gender inequality. 47  Let’s Talk About Privilege ❑ Imagine being left-handed ❑ In our notebooks we write from left to right, our scissors are made for right-handed people, even choosing a desk in some classrooms can be a nightmare for left-handed people. ❑ Historically, left-handed children were forced to write with their right hand in school. It was rejected that one could even be left-handed. 48  Let’s Talk About Privilege ❑ This is an example, of how being right handed comes with advantages. Advantages that, if you are right-handed, you probably never even thought about. ❑ Does this mean right-handed people are bad people or assholes? Not necessarily ❑ Does this mean we should replace all right-handed desks with left –handed desks, change all scissors to a left-handed orientation, switch from writing left-to-right to right-to-left? No ❑ Acknowledging these right-handed privileges just means that we recognize the advantage and ideally, because these are advantages based on an ascriptive vs. achieved status, we try to make the world more accommodating to left-handed people. ❑ Think of this as a metaphor for race, for gender, for social class, for country of birth, for anything that sets people apart and gives privileges to some but not others. 49  Male Privilege ❑Male Privilege: The social, economic, and political advantages or rights that are available to men solely on the basis of their sex. ❑ Some examples: Men are less likely to be sexually assaulted. Men are less likely to be the victim of domestic abuse or intimate partner violence. Men are less likely to be murdered by an intimate partner. Men have less physical appearance expectations (make-up, fashion, etc.; example of a news station where the male co-anchor did not change his suit for a year and no one noticed to bring attention to how much his female co-anchor had to deal with criticism of her clothes-video below) Men are not subjected to “sexual shaming” and are free to dress, flirt, and engage in sexual acts without the same level of judgement as women (in fact, men are often praised for their sexual exploits whereas women are judged for it). Men are allowed to drive everywhere in the world. In no country are men legally obligated to cover their head/face when in public. Women only earn 72cents for every dollar a male earns in Canada. 50  Male Privilege examples continued…. Men are less likely to be discriminated against in hiring due to fear of leaving or taking time off to have children (men actually receive an income boost after becoming a parent because employers see them as even better employees that are more committed now that they have a family to provide for). Men are less likely to be propositioned to perform sex acts in exchange for career advancement (see: Harvey Weinstein & the #MeToo movement) and to face negative repercussions for refusing. Men are less likely to be the victims of stalking. Men are less likely to be harassed or cat called when walking down a street. Men’s sports are better funded, watched more, and are taken more seriously. Men are less likely to have their drink spiked and can be less concerned about it. Men are less likely to fear walking in public at night alone. Male pleasure has historically been the priority in sexual culture throughout history. For example, today the primary focus of almost all pornography is male pleasure. Men are less likely to be expected to change their name after they get married. Men are less likely to be seen as not in control of their emotions or unfit for business or important roles as a result. 51  Male Privilege examples continued…. Men’s bodies are discussed and policed less in politics (for example, birth control debates) Heterosexual married men on average do 7 hours less housework than their wives per week Men are less likely to be expected to take care of children or to sacrifice their careers or personal ambitions to raise children. Men historically have had more privilege and power which carries forward still today in most of the examples already discussed. Men are less likely to be verbally attacked when turning down a date. Men are less likely to be bothered or harassed when in a bar or restaurant alone or with same-sex friends. Men are significantly less likely to be the victim of revenge porn. Men are less likely to be blamed for their own sexual assault on the basis of their behavior (partying, for example, or clothing worn). Men are less likely to be groped or touched in an unwanted sexual way when in public like when using public transit. Men are less likely to have what they eat monitored by others. 52  Male Privilege examples continued…. Men’s are more likely to have political power (according to the UN women make up 22.8% of the worlds elected officials and only 11 women were serving as heads of states in 2016 (there are 195 countries in the world). In Canada, women make up roughly 23% of officials in city governments, provincial governments, and in the federal government. Men can travel around the world without having to worry about countries with more outdated gender laws or views. Men experience less of a wage penalty when considered physically unattractive (studies consistently find that women’s income is tied to their appearance much more than men’s are) Men are less expected to shave their bodies and can do so without being seen as disgusting (think of armpit hair on a man and women, for example) Men are significantly more likely to be billionaires. In 2017, 88% (2,433) of the world’s billionaires were men, only 12% (321) were women. Men are more likely to be featured prominently in movies and TV. For example, Women made-up only 12% of protagonists, 29% of main characters, and 30% of speaking characters in the top 100 grossing films of 2014. 53  Male Privilege ❑ These are just a few examples, there are many more. ❑ This is also not to say that that there are not female privileges (for example, women receive lighter sentence from judges, are much less likely to be a murder victim, are less likely to be forced to go to war, and they experience benefits of chivalry like being more likely to have a door held open for them & having less expectations to pay for a first date, etc.). ❑ The reason male privilege is more discussed and focused on is because males have much more privilege and their privileges are much more significant (ex: assault, safety, sexism in work and life in general, etc.). Thus, overall men are the more privileged gender in society today, which is why male privilege is something you hear more about. 54  Male Privilege ❑ Male privilege and sexism is a part of our current culture and as such is something both men and women participate in (for example, both genders can participate in shaming women for body hair or other unfair gender standards). ❑ Thus, it is important for all of us to be aware of privileges due to ascriptive traits like being male, white, cisgender, and so on. We all need to recognize and work to resist these privileges. ❑ Men, I encourage you to ask the women in your life (friends, mother, aunties, grandmother, sisters, and so on) about the inequalities and discrimination they face. It’s easy to not realize the extent of gender inequality when you do not experience it. 55  Male Privilege ❑ Remember, it is easier to not recognize privilege when you are the one benefiting. ❑ It is also easier to fight and resist inequality when coming from a position of power or privilege. ❑ Therefore, if you are the one that is privileged (men, I’m looking at you here) it is imperative for you to work at recognizing and resisting it. ❑ It is much easier for a man to fight male privilege by giving it up than it is for a woman to try and fight for equality. 56 Male Privilege ❑For example, men resist your own male privilege by: ❑ Sharing household and child rearing duties if you start a family; ❑ Call out the guy who sleeps around but then engages in “shaming” women for their sexuality. ❑ Challenge it when you see the sexual objectification of women. ❑ Think about how the history of the world is one long story of male privilege and try to recognize how you personally experience that privilege and how it is not fair. 57 5 Minute Break! 58  Gender Inequality ❑ Girls Attitude survey done in Great Britain (2014) found that 75% of girls and young women believe that sexism affects every aspect of their lives. ❑ Sexism: the belief that innate psychological, behavioral, and/or intellectual differences confirm the superiority of men over women. ❑ Innate refers to something being natural, inherent, instinctive, or something one is born with versus something learned or taught. 59  Sexist Beliefs Sexism: the belief that innate psychological, behavioral, and/or intellectual differences confirm the superiority of men over women. ❑ Sexist beliefs are more common in society than you might think. For example: ▪ Men are seen as less emotional and some attribute this to hormones, menstrual cycles, or other biological processes versus being due to socialization and culture (for example, men suppressing emotions). Women’s emotionality tied to their body processes is used to justify holding women back from positions of authority or power. Similarly, men’s poor behavior around sexuality is often attributed to some hormonal trait yet is not seen as disadvantageous for positions of power. 60  Sexist Beliefs Sexism: the belief that innate psychological, behavioral, and/or intellectual differences confirm the superiority of men over women. ❑ Sexist beliefs are more common in society than you might think. For example: ▪ Women are seen as having greater parental or motherly instincts than men. That they biologically care more about and, therefore, are better equipped to deal with children. This justifies inequality in parenting expectations but is it really nature or nurture (i.e. socialization)? 61  Sexist Beliefs Sexism: the belief that innate psychological, behavioral, and/or intellectual differences confirm the superiority of men over women. ❑ Sexist beliefs are more common in society than you might think. For example: ▪ Women are seen as being more compassionate naturally vs. again being a product of socialization. This justifies views of women being passive and gentle versus men who are seen as naturally tough and aggressive (ex: testosterone). This makes our gender expectations of men and women seem only natural. 62  Sexist Beliefs ❑Sexist beliefs are often broken into different categories when we consider how they are integrated into society. ❑Today we are going to consider two of these: 1. Structural Sexism 2. Cultural Sexism 63  Structural Sexism ❑Structural sexism (a.k.a. institutional sexism) refers to the ways in which the organization of society, and specifically its institutions, subordinate individuals based on their sex. 64  Structural Sexism ❑ Take the education system as an example: ▪ In many countries women are still significantly less likely to go to school. Women make up two-thirds of the world’s illiterate adults and 62% of the children who do not attend school (UNESCO 2014). ▪ In Canada, women have equal rates of educational attainment to men and have surpassed men in university attendance, but there is still great variation in field of study selected by each gender with men being overrepresented in STEM fields like engineering and computer science while women are over-represented in fields like nursing, teaching, and Arts and Science degrees like Sociology and Psychology. ▪ This is due primarily to gender socialization such as stereotypes (ex: men are better at math, women are better nurturers hence teaching and nursing) as well as differences in values (men value income more, women value work-life balance and having a fulfilling career that involves helping others). 65  Cultural Sexism ❑ Cultural sexism refers to the ways in which the culture of society perpetuates the subordination of individuals based on their sex. ❑ Men and women are treated differently from birth with different socially defined roles and expectations. For example, children’s toys are often gendered and marketed to either boys or girls with boys more commonly playing with Lego, toy cars, toy guns, etc. and girls playing with dolls, kitchen sets, stuffed animals, etc. 66  Cultural Sexism ❑Most households also have a division of labor with women typically being more responsible for cooking, cleaning, and childcare. ❑This often leads to women doing a second shift wherein they work full- time and also work more hours than men at home with childcare, cooking, and other organization work associated with keeping a household running. 67  Current Issues ❑Now that we understand the more academic side and concepts related to gender inequality, let’s take up two of the biggest disadvantages women face today: 1. Toxic Masculinity & Sexual Violence 2. The Gender Wage Gap 68  Gender & Inequality Part 4: Gender Violence 69  Learning to be Gendered ❑ How do men & women learn to be men & women? In other words, how are we socialized into our gender roles? Transmission of expectations through first-hand observation of those immediately around us such as our role models or family (i.e. through primary sources). Transmission of expectations through observation of role models on TV, movies, social media, sport, in books, and through other secondary sources. Learning femininity as oppositional to masculinity, and masculinity as oppositional to femininity Any experiences you can think of growing up that illustrate this process of gender socialization? 70  Learning to be Gendered ❑ Every society has Norms—socially defined and enforced rules and expectations (Britannice, 2022)—as well as Roles “the behavior expected of an individual who occupies a given social position or status” (Brittanica, 2022) ❑ Norms and roles are important because they allow us to function in everyday life (for example, we have certain expectations of normal behavior such as what happens when you say hi to people or what a lecture will be like). ❑ Norms can differ between contexts or settings (for example, hanging out with friends versus family) and they also differ by roles (for example, there are norms for me as a professor and you as a student, there are also different norms for men and women). ❑ The role and associated norms around being a man are referred to as masculinity and those around being a woman are referred to a femininity. 71  Masculinity ❑ Let’s start our discussion of gender inequality by discussing men. Not to put men first in the conversation, but moreso to acknowledge that men & masculinity are the primary drivers of gender inequality. There are three types of masculinity you need to know: 1. Traditional Masculinity: the normal societal expectations for men (i.e. the norms associated with the role of male). These are not necessarily problematic on their own (for example, wanting to take care of one’s family, being chivalrous, being a gentleman, etc.), but they are also not always positive (hiding emotions, objectifying women, and so on) 2. Hegemonic Masculinity: influenced by Sociologist Antonio Gramsci’s concept of hegemony (the legitimating norms and ideas that promote dominance of one group over another), it’s a term developed by RW Connell to describe the aspects of masculinity that promote the dominant social position of heterosexual men, and the subordinate social position of women and non- heterosexual men. For example, the notion that men should be big, strong, and dominant protectors that are quick to anger and not to be messed with. 72  What does it mean to be a man in society? 3. Toxic Masculinity: essentially the way that hegemonic masculinity is referred to outside of academia/Sociology. The slight difference is that hegemonic masculinity is the traits that promote heterosexual men’s dominance over others, whereas toxic masculinity is used more to refer to any part of traditional masculinity that is negative or toxic for any reason. Generally, toxic masculinity refers to the norms that lead to negative behaviors like sexual harassments and violence, domestic violence, and other similarly problematic consequences such as increased rates of alcoholism. A good example is the norm of men not showing emotions outside of anger, which leads to higher rates of alcoholism and drug use. 73  What does it mean to be a man in society? ❑ Distinguishing between the three masculinities: Traditional Hegemonic Toxic Includes all types of masculinity ALL types of hegemonic masculinity Not all types of toxic masculinity including hegemonic and toxic are also toxic. are necessarily hegemonic because masculinity. For example, promoting not all toxic masculinity promotes An example of traits that are solely competitiveness, greed or or encourages male dominance. traditional (i.e. not necessarily prioritizing financial gain over other For example, drug use and hegemonic or toxic) could include types of success, sexually alcoholism as coping mechanisms, things like enjoying being outdoors, objectifying women, homophobia, social isolation and lack of enjoying sports, taking pride in misogyny, using violence to asserts communication within one’s social one’s work, wanting to care for one’s will, and so on. network, and so on. one’s family, and so on. 74  Toxic Masculinity ❑ Where does toxic masculinity come from? For example, let’s discuss the #MeToo movement. Where are some of the structural or Sociological the roots of the problem? ❑ In other words, how do we explain men’s behavior here? How do we explain how common it is for men to sexually assault women? 75  Toxic Masculinity ❑ Recall the first three types of theories we discussed in the first half of class (Symbolic Interactionism, Conflict Theory, & Structural Functionalism)? ❑ Recall also that these theories are really just questions to ask or ways to look at the world that help us understand it. ❑ Feminism draws on each of these perspectives while adding its own methodologies, theories, and perspectives. Let’s consider how each of them would help us understand toxic masculinity. 76  Symbolic Interactionism ❑ Symbolic Interactionism looks at meaning and interaction usually on a micro-level (i.e. looks at specific people and interactions). On the issue of #MeToo it may look at how assault affects women and men on a personal level; It may also look at things like the labelling of the incident on the Access Hollywood Bus with President Trump that was deemed by some media outlets as harmless “Locker Room Talk.” 77  Conflict Theory ❑ Conflict theory looks at conflict and power. On the issue of #MeToo would look at the balance of power and how men are much more often in authority positions that allow for such abuse to occur and go unchallenged (this is true and we will discuss this more in a bit, you also saw the percent of world leaders by gender earlier as an example of this). 78  Structural Functionalism ❑ Structural Functionalism looks at society as a well-oiled machine and suggests that if there is a problem then something is wrong with the machine. In other words, we need to figure out where there is a problem in the larger system and address it. 79  Moving Away From Bad Apple Theory ❑ There is a tendency when problems arise to blame the specific perpetrator as a bad apples. We see this with things like school shootings and with police brutality. ❑ Bad apple theory always argues that there is no larger problem or issue. Instead, the problem exists at the individual level as just one or a few A**holes. This is problematic because there really isn’t many solutions to stop specific bad individuals. 80  Moving Away From Bad Apple Theory ❑ Bad apple arguments are often applied to sexual assault and violence, and we need to move away from this. ❑ Sexual harassment and assault is far too common to be blamed on some individuals just being bad people and there being nothing we can do about it. ❑ Instead, as Structural Functionalism guides us to do, we need to start asking what larger or systemic issues are at play here that are contributing to the problem? In other words, what is society doing that may be contributing to this type of behavior. 81  Moving Away From Bad Apple Theory ❑ 2018 survey by VOX (which reflects similar numbers to most studies) tell us that in the US, 80% of women report being sexually harassed and 1/3 report being sexually assaulted in their lifetime. ❑ This is not a bad apple problem. There is a larger problem here. So where can we find problematic areas or sources of toxic masculinity? 82  1. Mixed Messages in Society ❑ The first area we will discuss as a source of toxic masculinity is the mixed messages sent by society. ❑ As a value, society teaches and upholds that everyone is valuable and equal regardless of gender/sex and that all people should respect each other including men respecting women for their intrinsic versus extrinsic qualities (i.e. it’s what is on the inside and not the outside that counts). ❑ At the same time, however, the sexual objectification of women is rampant in society, and this ties the value of women to sexuality. ❑ For example…. 83 1. Mixed Messages in Society Examples of sexual objectification of women in everyday life. 84  1. Mixed Messages in Society ❑ Society's values often run counter to business and economics, where the goal is not what is best for society but how to make money (this is a theme we encountered with environmentalism that is reinforced and entrenched by ‘competition as a coercive force’ and protected by bureaucracy). ❑ Economically (in order to make money), women are typically portrayed as objects of sexual desire. Sex sells and business cares about profit, so it was a natural fit that has been increasingly common over the last few decades ❑ For a very literal example, the pornography business in North America is estimated to make 11 billion in profits annually. From a societal standpoint, however, how does porn contribute to toxic masculinity and the way women are portrayed, viewed, and valued? It’s very hard to say it’s an overall positive effect. 85  1. Mixed Messages in Society ❑ These mixed messages create cognitive dissonance. ❑ Cognitive Dissonance: when a person is confronted by simultaneously holding conflicting beliefs, ideas, or values. Usually this occurs when evidence/facts are presented that contradicts one strongly held idea and a discomfort arises from needing to resolve the contradiction. 86  1. Mixed Messages in Society ❑ In other words, men are simultaneously taught to be gentlemen and to hold widely held societal values around valuing women NOT as sexual objects. Yet at the same time the sexual objectification of woman is rampant in society and has become part of masculinity. ❑ Another example of this is the men society idolizes… 87 The Men we Idolize 88  1. Mixed Messages in Society ❑ Thus, while primary sources of socialization like one’s immediate family may not promote the objectification of women, secondary sources often do objectify women to a great extent. ❑ Even when companies do promote moral messages around things like ending toxic masculinity—for example, Gillette's ad from two years ago that built off of #MeToo occurring—it typically only does so within the demographics and communities where this will be received positively. ❑ Among other demographics or communities, the same company may promote different messages… 89  1. Mixed Messages in Society For example, this is also Gillette when targeting a different demographic (here an auto show): 90  2. Lack of Sexual Education ❑ The second area that is often tied to perpetuating toxic masculinity and the issue of sexual assault is society’s stigmatization of sex. ❑ How often do we talk to kids about confusing issues like the sexual objectification of women in society versus the actual values we want to hold as a society? ❑ More specifically, how often do we have conversations about sex, proper sexual conduct, consent, and similar issues with children? ❑ In society, we take questions often to those closest to us in authority positions like parents, teachers, and so on. But do we do this when it comes to sex? More Likely → 91  2. Lack of Sexual Education ❑ Most parents do not want and do not enjoy discussing sex with their children (although, this itself is highly gendered). Think of your own story regarding this and ask yourself if you were taught everything you needed to know? ❑ Further, teaching about sex in schools is incredibly controversial (for example, even the “Consent as a cup of tea video” has been controversial when shown in some Schools) due to feelings that it is age inappropriate. 92  2. Lack of Sexual Education ❑ This creates a problem where we have conflicting and confusing norms and rules around sexuality, but also a culture that does not openly talk about sex issues. ❑ This leaves many teens and young adults to figure out issues related to sex themselves often with information from bad sources (media, friends, pornography, etc.). ❑ To really illustrate the gap in sexual education and experiences while growing up (i.e. how society and culture lag behind the real experience of people) consider this: ❑ The North American movie rating system has deemed that brief nudity (a bum for example) immediately gets a PG-13 rating and any nudity of a sexual nature requires an R rating. ❑ Now also consider that the average age of a child getting their first Smart Phone and everything the internet has to offer (including pornography) in Canada is... 10 years of age! 93  Masculinity ❑ Do these two problematic areas (mixed messages and lack of sex ed) in society excuse poor behavior by men? No, ABSOLUTELY Not! ❑ We need to discuss these issues because we cannot pretend that an issue this widespread is due to bad apples only, instead sexual harassment & assault is a systemic issue with systemic roots and problems tied to common definitions of masculinity and to socialization. ❑ In other words, failures in society as a whole contribute to the problem. It does not excuse poor behavior in any way, but it helps us understand the roots of the behavior and provides us areas to try and make improvements in society to stop this problem. 94  Gender & Inequality Part 5: Gender Wage Gap 95 Gender Pay Gap ❑I had you watch a video of kids because kids are often a good measure of how a society presents a specific issue. ❑Kids usually don’t have filters yet and unless their parents have specifically discussed something with them, they tend to express ideas they pick up from secondary sources of socialization like media. 96  Gender Pay Gap ❑ For example, in a study of 3rd graders asking “What is the worst thing a person can be or do?” The most common responses ranked in order were: 1. Murder 2. Obesity 3. Smoking ❑ This illustrates how society looks down on those that don’t conform to societal standards of beauty and smokers, which kids pick up on. 97  Gender Pay Gap ❑ For this reason, it is telling that in this video most kids attribute women making less to women being distracted by “things like shopping” or not working as hard. ❑ Think about kids shows, movies, and other media and it is true women are portrayed as less focused on careers compared to men. ❑ These are examples of cultural sexism giving inaccurate reasons for the gender wage gap. 98  Gender Pay Gap ❑ So why does the gender pay gap actually exist (what are the real reasons)? 1. Difference in occupational choices: ▪ What do you want in a job? ▪ The answer to this question typically reflects differences in gender values people are socialized into (like prioritizing work-family balance versus income) ▪ It also reflects structural sexism like women not feeling comfortable in certain occupations like engineering or construction due to it being dominated by men. 99  Gender Pay Gap ❑ So why does the gender pay gap actually exist (what are the real reasons)? 2. Societal Expectations around childbirth: ▪ Women are much more likely than men to leave the workforce for maternity leave and much more likely to take years off of work or to never return to work after having kids. ▪ This is tied to societal expectations on what it means to be a mother versus a father as well as to women physically giving birth, which gives a seemingly biological justification for these expectations. 100  Gender Pay Gap ❑ So why does the gender pay gap actually exist (what are the real reasons)? ▪ The gender wage gap grows the most during people’s 30’s when most people start families (i.e. have babies). 101  Gender Pay Gap 2. Societal Expectations around childbirth. Leaving the workforce hurts women but it actually also helps men. When women leave the workforce to have children often their male partner will work more (more overtime or work hours) in order to try to compensate for the loss of household income. Further, employers have also been found to see men with families as more dependable and better workers, which results in promotions and wage boosts. This is referred to as the fatherhood premium. 102  Gender Pay Gap 2. Societal Expectations around childbirth. Related to this is the rarity of Paternity Leave ▪ Paternity leave in Canada remains rare/is typically not offered, is much less commonly used even if offered, and is not part of Canadian culture compared to places like Sweden, Denmark, and Finland where it is expected men will take equal time off work after the birth of a child. 103  Gender Pay Gap 3. Discrimination Resume studies where researchers send identical resumes with the same education and work experience in response to job ads and change only the name (for example, Jane versus John), find that the female name is offered jobs less often and offered lower starting salaries compared to the male names. Some of this is due to illogical sexism such as beliefs that men are superior workers due to having less emotions, more dedication, etc. 104  Gender Pay Gap 3. Discrimination Some of it is also due to Statistical Discrimination or Logical discrimination. To be very clear, logical does not mean morally correct, it refers only to how statistically women are significantly more likely to leave their job due to maternity leave in which case the workplace has to pay for their leave as well as a temporary replacement to work while the women is on leave (and the replacement is typically not as skilled because it is a temporary position). 105  Gender Pay Gap 3. Discrimination Further, women are more likely to leave the job entirely due to greater expectations around motherhood versus fatherhood in which case the employer will lose their investment in training and experience. If women return, they are also less likely to be willing to work as long of hours, etc. again due to greater expectations around motherhood. 106  Gender Pay Gap 3. Discrimination This results in employers having a morally reprehensible yet still logical reason to discriminate against women. We know that ‘competition as a coercive force’ and bureaucracy ensure businesses prioritize profit and statistically women cost more as employees due to maternity leave and greater expectations around motherhood. This makes businesses prefer male employees and without laws or checks and balances employers often act on this preference. 107  Gender Pay Gap 3. Discrimination Again not all discrimination or business actions are due to people being evil (although blatant sexism does still exist as well), this type of Statistical Discrimination is actually a type of Structural Sexism (i.e. sexism built into the structure of society itself: employers prefer dedicated works and society's greater expectations for women around parenthood make them less dedicated workers than men on average). 108  Moving Forward Remember that all of us have the ability to maintain or challenge patriarchy. Ghandi once said “Be the change you want to see in the world,” and this gives us a good place to start (i.e. with ourselves). Challenging gender inequality when you see it and ensuring you reflect on your own behaviors and beliefs is the best place to start trying to undo patriarchy. The main point people make for rejecting gender equality is that men and women are not equal because men and women do have biological distinctions (usually this is tied to the ability to give birth). But always remember that EVERYONE is biologically different and major distinctions between bodies like short & tall, old & young, and many others exist and yet are not used to distinguish people’s rights and privileges. Working towards gender equality does not mean saying everyone is identical, it means saying everyone’s rights and treatment should be identical and not tied to biological ascribed traits outside of our control. 109