GEE 002 Living in the IT Era - PDF

GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA PRELIMS Cash register Punched card tabulation Chapter 1: Catalysts for Change Precursors of commercial c...

GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA PRELIMS Cash register Punched card tabulation Chapter 1: Catalysts for Change Precursors of commercial computers First commercial computers 1.1 Introduction Programming languages and time- sharing Information Age Transistor and integrated circuit Characterized by unprecedented access to IBM System/360 information Microprocessor Catalysts (Low-cost computers, High-speed Personal computer communication networks) Examples of advances in past two decades (Cell Aids to Manual Calculating phones, Email, World Wide Web, MP3 players) The three important aids to manual calculating are: Technology and Values Tablet Dynamic between people, technology The abacus Mathematical tables (Tables of logarithms (17th People adopt technology century) Income tax tables (today) Technology changes society However, even with them manual calculating is slow, Different ways people are affected by technology tedious, and error-prone. Physical changes (e.g., pains accompany the use Early Mechanical Calculators of laptops) Psychological changes (e.g., cell phones make Calculators (from 17th – 19th century) you feel safer) o Blaise Pascal - "Pascal’s calculator" Technologies can solve problems, create new - built-in 1640, was capable of adding problems whole numbers containing up to six digits Automobile o Gottfried Leibniz - "Step Reckoner" - Refrigerator and the Ozone Layer a handcrafted machine that can add, Low-cost international communication subtract, multiply, and divide whole Nuclear weapons and radiation the Ozone Layer numbers o Charles Thomas de Colmar - Control over New Technologies "Arithmometer " - the first commercially successful calculator People can control whether to adopt new technology o Georg Scheutz and his son Edvard - "Scheutz difference engine" - the Nuclear power moratorium in United States world’s first printing calculator: Nuclear power advances in rest of world a machine capable of calculating mathematical tables and typesetting People can influence rate at which technologies are the values onto molds. developed o William Burroughs - "Burroughs Adding Machine "- devised a practical Intellectual property laws (make money from adding machine creativity) Social Change → Market for Calculators Tax structure (accumulate great wealth) - Gilded Age (late 19th century America) - Rapid industrialization, Economic 1.2 Milestones in Computing expansion, Concentration of corporate Aids to manual calculating power - New, larger corporations Mechanical calculators  GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA - Multiple layers of management, Multiple First Commercial Computers locations, Needed up-to-date, comprehensive, Precursors of Commercial Computers reliable, and affordable information Small-Scale Experimental Machine: CRT Calculator Adoptions → Social Change memory. A fully electronic computer system that - Fierce competition in calculator market had both program and data stored in its memory. - Continuous improvements in size, speed, It successfully executed its first program in 1948. ease of use, Sales increased rapidly - “Deskilling” and feminization of Remington-Rand bookkeeping - People of average ability quite productive, Completed UNIVAC in 1951 Calculators 6× faster than adding by hand, Delivered to U.S. Bureau of the Census Wages dropped, Women replaced men Predicted winner of 1952 Pres. Election Cash Register IBM (entered the commercial market in 1953) James and John Ritty - designed an adding Larger base of customers machine capable of expressing values in dollars and Far superior sales and marketing organization cents Greater investment in research and development Dominated mainframe market by mid-1960s Store owners of late 1800s faced problems Programming Languages Keeping accurate sales records for department stores Assembly language Preventing embezzlement from clerks Symbolic representations of machine instructions Response to problems: cash register Programs just as long as machine language programs Created printed, itemized receipts Maintained printed log of transactions FORTRAN (1957) Rang bell every time drawer was opened First higher-level language (shorter programs) Tabulators → Data-processing Systems Designed for scientific applications Punched cards (late 19th century) COBOL (1959) Herman Hollerith - developed an electromechanical U.S. Department of Defense standard tabulating machine for punched cards to assist in Designed for business applications summarizing information and in accounting. Time-Sharing Systems and BASIC One record per card Time-Sharing Systems (In the early 1960s) Cards could be sorted into groups, allowing computation of subtotals by categories Divide computer time among multiple users Users connect to computer via terminals Cost of ownership spread among more people Gave many more people access to computers Data-processing system BASIC (In the early 1960s) Receives input data Developed at Dartmouth College Performs one or more calculations Simple, easy-to-learn programming language Produces output data Popular language for teaching programming  GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA Other Advances - A telegraph is a machine used to transmit messages in the form of electrical impulses Transistor that can be converted into data Replacement for vacuum tube Telephone (1876) Invented at Bell Labs (1948) Typewriter and teletype (1873, 1908) - In 1908 a typewriter was modified to print a Semiconductor message transmitted over a telegraph line; the inventors called the invention, a teletype Faster Cheaper, more reliable, More energy- efficient Radio (1895) Television (1927) Integrated Circuit: Semiconductor containing transistors capacitors, and resistors Other Milestones in Networking - Advantages over parts they replaced Remote computing (1940) - Smaller, Faster, more reliable, less ARPANET - Advanced Research Projects expensive Agency Network (1969) IBM System/360 Email (1972) Internet (1983) Before System/360 - network of networks communicating using TCP/IP IBM dominated mainframe market in 1960s IBM computers were incompatible Broadband (2000) Switch computers → rewrite programs Broadband - High-speed Internet connection System/360 (1964) - At least 10x faster than dial-up connection - Enhanced by fiber optic networks Series of 19 computers with varying levels of - South Korea is the world leader in power broadband networking. 3/4 of homes have All computers could run same programs - broadband connections Compatible Newspapers Upgrade without rewriting programs Graphical User Interface Microprocessor and Personal Computer World Wide Web (1990) Microprocessor: Computer inside a single semiconductor chip Invented in 1970 at Intel Made personal computers practical Example of first PCs Search Engines - Google, AltaVista, MSN Information Technology Altair 8800 (1975) Personal computers become popular Information Technology Definition: Devices used in creation, Developments draw businesses to personal storage, manipulation, dissemination of Computers data, sound, and/or images Examples: Computers, telephones, video cameras, MP3 players 1.3 Milestones in Networking People making greater use of IT Discoveries in electromagnetism (early - Costs keep falling 1800s) - Capabilities keep rising Telegraph (1844)  GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA 1.4 IT Issues Graphical User Interface Email Douglas Engelbart created a research lab called the - Easy way to keep in touch Augmentation Research which developed a hypermedia - Spam has become a real problem and groupware system called NLS (oNLine Web System) Center. - Free access to huge amounts of information NLS system was the first to employ the practical use - Harmful consequences of some sites of hypertext links, the mouse, raster-scan video monitors, CDs, MP3s, MP4s information organized by relevance, screen - Free or cheap copies readily available windowing, presentation programs, and other modern - May be unfair to musicians computing concepts. Credit cards Engelbart invented several new input devices, including - Convenience over cash and checks the computer mouse. - Increases possibility of identity theft - Who owns information about In 1970 Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC), a new transactions? facility dedicated to performing research into digital Telecommuting technology created the Alto, a small minicomputer - Saves time, allows more flexible work designed to be used by a single person. hours The Alto incorporated a bitmapped display, a keyboard, - Can lead to longer work hours and a mouse. - May result in fewer chances for promotion Apple released Lisa (1983) -the first commercial computer Improved global communication network with a GUI, or Graphical User Interface - Allow companies to sell to entire world - Allow companies to move jobs out of The price tag was too high, the processor was too slow, their home countries. and the Lisa was not commercially successful World Wide Web Apple released the Macintosh (1984), a faster computer - A conduit for democratic ideas? with a graphical user interface. - Another tool for totalitarian governments In May 1990 Microsoft released Windows 3.0 for IBM PCs 1.5 Milestones in Information Storage World Wide Web (1990) and Retrieval Tim Berners-Lee completed the first Web browser on the NeXT Computer (1990) - called his This section focuses on the development of technologies to browser WorldWideWeb store and retrieve information. The first widely used Web browser was Mosaic, developed Newspapers at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign The first English-language newspaper appeared in Great Today, the most popular web browsers Britain in the 1600s. Chrome, Internet Explorer, Firefox, Safari Hypertext Search Engines In 1965, Ted Nelson coined the word hypertext, which refers to a linked network of nodes containing information. A search engine is a program that accepts a list of keywords from a user, searches a database of documents, The links allow readers to visit the nodes in a nonlinear and returns those documents most closely matching the fashion specified keywords.  GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA Two types of Web search engines Two ways to view world Crawler-based search engines, such as Google and Selfish point of view: consider only own self and AltaVista, automatically create the database of information its core values about Web pages. Ethical point of view: respect other people and their core values In a process similar to Web surfing, programs called spiders follow hyperlinks, eventually visiting millions of Defining Terms different Web pages. Society Summary information about these pages is collected into massive databases. Association of people organized under a system of rules When you perform a query, the search engine consults its Rules: designed to advance the good of database to find the closest matches. members over time Human-powered search engines - The second type of Morality Web search engine relies upon humans to build the database of information about various Web pages. A society’s rules of conduct What people ought / ought not to do in various People who develop a Web site can submit a summary of situations (road network- good or bad) their site to the keepers of the search engine. Ethics (philosophical study of morality- The advantage of this kind of search engine is that humans guidelines) can create more accurate summaries of a web page than a spider program. The disadvantage of this approach is that Rational examination of morality only a small fraction of the web can be cataloged. Evaluation of people’s behavior. Ethics is broader than morality in that it includes Chapter 2: Introduction to Ethics the higher- level activities evaluating moral systems and the creation of new ways of Chapter Overview evaluating moral problems. Ex: Observers on Balloons – people driving on Introduction road- or in shortcut. Subjective relativism Cultural relativism Why Study Ethics? Divine command theory Not everyone can do what they want Kantianism Ethics: A way to decide the best thing to do Act utilitarianism New problems accompany new technologies Rule utilitarianism - Emial and spams Social contract theory - www and pop-up ads for pornographic Comparing workable ethical theories web sites Morality of breaking the law “Common wisdom” not always adequate. “Common wisdom” may not exist for novel The Ethical Point of View situations brought about by new technologies. Virtually everybody shares “core values” More on Ethics Life Ethics: rational, systematic analysis – may cause benefit or harm to people. Happiness - “Doing ethics”: answers need Ability to accomplish goals explanations - Explanations: facts, shared values, logic  GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA Ethics: voluntary, moral choices - reasoned These guidelines vary from place to place and choice from time to time - Ex: choosing a color for a car – outside A particular action may be right in one society at moral realm one time and wrong in other society or at another - Ex: Trying to avoid a car on a road and time killing another person – non-voluntary - Ex (driving with a friend and killing a (reflex action not reasoned choice) pedestrian) (90% in Norway, 10% in - Ex: Driving while intoxicated – you Serbia, 50% in Mexico will not testify) enter moral realm Workable ethical theory: produces explanations Case for Cultural Relativism that might be persuasive to a skeptical, yet open- Different social contexts demand different moral minded audience guidelines (Ex. Survival among centuries has shifted from people to nature) Subjective Relativism It is arrogant for one society to judge another Relativism Case Against Cultural Relativism - No universal norms of right and wrong - One person can say “X is right,” Sometimes societies have bad or wrong another can say “X is wrong,” and both guidelines. (Ex: severe drought) can be right Doesn’t explain how guidelines evolve overtime. Subjective relativism (Ex: segregation of students in US) - Each person decides right and wrong Provides no way out for cultures in conflict (Ex: for himself or herself Gaza poverty and the armed struggle vs. larger - “What’s right for you may not be right Israel and expansion in settlements) for me” Because many practices are acceptable does not mean any cultural practice is acceptable Case for Subjective Relativism (many/any fallacy) (Ex: there are too many ways Well-meaning and intelligent people may have to document programs - Which is good and which opposite opinions about moral issues is bad?) Ethical debates are disagreeable and pointless – Societies do, in fact, share certain core values and we don’t have to try to reconcile opposing Ex: (no murder, care for babies) views. Not a workable ethical theory Case Against Subjective Relativism Divine Command Theory Blurs distinction between doing what you think is Good actions: those aligned with God’s will right and doing what you want to do (Who are Bad actions: those contrary to God’s will you to tell me what is right?) Holy books reveal God’s will. Makes no moral distinction between the actions We should consider holy books as moral of different people (Hitler vs Mother Teresa) decision-making guides. SR and tolerance are two different things (choosing to act only with your race is not tolerant Case for Divine Command Theory but it goes with SR) Decisions may not be based on reason (Selfish) We owe obedience to our Creator. Not a workable ethical theory (behave on your God is all-good and all-knowing. own. It is not based on universal moral norms) God is the ultimate authority. Case Against Divine Command Theory Cultural Relativism Different holy books disagree What is “right” and “wrong” depends upon a Society is multicultural, secular society’s actual moral guidelines Some moral problems not addressed in holy books. Ex: problems related to internet practices  GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA “The good” ≠ “God” (equivalence fallacy) related Utilitarianism (contrast to Kantianism) things but they are distinct. Based on obedience, not reason Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill Not a workable ethical theory An action is good if it benefits someone An action is bad if it harms someone Kantianism Utility: tendency of an object to produce happiness or prevent unhappiness for an Focuses on the critical importance of good will- individual or a community the desire to do the right thing. Happiness = advantage = benefit = good = Immanuel Kant: Only thing in the world good pleasure Unhappiness = disadvantage = cost = without qualification is a good will. evil = pain - Ex: courage and intelligence may be used to harm people. Robbing a bank – Principle of Utility (Greatest Happiness Principle) no good will - Ex: a best effort to help people my fall An action is right (or wrong) to the extent that it increases short – good will (or decreases) the total happiness of the affected parties. Reason should cultivate desire to do right thing. Total sum of pleasure = Negative or Positive (Dutifulness – respect some moral rules – universal moral rules) Act Utilitarianism - What we ought to do NOT what we want to do Utilitarianism Categorical Imperative (1st Formulation) Morality of an action has nothing to do with intent Focuses on the consequences Act only from moral rules that you can at the same time will A consequentialist theory to be universal moral laws. Ex. Make promises to break them?!! If universalized, there Act utilitarianism is no mean for making promises. Add up change in happiness of all affected Categorical Imperative (2nd Formulation) beings Sum > 0, action is good Act so that you treat both yourself and other people as Sum < 0, action is bad ends in themselves and never only as a means to an end. Case for Act Utilitarianism Case for Kantianism Focuses on happiness Rational Down-to-earth (practical) Produces universal moral guidelines Comprehensive - Could be applied to all people for all Workable ethical theory history Treats all persons as moral equals Case Against Act Utilitarianism - No discrimination Unclear whom to include in calculations Workable ethical theory - In the highway example children in one Case Against Kantianism side might find it difficult to cross the highway Sometimes no single rule adequately Too much work characterizes an action Susceptible to the problem of moral luck Sometimes there is no way to resolve a conflict - Ex: Sending flowers to a patient and between rules causing an allergy for him. This cost Kantianism allows no exceptions to moral laws. him much. Then your act is BAD.  GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA Rule Utilitarianism Limited right: A right that may be restricted based on the circumstances We ought to adopt moral rules which, if followed - Ex: Free education limited to 12th by everyone, will lead to the greatest increase in grade because of under budgeting. total happiness Act utilitarianism applies Principle of Utility to Correlation between Kinds of Rights individual actions Rule utilitarianism applies Principle of Utility to Positive rights tend to be more limited moral rules Negative rights tends to be more absolute Case for Rule Utilitarianism John Rawls’s Principles of Justice Compared to act utilitarianism, it is easier to To avoid unequal distribution of wealth and power: perform the utilitarian calculus. Each person may claim a “fully adequate” Avoids the problem of moral luck number of basic rights and liberties, so long as Workable ethical theory these claims are consistent with everyone else having a claim to the same rights and liberties Social Contract Theory Any social and economic inequalities must - Be associated with positions that Thomas Hobbes everyone has a fair and equal State of nature opportunity to achieve. “We implicitly accept a social contract” - Be to the greatest benefit of the least- - Establishment of moral rules to govern advantaged members of society (the relations among citizens difference principle) - Government capable of enforcing these Case for Social Contract Theory rules Jean-Jacques Rousseau Framed in language of rights - In ideal society, no one above rules Provides clear analysis of certain - That prevents society from enacting citizen/government problems bad rules Workable ethical theory James Rachels’s Definition Case Against Social Contract Theory “Morality consists in the set of rules, governing how people No one signed contract are to treat one another, that rational people will agree to Some actions have multiple characterizations accept, for their mutual benefit, on the condition that others Conflicting rights problem follow those rules as well.” May unjustly treat people who cannot uphold Similar to Kantianism but rules are not to be universalized, contract but specific society should agreed upon. Comparing Workable Ethical Theories Kinds of Rights Negative right: A right that another can guarantee by leaving you alone - Ex. Free Expression Positive right: A right obligating others to do something on your behalf - Ex. Free education --- other must do something for you Absolute right: A right guaranteed without exception - Ex. Free expression and right for life  GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA Virtue Ethics - is a philosophy developed by Aristotle and Routers transfer packets from the sender’s mail other ancient Greeks. It is the quest to understand and live server to the receiver’s mail server a life of moral character. Network Cloud - the set of all mail servers and connectors within a company or organization. According to Aristotle, there are two kinds of virtues the intellectual virtues and the moral virtues. The Spam Epidemic These are virtues associated with reasoning and truth. Spam: Unsolicited, bulk email Amount of email that is spam has increased Moral virtues, often called virtues of character by today’s writers, are habits or dispositions formed through the o 8% in 2001 repetition of the relevant virtuous actions. o 40% in 2003 o 75% in 2007 o 90% in 2009 MIDTERMS Spam is effective (Cheap way for Ads. $500 - $2000) Chapter 3: Network Communication, o A company hires an internet marketing and Intellectual Property firm to send thousands of emails o More than 100 times cheaper than 3.1 Network Communication “Junk mail” o Profitable even if only 1 in 100,000 Introduction buys the product How firms get email addresses Networking increases the computer’s utility o Opt-in lists o In addition to Word processing, Excel, …etc, you can share printers, extra o Dictionary attacks (made-up email storage, exchange data, e-mail. addresses to ISP that bounce back) Internet connects millions of computers Spammers seek anonymity o Powerful computational resource ▪ E-mail, surfing www, o Change email and IP addresses to promoting your company. disguise sending machine o Even more powerful communication o Hijack another insecure system as a medium spam launchpad Network utility grows as the number of users Spam blockers squared o 10 users --> 90 sender-receiver o Attempt to screen out spam (spam combinations filters) by blocking suspicious subject o 100 users --> 9900 sender-receiver lines. combinations o Have led to more picture-based spam As people grows o The network may suffer overload o people may act irresponsibly Ethical Evaluations of Spamming o Kantian evaluation (receiving ads via cell phone costs money. Using people as a means for an How Email Works end ---- profit) Email: Messages embedded in files transferred Act utilitarian evaluation (1 from 100,000 will buy) between computers Rule utilitarian evaluation (if millions of people Email address: Uniquely identifies cyberspace are interested to respond to spam there will be no mailbox (2-parts User….@ Domain....) way to accommodate them). In practice, tiny Messages broken into packets users respond and many others are thinking of dropping their accounts)  GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA Social contract theory evaluation (you have the Need for Socio-Technical Solutions right to free speech doesn’t mean that all will New technologies sometimes cause new social listen – spammers are not introducing situations to emerge themselves. o Calculators feminization of From all these perspectives, it is wrong to send bookkeeping spam o Telephones blurred work/home boundaries Fighting Spam: Real-Time Blackhole List Spam an example of this phenomenon Trend Micro contacts marketers who violate o Email messages practically free standards for bulk email o Profits increase with the number of –( a DB of IP addresses that make spam. Trend Micro sells messages sent this DB to organizations) o Strong motivation to send more –Unsecured mail servers that have been hijacked may be messages regarded as spammers and they will be blocked even if they are not spammers) Internet design allows unfair, one-way communications – You might receive e-mail But you cant reply Ethical Evaluations of Publishing Blacklist Social contract theory evaluation 3.1.1 Attributes of the Web o Senders and receivers do not derive equal benefit from emails. Attributes of the Web Utilitarian evaluation It is decentralized o Blacklisting will affect innocent users, receivers, and marketing firms, this will –No need for central authority reduce the benefits of internet utility as a whole. –BUT it becomes difficult to control the Web Kantian evaluation Every Web object has a unique address o Innocent users are used as a means –URL. Every Web page has a unique URL for an end (eliminating spams) It is based on the Internet Proposed Solutions to Spam Epidemic –It needs browsers, media for storage, SW for retrieving Require an explicit opt-in of subscribers data, ftp, OSs…etc. Require labeling of email advertising (all How We Use the Web commercial emails must write ADS on the subject line) Shopping Add a cost to every email that is sent for ads. A Contributing content (wikis, blogs) micropayment system is proposed Ban unsolicited email by-laws (laws to prohibit –A wiki is a website that allows the easy creation and spam as those laws made to junk faxes) editing of any number of interlinked web pages via a web browser using a simplified markup language. Collaborative site – many authors The emergence of “Spam” –Blogs are usually maintained by an individual with regular “Spam” is an unsolicited, bulk instant message. entries of commentary. Personal site (Ex: online journal) o Ex: IM that has a link to a porn site. Promoting business People combat spam by accepting messages Learning only from friends or buddies Exploring our roots Entering virtual worlds  GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA Paying taxes –Harmless outlet AGAINST more likely to commit rape Gambling Lots more! Too Much Control or Too Little? 3.1.2 Censorship Not everyone in the world has Internet access Saudi Arabia: centralized control center Direct Censorship People’s Republic of China: ISPs sign Government monopolization “self-discipline” agreement Germany: Forbids access to neo-Nazi sites –TV and radio stations United States: Repeated efforts to limit access of Prepublication review minors to pornography –To monitor government secrets (Nuclear weapons) – like child pornography Licensing and registration Pornography Is Immoral –To control media with limited bandwidth. (Freqencies) Kant Self-censorship –Loved person an object of sexual appetite The most common form of censorship –Sexual desire focuses on the body, not the complete person Group decides for itself not to publish Reasons –All sexual gratification outside marriage wrong –Avoid subsequent persecution (CNN in Iraq) Utilitarianism –Maintain good relations with government officials (if the –Pornography reduces the dignity of human life offend government they loose their official sources of information) –Pornography increases crimes such as rape Rating systems –Pornography reduces sympathy for rape victims –Movies, TVs, CDs, video games –Pornography is like pollution –Not the Web (some may have warned– and ask for –The pornography industry diverts resources from more agreeing to enter a site) socially redeeming activities Challenges Posed by the Internet Utilitarianism Many-to-many communication –Those who produce pornography make money –It is easy to close a radio station BUT difficult to do so for –Consumers of pornography derive physical pleasure a Web page (millions can post pages) –Pornography is a harmless outlet for exploring sexual Dynamic connections fantasies –Millions of PCs are connected to the internet yearly Commentary Huge numbers of Web sites Performing utilitarian calculus on pornography is difficult –No way to monitor them all. How to quantify harms/benefits, such as harm Extends beyond national borders, laws done to people who find pornography offensive? Can’t determine the age of users How to deal with contradictory “facts” by “experts?” – an adult Web site can not confirm the age of a user  GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA Ethical Perspectives on Censorship –ISP may provide service for customers Kant opposed censorship Methodologies –Enlightenment thinker –Maintain “black list” of objectionable sites –“Have the courage to use your own reason” –Before downloading a page, examine content for objectionable words/phrases Think for yourself Child Internet Protection Acts started to arise Mill opposed censorship Breaking trust on the Internet: Identity Theft –No one is infallible Identity theft: when a person uses another –Any opinion (not the majority opinion) may contain a person’s electronic identity kernel of truth (a part of the whole truth) More than 1 million Americans were victims of Mill’s Principle of Harm identity theft in 2008 due to their online activities “The only ground on which intervention is justified is to Phishing: use of email or Web pages to attempt prevent harm to others; the individual’s own good is not a to deceive people into revealing personal sufficient condition.” When an individual’s act harms others information the government must intervene. Chat Room Predators Freedom of Expression: History Chat room: supports real-time discussions 18th century among many people connected to the network –England and the colonies: No prior restraints on Instant messaging (IM) and chat rooms (which is publication similar to IM) replacing telephone for many –People could be punished for sedition or libel people American states adopted bills of rights including Some pedophiles meeting children through chat freedom of expression rooms Freedom of expression in 1st amendment to U.S. Police countering with “sting” operations Constitution addressed this issue. Policemen enter chat rooms to lure pedophiles. Freedom of Expression - Not an Absolute Right False Information 1st Amendment covers political and nonpolitical Quality of Web-based information varies widely speech –Moon landings The right to freedom of expression must be balanced against the public good –Holocaust Various restrictions on freedom of expression Google attempts to reward quality exist –Keeps a DB of 8 million web pages. – prohibition of cigarette advertising on TV –Ranking Web pages use a “voting” algorithm Children and the Web: Web Filters –If many links point to a page, Google search engine ranks Web filter: software that prevents display of that page higher certain Web pages Is Internet Addiction Real? –May be installed on an individual PC  GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA Some liken compulsive computer use to In light of information technology, how should we pathological gambling treat intellectual property? Traditional definition of addiction: What Is Intellectual Property? –Compulsive use of harmful substance or drug Intellectual property: any unique product of the human intellect that has commercial value –Knowledge of its long-term harm (misuse) –Books, songs, movies Kimberly Young created test for Internet addiction –Paintings, drawings – (8 questions on gambling on the Net) –Inventions, chemical formulas, computer programs –(5 “yes” ------- means addiction) Intellectual property (idea) ≠ physical Her test is controversial manifestation (paper) Contributing Factors to Computer Addiction Property Rights Social factors Locke: The Second Treatise of Government –Peer groups People have a right… Situational factors –to property in their own person –Stress –to their own labor –Lack of social support and intimacy –to things which they remove from Nature through their –Limited opportunities for productive activity labor (ex: cutting wood-logs-, gaining a land) Individual factors As long as… –Tendency to pursue activities to excess –no person claims more property than he or she can use –Lack of achievement –after someone removes something from the common state, there is plenty left over –Fear of failure Analogy Is Imperfect –Feeling of alienation If two people write the same play, both cannot 3.2 Intellectual Property own it ¾ every intellectual property is one-of-a- kind Introduction If one person “takes” another’s playing, both have Digital music storage + Internet ® crisis it ¾ copying an intellectual property is different from stealing a physical object Value of intellectual properties much greater than the value of media Benefits of Intellectual Property Protection o Creating the first copy is costly Some people are altruistic; some are not o Duplicates cost almost nothing –People can benefit from having ownership of their ideas, and thus can improve the quality of life for others Illegal copying pervasive The allure of wealth can be an incentive for o The Internet allows copies to spread speculative work. quickly and widely –Giving creators rights to their inventions stimulates creativity  GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA Limits to Intellectual Property Protection Companies also protect trademarks by contacting those who misuse them (photoshop must not be Society benefits most when inventions in the used as a verb or noun from misusers) public domain Congress has struck a compromise by giving Patent authors and inventors rights for a limited time. A public (not secret) document that provides a –Authors of the U.S. Constitution recognized the benefits detailed description of the invention to limited intellectual property protection. (Ex: exclusive Provides owner with the exclusive right to the rights for novels for a limited period of time) invention The owner can prevent others from making, Protecting Intellectual Property using, or selling the invention for 20 years After that, anyone can make use of the idea Trade secrets Example: Polaroid vs Kodak- instant photography Trademarks and service marks Patents Copyright Copyrights Provides owner of an original work five rights Trade Secret –Reproduction Confidential piece of intellectual property that gives the company a competitive advantage –Distribution (copies of the work to public) Employees are asked to make a confidentiality –Public display (copies of the work in public) agreement –Public performance Examples: –Production of derivative works –Formulas, customers’ lists, strategic plans, proprietary design Copyright-related industries represent 5% of U.S. gross domestic product (> $500 billion/yr) Never expires Examples: movie, music, SW, book industry. Not appropriate for all intellectual properties Copyright protection has expanded greatly since (movies- they should be viewed and not be kept 1790 in secret??) Reverse engineering allowed (buying a can of Fair Use Concept Coca-Cola and trying to figure out its formula is legal) Sometimes legal to reproduce a copyrighted work without May be compromised when employees leave the permission firm. –Citing short excerpts for teaching, research, criticism, commentary, news reporting Trademark and Service Mark Courts consider four factors Trademark: Identifies goods –Purpose and character of the use –given by a government to a distinctive product –Byword, symbol, picture, color, smell, sound (Educational is permissible, not commercial) –Nature of work Servicemark: Identifies services The company can establish a “brand name” Fiction vs nonfiction (facts) and published Does not expire preferred over non-published If a brand name becomes a common noun, the trademark may be lost (Aspirin) –Amount of work being copied Companies advertise to protect their trademarks, Brief excerpts, not the entire work using adjectives, not verbs, or nouns.  GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA –Affect on market for work –Give each user access to data stored in many other computers The use of out of print is permissible –Support simultaneous file transfers among arbitrary pairs 3.2.1 Digital Rights Management of computers Digital Recording Technology –Allow users to identify systems with faster file exchange speeds Copying from vinyl records to cassette tapes introduced hiss and distortions (bad quality) Ex: (PCs that have faster transfer rate because they have ADSL speed) Introduction of the compact disc (CD) a boon for the music industry Napster –Cheaper to produce than vinyl records The peer-to-peer music exchange network –Higher quality Began operation in 1999 –A higher price (companies charge more)Þ higher profits Sued by RIAA (Recording Industry Association of America ) for copyright violations BUT it’s possible to make a perfect copy of a CD Courts ruled in favor of RIAA Digital Rights Management Went off-line in July 2001 Actions owners of digital intellectual property take to protect their rights Re-emerged in 2003 as a subscription music service Approaches BitTorrent –Encrypt digital content Broadband connections: download much faster –Digital marking so devices can recognize the content as than upload copy-protected BitTorrent speeds downloading Criticisms of Digital Rights Management –Files broken into pieces Any technological “fix” is bound to fail –Different pieces downloaded from different computers DRM undermines fair use (no private copy) Used for downloading large files DRM could reduce competition (never expire) –Computer programs Some schemes make anonymous access impossible –Television shows Media Player tracks the contents the user's view –Movies Peer-to-Peer Networks Universities Caught in Middle Peer-to-peer network Universities hotbed for file sharing –Transient network –High-speed Internet access –Connects computers running same networking program –High-capacity file servers –Computers can access files stored on each other’s hard In 2003 RIAA sued four students (for distributing drives copyrighted music) for about $100 billion (settled for $50,000) How P2P networks facilitate data exchange Different university responses  GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA –Taking PCs of students Solution: “clean room” software development strategy –Banning file-sharing –Team 1 analyzes the competitor’s program and writes –Signing agreements with legal file-sharing services like specifications. Napster (for fees) –Team 2 uses specification to develop software Legal Music Services on the Internet Open-Source Software: Consequences of Proprietary Subscription services for legal downloading (like Software Napster) Increasingly harsh measures being taken to Some based on monthly fee; some free enforce copyrights (infringe our liberties) Consumers pay for each download –This act was created in an era with difficulties to make Apple’s iTunes Music Store leading service (just copies. This is not the case NOW. pay 99 cents per song) Copyrights are not serving their purpose of promoting progress. 3.2.2 Software Copyright –They make authors wealthy Protections for Software – Software Copyrights It is wrong to allow someone to “own” a piece of Copyright protection began 1964 intellectual property What gets copyrighted? –Cooperation is more important than copyright, –Expression of idea, not idea itself Open Source Definition Ex: Implementation of RDBMS NOT the concept Licenses have the following characteristics: of it (App. Not Idea of DB) No restrictions preventing others –Object program (.exe), not source program from selling or giving away software Because source codes are secrets Source code included in the distribution Companies deliver.exe No restrictions preventing others from modifying source code Companies treat source code as a trade secret No restrictions regarding how people can use the Violations of Software Copyrights software. They can exchange or sell. Copying a program to give or sell to someone The same rights apply to everyone receiving else redistributions of the software (copyleft) Preloading a program onto the hard disk of a NOTE: Nothing states that Open Source SW computer being sold must be given FREE. Distributing a program over the Internet Beneficial Consequences of Open-Source Software Safe Software Development Gives everyone opportunity to improve program Reverse engineering okay New versions of programs appear more Companies must protect against unconscious frequently copying Eliminates tension between obeying law and –Making the same duplicate of a program because helping others programmers move from firm to another Programs belong to entire community  GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA Shifts focus from manufacturing to service We are discussing whether society should give intellectual property protection to software –Buying Open Source SW with easy installation steps –utilitarian analysis –Providing great manuals The legitimacy of Intellectual Property Protection for –Providing support after-sales Software Examples of Open-Source Software Software licenses typically prevent you from BIND – give DNS for the entire Internet making copies of the software to sell or give away Apache – runs half of the Web servers Software licenses are legal agreements Sendmail – moving e-mail via the internet Here we are not discussing the morality of Perl, Python, Ruby, TCL/TK, PHP, Zope breaking the law GNU (General Public License) compilers for C, We are discussing whether society should give C++, Objective-C, Fortran, Java, and Ada intellectual property protection to software Impact of Open-Source Software –utilitarian analysis Linux putting pressure on companies selling Utilitarian Analysis proprietary versions of Unix Argument against copying Linux putting pressure on Microsoft and Apple desktops –Copying software reduces software purchases… –Leading to less income for software makers… The cost for these OSs goes down –Leading to lower production of new software… Critique of the Open-Source Software Movement –Leading to fewer benefits to society Without attracting a critical mass of developers, open-source SW quality can be poor Each of these claims can be debated Without an “owner,” incompatible versions may –Not all who get free copies can afford to buy software arise –The open-source movement demonstrates many people – Independent groups of users make enhancements, so are willing to donate their software-writing skills many versions will appear – no compatibility –The hardware industry wants to stimulate the software Relatively weak graphical user interface industry The poor mechanism for stimulating innovation –Difficult to quantify how much society would be harmed if certain software packages not released – No companies will spend billions on new programs It is not a matter of how many SW, but what they The legitimacy of Intellectual Property Protection for can be used for Software Software licenses typically prevent you from Chapter 4: Information Privacy, and making copies of the software to sell or give Computer & Network Security away 4.1 Information Privacy Software licenses are legal agreements What is Data Privacy? Here we are not discussing the morality of breaking the law  GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA The right of an individual not to have private information Online identity is a social identity that an internet user about himself disclosed, and to live freely from surveillance establishes in online communities and websites. and intrusion. Personal Identifiable Information Why Data Privacy is Important? When data that should be kept private gets in the wrong Personal Identifiable Information refers to any information hands, bad things can happen. whether recorded in a material form or not, from which the identity of an individual is apparent or can be reasonably A data breach at a government agency can, for and directly ascertained by the entity holding the example, put top-secret information in the hands information when put together with other information would of an enemy state. directly and certainly identity an individual. A breach at a corporation can put proprietary -Page 15 of the Data Privacy and Cybercrime Prevention in data in the hands of a competitor. the Philippine Digital Age A breach at a school could put students’ Personal Personal Information Identifiable Information (PII) in the hands of criminals who could commit identity theft. Some personal information that is protected: A breach at a hospital or doctor’s office can put Personal Health Information (PHI) in the hands of 1.Full Name those who might misuse it. 2.Present Address REPUBLIC ACT 10173 3.Permanent Address DATA PRIVACY ACT OF 2012 (DPA) 4.Home Number “An act protecting individual personal information in information and communications systems in the government and the private sector, creating for this 5.Cellphone Number purpose a National Privacy Commission, and for other purposes” 6.Email Address Who must comply? 7.Mother’s Maiden Name Companies with 250 employees or 1000 data subjects. 8.Job Position The processing of all types of personal information and to any natural and juridical persons involved in personal Sensitive Personal Information information processing shall comply to the law Sensitive personal information refers to personal -page 24 of the Data Privacy and Cybercrime Prevention information: in the Philippine Digital Age (1) About an individual’s race, ethnic origin, marital status, What is Data Subject? age, color, and religious, philosophical or political affiliations; Data subject refers to an individual whose personal information is processed. (2) About an individual’s health, education, genetic or It is the customer whom we serviced. sexual life of a person, or to any proceeding for any offense committed or alleged to have been committed by such What to protect? person, the disposal of such proceedings, or the sentence of any court in such proceedings Offline Identity - Identification cards we use on a day-to-day basis to authenticate identity in the physical world. Who Controls the data?  GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA 1. Personal Information Controller (PIC) - refers to Under the Data Privacy Act of 2012, you have a right to a person or organization who controls the obtain from an organization a copy of any information collection, holding, processing or use of personal relating to you that they have on their computer database information, including a person or organization and/or manual filing system. It should be provided in an who instructs another person or organization to easy-to-access format, accompanied with a full explanation collect, hold, process, use, transfer or disclose executed in plain language. personal information on his or her behalf. 2. Personal Information Processor (PIP)- refers to You may demand to access the following: any natural or juridical person or any other body to whom a PIC may outsource or instruct the The contents of your personal data that were processing of personal data pertaining to a data processed. subject. The sources from which they were obtained. What is Consent? Names and addresses of the recipients of your Consent means giving data subjects genuine choice and data. control over how a Personal Information Controller (PIC) uses their data. Data subjects may be able to refuse Manner by which they were processed. consent and may be able to withdraw consent easily at any time. Reasons for disclosure to recipients, if there were any. 4.1.1 Know Rights Information on automated systems where your data is or may be available, and how it may affect The right to be informed you. Under R.A. 10173, your personal data is treated almost Date when your data was last accessed and literally in the same way as your own personal property. modified Thus, it should never be collected, processed, and stored The identity and address of the personal by any organization without your explicit consent, unless information controller. otherwise provided by law. Information controllers usually solicit your consent through a consent form. Aside from The right to rectify protecting you against unfair means of personal data collection, this right also requires personal information You have the right to dispute and have corrected any controllers (PICs) to notify you if your data have been inaccuracy or error in the data a personal information compromised, in a timely manner. controller (PIC) holds about you. The PIC should act on it immediately and accordingly unless the request is As a data subject, you have the right to be informed that vexatious or unreasonable. Once corrected, the PIC should your personal data will be, are being, or were, collected ensure that your access and receipt of both new and and processed. retracted information. PICs should also furnish third parties with said information, should you request it. The Right to be Informed is the most basic right as it empowers you as a data subject to consider other actions The right to damages to protect your data privacy and assert your other privacy You may claim compensation if you suffered damages due rights. to inaccurate, incomplete, outdated, false, unlawfully obtained, or unauthorized use of personal data, considering The right to access any violation of your rights and freedoms as the data subject. This is your right to find out whether an organization holds any personal data about you and if so, gain “reasonable The right to file a complaint with the National access” to them. Through this right, you may also ask them Privacy Commission to provide you with a written description of the kind of information they have about you as well as their purpose/s If you feel that your personal information has been for holding them. misused, maliciously disclosed, or improperly disposed, or  GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA that any of your data privacy rights have been violated, you system administrators allow users to choose short have a right to file a complaint with the NPC. passwords or passwords that appear in a dictionary. 4.2. Computer Security There are three other low-tech techniques for obtaining login names and passwords are eavesdropping, dumpster 4.2.1 Hackers (Past and Present) diving, and social engineering. Hackers in the Past 1. Eavesdropping, such as simply looking over the shoulder of a legitimate computer user to learn his login name and password. In its original meaning, a hacker was an explorer, a risk- 2. Dumpster diving means looking through garbage taker, someone who was trying to make a system do for interesting bits of information. Companies something it had never done before. typically do not put a fence around their dumpsters. In midnight rummaging sessions, Hackers in this sense of the word abounded at MIT’s Tech hackers have found user manuals, phone Model Railroad Club in the 1950s and 1960s. The club numbers, login names, and passwords. constructed and continuously improved an enormous HO- 3. Social engineering refers to the manipulation of a scale model train layout. Members of the Signals and person inside the organization to gain access to Power Subcommittee built an elaborate electronic confidential information. Social engineering is switching system to control the movement of the trains. easier in large organizations where people do not know each other very well. For example, a To them, a “hack” was a newly constructed piece of hacker may identify a system administrator and equipment that not only served a useful purpose but also call that person, pretending to be the supervisor demonstrated its creator’s technical virtuosity. of his supervisor and demanding to know why he can’t access a particular machine. In this Calling someone a hacker was a sign of respect; hackers situation, a cowed system administrator, eager to wore the label with pride. please his boss’s boss, may be talked into revealing or resetting a password. In 1959, after taking a newly created course in computer programming, some of the hackers shifted their attention Penalties for Hacking from model trains to electronic computers. PHILIPPINES REPUBLIC ACT NO.8792 The term “hacker” came to mean a “person who delights in AN ACT PROVIDING FOR THE RECOGNITION AND USE having an intimate understanding of the internal workings OF ELECTRONIC COMMERCIAL AND NON- of a system, computers and networks in particular”. COMMERCIAL TRANSACTIONS, PENALTIES FOR UNLAWFUL USE THEREOF, AND OTHER PURPOSES In the 1983 movie WarGames, a teenager breaks into a Sec. 33. Penalties. - The following Acts shall be penalized military computer and nearly causes a nuclear by fine and/or imprisonment, as follows: Armageddon. After seeing the movie, a lot of teenagers a) Hacking or cracking which refers to unauthorized were excited at the thought that they could prowl access into or interference in a computer system/server or cyberspace with a home computer and a modem. A few of information and communication system; or any access in them became highly proficient at breaking into government order to corrupt, alter, steal or destroy using a computer or and corporate computer networks. These actions helped other similar information and communication devices, change the everyday meaning of the word “hacker.” without the knowledge and consent of the owner of the computer or information and communications system, Hackers Today including the introduction of computer viruses and the like, resulting in the corruption, destruction, alteration, theft or Today hackers are people who gain unauthorized access loss of electronic data messages or electronic document to computers and computer networks. shall be punished by a minimum fine of one hundred thousand pesos (P100,000.00) and a maximum commensurate to the damage incurred and a mandatory Typically, you need a login name and password to access imprisonment of six (6) months to three (3) years. a computer system. Sometimes a hacker can guess a valid login name/password combination, particularly when 4.2.2 Malware  GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA Malware, or malicious software, is any program or file that 4. The virus sends emails with virus-containing is harmful to a computer user. attachments To protect our computer system, we can install antivirus If you are lucky, these programs will do nothing other than consume a little CPU time and some disk space. If you are software. Commercial antivirus software packages allow not so lucky, they may destroy valuable data computer users to detect and destroy viruses lurking on their computers. To be most effective, users must keep them up-to-date by downloading patterns corresponding to stored in your computer’s file system. An invading program the latest viruses from the vendor’s Web site. may even allow outsiders to seize control of your computer. Once this happens, they may use your computer as a depository for stolen credit card information, a Web server Internet Worm dishing out pornographic images, or a launch pad for spam or a denial-of-service attack on a corporate or government A worm is a self-contained program that spreads through a server. computer network by exploiting security holes in the computers connected to the network. Types of malware can include The technical term “worm” comes from The Shockwave 1. computer viruses, Rider, a 1975 science fiction novel written by John Brunner. 2. worms, The most famous worm of all time was also the first one to get the attention of the mainstream media, which is why it 3. Trojan horses and is popularly known as the Internet worm, even though many other worms have been created that propagate 4. spyware. through the Internet. The primary source for this narrative is the excellent biography of Robert Morris in Cyberpunk: Viruses Outlaws and Hackers on the Computer Frontier, written by A virus is a piece of self-replicating code embedded within Katie Hafner and John Markoff. another program called the host. Sasser One way a computer virus can replicate. (a)A computer user executes program P, which is infected The Sasser worm, launched in April 2004, exploited a with a virus. previously identified security weakness with PCs running the Windows operating system. (b)The virus code begins to execute. It finds another executable program Q and creates a new version of Q Computers with up-to-date software were safe from the infected with the virus. worm, but it infected about 18 million computers worldwide nonetheless. (c)The virus passes control to program P. The user, who expected program P to execute, suspects nothing. The effects of the worm were non-threatening; infected Because a virus is attached to a host program, you may computers simply shut themselves down shortly after find viruses anywhere you can find program files: hard booting. disks, thumb drives, CD-ROMs, email attachments, and so on. Viruses can be spread from machine to machine via Still, the worm made millions of computers unusable and thumb drives or CDs. They may also be passed when a disrupted operations at Delta Airlines, the European person downloads a file from the Internet. Sometimes Commission, Australian railroads, and the British coast viruses are attached to free computer games that people guard. download and install on their computers. Instant Messaging Worms How an Email Virus Spreads 1. A computer user reads an email with an attachment There are two early worms to strike instant messaging systems were Choke and Hello, which appeared in 2001. 2. The user opens the attachment, which contains a virus 3. The virus reads the user’s email address book  GEE 002 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA Worms were less devastating back then because only script, which may steal cookies, track the user’s activity, or about 141 million people used instant messaging. Today perform another malicious action. more than 800 million people rely on instant messaging, so the impact of worms can be much greater. Drive-By Downloads The appearance of the Kelvir worm in 2005 forced the Many malware creators have hacked into legitimate Web Reuters news agency to remove 60,000 subscribers from sites and installed software booby traps. In some cases, its Microsoft-based instant messaging service for 20 hours. simply visiting a compromised Web site can result in the unintentional downloading of software, called a drive-by In 2010 a variant of the Palevo instant messaging worm download. rapidly spread through Romania