GED 104 The Contemporary World Module-72-121 PDF

The Contemporary World 2020 UNIT IV THE WORLD OF IDEAS Coverage: Weeks 10 and 11 Duration: 6 hours The Global Media Cultures (3 hours; week 10) The Globalization of Religion (3 hours; week 11) Learning Objectives: After studying the unit, the s...

The Contemporary World 2020 UNIT IV THE WORLD OF IDEAS Coverage: Weeks 10 and 11 Duration: 6 hours The Global Media Cultures (3 hours; week 10) The Globalization of Religion (3 hours; week 11) Learning Objectives: After studying the unit, the students should be able to:  Explain the dynamics between local and global cultural production  Explain how globalization affects religious practices and beliefs 1. The Global Media Cultures 2. The Globalization of Religion The Global Media Cultures Globalization and identity, globalization and human rights, globalization and culture, or globalization and terrorism are some concepts related to the study of globalization by many scholars. Among these concepts, the one that offers special insights is globalization and media. They are partners and act as a unit. Situations created through globalization and media make people conceive they belong to one world called global village, a term coined by Marshall MacLuhan in early 1960’s, a Canadian media theorist, to express the idea that people throughout the world are interconnected through the use of new media technologies (143). According to scholars, the world is globalized in the 1900s upon the advancement of media and transportation technology. Changes in migration patterns where people move easily and advancement in media which brought changes to human life heightens globalization. As a process, globalization worked silently for millennia without having been given a name; as a trend it had been with us since the beginning of history and further argued that a multitude of threads connect us faraway places from an ancient time (144). 72  The Contemporary World 2020 Globalization and Media Globalization which refers to economic and political integration on a world scale, has a crucial cultural dimension in which the media has the central role. Global institution like the media has an impact upon the structures and processes of the nation‐state, including its national culture. In that sense, media globalization is about how most national media systems have become more internationalized, becoming more open to outside influences, both in their content and in their ownership and control (145). Five Time Periods in the Study of Globalization and Media 1. Oral Communication Globalization as a social process is characterized by the existence of global economic, political, cultural, linguistic and environmental interconnections and flows that make the many of the currently existing borders and boundaries irrelevant. Of all forms of media, human speech is the oldest and most enduring. Humans are allowed to cooperate and communicate through language. Human ability to move from one place to another and to adapt to a new and different environment are facilitated by the sharing of information of other peoples (146). Languages as a means to develop the ability to communicate across culture are the lifeline of globalization. Without language there would be no globalization; and vice versa, without globalization there would be no world languages (147). 2. Script Writing is humankind’s principal technology for collecting, manipulating, storing, retrieving, communicating and disseminating information. Writing may have been invented independently three times in different parts of the world: in the Near East, China and Mesoamerica. Writing is a system of graphic marks representing the units of a specific language. Cuneiform script created in Mesopotamia, present-day Iraq, is the only writing system which can be traced to its earliest prehistoric origin. This antecedent of the cuneiform script was a system of counting and recording goods with clay tokens. The evolution of writing from tokens to pictography, syllabary and alphabet illustrates the development of information processing to deal with larger amounts of data in ever greater abstraction (148). Humans communicate and shared knowledge and ideas through script- the very first writing. The origin of writing was in the form of carvings such as wood, stone, bones and others. The medium that drove humans to globalization was the script of Ancient Egyptian written in papyrus (plant). Written and orderly arrangement of documents pertaining to religious, cultural, economic and religious practices are done through script for dissemination to other places. These can also be handed down from generation to 73  The Contemporary World 2020 generation. Script is an important tool for globalization as it considers the integration of economy, politics and culture to the world. The great civilization from Egypt to Rome and China were made possible through script (149). 3. The Printing Press The printing press is a device that allows for the mass production of uniform printed matter, mainly text in the form of books, pamphlets and newspapers (150). It revolutionized society in China where it was created. Johannes Gutenberg further developed this in the 15 th century with his invention of the Gutenberg press. The following are the consequences of the printing press (151) : 1. The printing press changed the very nature of knowledge. It preserved knowledge which had been more malleable in oral cultures. It also standardized knowledge. 2. Print encouraged the challenge of political and religious authority because of its ability to circulate competing views. Printing press encouraged the literacy of the public and the growth of schools. Lands and culture were learned by people through travels. News around the world were brought through inexpensive and easily obtained magazines and daily newspapers. People learned about the world. Indeed, printing press helped foster globalization and knowledge of globalization. 4. Electronic Media It refers to the broadcast or storage media that take advantage of electronic technology. They may include television, radio, internet, fax, CD-ROMs, DVD, and any other medium that requires electricity or digital encoding of information. The term electronic media is often used in contrast with print media (152). On going globalization processes such as economic, political, and cultural are revolutionized by a host of new media in the beginning of the 19th century. These electronic media in the likes of telegraph, telephone, radio, film, and television continously open up new perspectives of globalization. In the 20th 74  The Contemporary World 2020 century, the only available mass media in remote villages was the radio while film was soon developed as an artistic medium for great cultural expression. The most powerful and pervasive mass media is television as it brought the visual and aural power of film with the accessibility of radio. The introduction of television was a defining moment in globalization (153). Thus,the world is proclaimed a global village because of television (154). 5.Digital Media Phones and television are now considered digital while computer is considered the most important media influencing globalization. Computers give access to global and market place and transformed cultural life. The following are the companies involved in globalization: Microsoft, Apple, Google, and Facebook. Our daily life is revolutionized by digital media. People are able to adopt and adapt new parctices like fashion, sports, music, food and many others through access of information provided by computers. They also exchange ideas, establish relations and linkages through the use of skype, google, chat, and zoom. Popular Music and Globalization Music participates in the reinforcing of boundaries of culture and identity. Popular music explains the complex dynamics of globalization not only because it is popular but music is highly mediated, is deeply invested in meaning and has proven to be an extremely mobile and resourceful capital (155). World music is defined as the umbrella category which various types of traditional and non Western music are produced for Western consumption (156 ). It is a label of industrial origin that refers to an amalgamated global marketplace of sounds as ethnic commodities (157). Globalization is not something that happen to music or has a certain impact on it. Changes in musical culture constitute one of the aspects of globalization, and they concern institutions, system of value, and social groups involved in musical life (158 ). The change in popular music is not the outcome of globalization but rather popular music industry is a part of globalization phenomena (159). 75  The Contemporary World 2020 The Globalization of Religion Globalization implicates religions in several ways. It calls forth religious response and interpretation. Religions played important roles in bringing about and characterizing globalization. Among the consequences of this implication for religion is that globalization encourages religious pluralism. Religions identify themselves in relation to one another, and they become less rooted in particular places because of diasporas and transnational ties. Globalization further provides fertile ground for a variety of noninstitutionalized religious manifestations and for the development of religion as a political and cultural resource (160). Perspectives on the Role of Religion in the Globalization Process (161) 1. The Modernist Perspective. It is the perspective of most intellectuals and academics.Its view is that all secularizations would eventually look alike and the different religions would all end up as the same secular and “rational” philosophy. It sees religion revivals as sometimes being a reaction to the Enlightenment and modernization. 2. Post-Modernist Perspective. It rejects the Enlightenment, modernist values of rationalism, empiricism, and science, along with the Enlightenment, modernist structures of capitalism, bureaucracy, and even liberalism. The core value of post-modernism is expressive individualism. The post-modernist perspective can include “spiritual experiences,” but only those without religious constraints. Post-modernism is largely hyper- secularism, and it joins modernism in predicting, and eagerly anticipating, the disappearance of traditional religions. Globalization, by breaking up and dissolving every traditional, local, and national structure, will bring about the universal triumph of expressive individualism. 3. The Pre-Modernist Perspective. There is an alternative perspective, one which is post-modern in its occurrence but which is pre-modern in its sensibility. It is best represented and articulated by the Roman Catholic Church, especially by Pope John Paul II. The Pope’s understanding is drawn from his experiences with Poland, but it encompasses events in other countries as well. Each religion has secularized in its own distinctive way, which has resulted in its own distinctive secular outcome. This suggests that even if globalization brings about more secularization, it will not soon bring about one common, global worldview. Secularization is understood as a shift in the overall frameworks of human condition; it makes it possible for people to have a choice between belief and non belief in a manner hitherto unknown (162 ). 76  The Contemporary World 2020 Transnational Religion and Multiple Glocalization Throughout the 20th century migration of faiths across the globe has been a major feature. One of these features is the deterritorialization of religion – that is , the appearance and the efflorescence of religious traditions in places where these previously had been largely unknown or were at least in a minority position (163). Transnational religion is a means of describing solutions to new-found situations that people face as a result of migration and it comes as two quite distinct blends of religious universalism and local particularism. 1. It is possible for religious universalism to gain the upperhand, whereby universalism becomes the central reference for immigrant communities. In such instances, religious transnationalism is often depicted as a religion going global. 2. It is possible for local ethnic or national particularism to gain or maintain the most important place for local immigrant communities. In such instances, transnational national communities are constructed and religious hierarchies perform dual religious and secular functions that ensure the groups’ survival (164). Fundamentalist or revivalist movement attempt to construct pure religion that sheds the cultural tradition in which past religious life was immersed (165). Transnational religion is used to describe cases of institutional transnationalism whereby communities living outside the national territory of particular states maintain religious attachments to their home churches or institutional (166). Indigenization, hybridization or glocalization are processes that register the ability of religion to mould into the fabric of different communities in ways that connect it intimately with communal and local relations (167). Global -local or glocal religion represents a genre of expression, communication and individual identities (168). It involves the consideration of an entire range of responses as outcomes instead of a single master narrative of secularization and modernization (169). Forms of Glocalization 1. indigenization 2. vernacularization 3. nationalization 77  The Contemporary World 2020 4. transnationalization Indigenization is connected with the specific faiths with ethnic groups whereby religion and culture were often fused into a single unit. It is also connected to the survival of particular ethnic groups. Vernacularization involved the rise of vernacular language endowed with the symbolic ability of offering privileged access to the sacred and often promoted by empires (170). Nationalization connected the consolidation of specific nations with particular confessions and has been a popular strategy both in Western and eastern Europe (171). Transnationalization complemented religious nationalization by forcing groups to identify with specific religious traditions of real or imagine national homelands or to adopt a more universalist vision of religion (172). 78  The Contemporary World 2020 References: The Global Media Cultures 143. McLuhan, M.(1962). The Gutenberg Galaxy: The making of typographic Man, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. 144. Chanda, Nayan (2007). Bound Together: How Traders, Preachers, Adventures, and Warriors Shaped Globalization. New Haven: Yale University Press. 145. Sinclair, John. (2015). Media and Globalization. Retrieved from: https:// onlinelibrary. wiley. Com/ doi/ abs/ 10.1002/9781405165518. Webeos063. Pub2 146. Ostler,n. (2005) Empires of the Word: A Language History of the world. New York: HarperCollins. 147.Schwegler, Armin. (2006). Language and Globalization. Retrieved from: http://www. globalization101.org/ uploads/File/Syllabus-Lang-Globalization.pdf. 148. Besserat, Denise S. (2014). The Evolution of Writing. Retrieved from: https://sites. utexas.edu/ dsb/tokens/ the-evolution-of-writing/ 149. Powell, B.B. (2009). Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization. Oxford: Blackwell. 150. Printing Press. (2018).Retrieved from: https://www.history.com/topics/inventions/printing-press 151. Eisenstein E. (1979.) The Printing Press as an Agent of Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 152. What is electronic Media? Retrieved from: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/electronic- media.html 153. Lule, J. (2012) Globalization and Media: Global Village of Babel. New York: Rowman and Littlefield. 154. McLuhan, M. (1962). Understanding Media; The Extensions of Man. New York: Signet. 155. El-Ghadban, Yara, Popular Music and Globalization. The SAGE handbook of Globalization. 156. White B.W. (2012) Music and Globalization. Critical encounters. Bloomington and Indiapolis: Indiana University Press.’ And 157. Feld, S. (2012) “My Life in the bush of ghosts: Would Music’ and the commodificationof religious experience. In Wjite BW (ed) Bloomington and Indiapolis: Indiana university Press. 158. Baltzis, Alexandros G. Globalization and Musical Culture, Acta Musicological. Vol.77. 159. Eva, Philip, Seana and Zihao. The Relationship between globalization and Music. https:// popmusicif. Wordpress. Com/ globalization 79  The Contemporary World 2020 References: The Globalization of Religion 160. Globalization and Religion. (2020). https;// www. Encyclopedia.com environment/encyclopedias- almanacs-transcipts-and-maps/ globalization-and-religion. 161. Religion and Globalization. Retrieved from: https;// www.fri.org/ article/ 1999/05/ religion-and- globalization 162. Roudometof, V. (2014). Religion and Gobalization. Manfred Stegger, Paul Battersby and Joseph M. Siracusa. Eds. The SAGE handbook of Globalization. Two Vols. Thousand Oaks:SAGE. 163.Cassanova, J. (2001). Religion the New Millennium and Globalization (2000 Presidential Address). Sociology of Religion; Martin, D. 2001. Pentecostalism:The World their Parish.. Maiden, MA; Basil Blackwell; Roy, O. 2004. Globalized Islam: The Search for a new Ummah.new York: Columbia University Press 164. Roudometof, V. (2000) Transnationalism and Globalization: The Greek-Orthodox Diaspora between Orthodox Universalism and Transnational Nationalism Diaspora 165. Roy, O. (2010). Holy Ignorance: When Religion and Culture Part Ways. London: Hurst & Co. 166. Roudometof, V. (2014). Religion and Gobalization. Manfred Stegger, Paul Battersby and Joseph M. Siracusa (eds._ The SAGE handbook of Globalization. Two Vols. Thousand Oaks:SAGE. 167. Burke, P. (2009). Cultural Hybridity.London: Polity; Pieterse , JN 2003 Globalization and Culture: Global Melange. Lnham, MD:Rowman and Littlefield. 168. Robertson, R. (1991) Globalization, Modernization,and Postmodernization. The Ambiguous Position of Religion. In Robertson R. and Garret, W. (eds)Religion and Global Order. New York: Paragon House ; Robertson, R. and Garret,W. 1991. Religion and Globalization. An Introduction. In Robertson R. and Garret, W. (eds)Religion and Global Order. New York: Paragon House. 169. Beyer, P. (2007). Globalization and Clocalization.In Beckford JA and Demerath NJ III (eds) The SAGE Handbook of the Sociology of Religion. London:SAGE. 170. Roudometof, V. 2013. The Glocalization of Eastern Orthodox Christianity : European Journal of Social Theory; Roudometof, V. 2014. Globalization and Orthodox Christianity. In Leaustan L (ed) Eastern Christianities in the 21st Century : London : Routledge. 80  The Contemporary World 2020 171.Gorski, P.S. 2000 The Mosaic Moment :An Early Modernist Critic of Modernist Theories.; Hastings 1997,; Roudometof, V. 2001. Nationalism, globalization and Orthodoxy: The Social Origins of Ethnic Cinflict in the balkans. Westport, CT: Greenwood. 172. Roudometof, V. 2014. Religion and Gobalization. Manfred Stegger, Paul Battersby and Joseph M. Siracusa (eds._ The SAGE handbook of Globalization. Two Vols. Thousand Oaks:SAGE. 81  The Contemporary World 2020 UNIT IV A WORLD OF IDEAS Unit Test: J. Identification. Answer the following item by supplying the correct answer on the blank. __________1.This is a syllabary and alphabet illustrates the development of information processing to deal with larger amounts of data in ever greater abstraction. __________2.This refers to how most national media systems have become more internationalized, becoming more open to outside influences, both in their content and in their ownership and control. __________3.They may include television, radio, internet, fax, CD-ROMs, DVD, and any other medium that requires electricity or digital encoding of information. __________4.This is considered the most important media influencing globalization. __________5.This is humankind’s principal technology for collecting, manipulating, storing, retrieving, communicating and disseminating information. __________6.This is a term that expresses the idea that people throughout the world are interconnected through the use of new media technologies. __________7.Who coined the term global village? __________8.This is defined as the umbrella category which various types of traditional and non Western music are produced for Western consumption. __________9.Of all forms of media, this is considered the oldest and most enduring. __________10.This is a device that allows for the mass production of uniform printed matter, mainly text in the form of books, pamphlets and newspapers. 82  The Contemporary World 2020 K. True or False. Identify whether the statement is correct or not. Write True if it is correct, False if not. Underline the what makes the statement incorrect, then provide the corrections. (2 points each) __________1.Written and orderly arrangement of documents pertaining to religious, cultural, economic and religious practices are done through script for dissemination to other places. __________2.The introduction of cellphones was a defining moment in globalization. __________3.Lands and culture were learned by people through rituals. __________4.The term electronic media is often used in reference to print media. __________5.Music participates in the reinforcing of boundaries of culture and identity. __________6.On going globalization processes such as economic, political, and cultural are revolutionized by a host of new media in the beginning of the 19th century. __________7.The change in popular music is not the outcome of globalization but rather popular music industry is a part of globalization phenomena. __________8.In the 20th century, the only available mass media in remote villages was the radio while film was soon developed as an artistic medium for great cultural expression. __________9.Human ability to move from one place to another and to adapt to a new and different environment are facilitated by the sharing of information of other peoples. __________10.The following are the companies involved in globalization: Microsoft, Apple, Google, and Facebook. L. Essay. 2. Explain briefly. A. Globalization and Media (3 points each) a. Oral Communication 83  The Contemporary World 2020 b. Script/Writing c. Printing Press d. Electronic Media e. Digital Media B. How are the Filipino youth being influenced by globalization in terms of popular music? (5 points) 84  The Contemporary World 2020 UNIT V GLOBAL POPULATION AND MOBILITY Coverage: Weeks 12, 13 and 14 Duration: 9 hours The Global City (3 hours; week 12) Global Demography (3 hours; week 13) Global Migration (3 hours; week 14) Learning Objectives: After studying the unit, the students should be able to: Define what global city is Identify the attributes of a global city Define demography Describe and explain the the theory of demographic transition and its effect on global population Identify the effects of overpopulation on the economic welfare Identify the types and reasons for migration of the people Analyze the factors underlying the global movements of people Discuss the effects of global migration on the economic well-being of states 1. The Global City 2. Global Demography 3. Global Migration Global City: Its Definition and Concepts As defined, a global city is an urban centre that enjoys significant competitive advantages and that serves as a hub within a globalized economic system. The term has its origins in research on cities carried out during the 1980s, which examined the common characteristics of the world’s most important cities. However, with increased attention being paid to processes of globalization during subsequent years, these world cities came to be known as global cities. Linked with globalization was the idea of spatial reorganization and the hypothesis that cities were becoming key loci within 85  The Contemporary World 2020 global networks of production, finance, and telecommunications. In some formulations of the global city thesis, then, such cities are seen as the building blocks of globalization. 173 What constitutes a global city were primarily economic. As such, New York, London, and Tokyo can be identified as global cities, all of which are hubs of global finance and capitalism. 174 This concept of global cities was used to describe these three urban centers of New York, London, and Tokyo as economic centers that exert control over the world’s political economy. World cities are categorized as such based on the global reach of organization found in them. Not only are there inequalities between these cities there also exists inequalities within each city. 175 Alternatively, these cities can be seen as important nodes in a variety of global networks.176 Although cities are major beneficiaries of globalization, they are also the most severely affected by global problems. Therefore the city faces peculiar political problems, wherein it is often fruitlessly seeing to deal locally with global problems and local politics has become overloaded.177 Indicators of a Global City The following are the foremost characteristics of a global city. 178 1. Seats of Economic Power New York may have the largest stock market in the world but Tokyo houses the most number of corporate headquarters (613 company headquarters as against 217 in New York, its competitor). Shanghai may have a smaller stock market compared to New York and Tokyo, but plays a critical role in the global economic supply chain ever since China has become the manufacturing center of the world. Shanghai has the world’s busiest container port, moving over 33 million container units in 2013. 2. Centers of Authority Washington DC may not be wealthy as New York but it is the seat of American state power. People around the world know its major landmarks: the White House, the Capitol Building (Congress), the Supreme Court, the Lincoln Memorial, and the Washington Monument. Similarly, compared with Sydney and Melbourne, Canberra is a sleepy town and thus is not as attractive to tourists. But as Australia’s political capital, it is home to the country’s top politicians, bureaucrats, and policy advisors. 3. Centers of Political Influence Cities that house major international organizations may also be considered centers of political influence. The headquaters of the United Nations is in New York, and that of the European Union is in Brussels. An influential political city near the Philippines is Jakarta, which is not just the capital of Indonesia, but also the location of the main headquarters of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). 86  The Contemporary World 2020 Powerful political hubs exert influence on their own countires as well as on international affairs. The European Central Bank which oversees the Euro (the European Union’s currency), is based in Frankfurt. 4. Centers of Higher Learning and Culture A city’s intellectual influence is seen through the influence of its publishing industry. Many of the books that people read are published in places like New York , London, or Paris. The New York Times carries the name of New York City but it is far from being a local newspaper. People read it not just across America, but also all over the world. One of the reasons for many tourists visiting Boston is that they want to see Harvard University - the world’s top university. Many Asian teenagers are moving to cities in Australia because of the leading language universities there. Los Angeles, the center of the American film industry may also be considered a global city. A less obvious example, however, is Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark. It is so small that one can tour the entire city by bicycle in thirty minutes. It is not the home of a major stock market, and its population is rather homogenous. However, Copenhagen is now considered as one of the culinary capitals of the world, with its top restaurants incommensurate with its size. Similarly, Manchester, England in the 1980’s was a dreary, industrial city. But many prominent post-punk and New Wave bands - Joy Division, the Smiths, the Happy Mondays - hailed from this city, making it a global household name. In Southeast Asia, Singapore is slowly becoming a cultural hub for the region. It now houses some of the region’s top television stations and news organization (MTV Southeast Asia and Channel News Asia). Its various art galleries and cinemas also show paintings from artists and filmmakers respectively from the Philippines and Thailand. It is, in fact, sometimes easier to watch the movie of a Filipino indie filmmaker in Singapore than it is in Manila. 5. Economic Opportunities Economic opportunities in a global city make it attractive to talents from across the world. Since the 1970’s, many of the top IT programmers and engineers from Asia have moved to San Francisco Bay Area to become some of the key figures in Silicon Valley’s technology boom. London remains a preferred destination for many Filipinos with nursing degrees. 6. Economic Competitiveness The Economist Intelligence Unit has added other criteria like market size, purchasing power of citizens, size of the middle class, and potential for growth. Based on this criteria, tiny Singapore is considered Asia’s most competitive city because of its strong market, efficient and incorruptible government, and livability. 179 It also houses the regional offices of many major global corporations. 87  The Contemporary World 2020 Cities as Engines of Globalization Cities are the engines of globalization. They are social magnets, growing faster and faster. In the current generation, urban life has become the dominant form of human life throughout the world. An increasing number of large cities, with populations of over five million, are already identified as global cities, cities that are nodes of global as much as national networks. In 2000, there were 18 megacities (over 10 million)‚ such as Mumbai, Tokyo, New York City/Newark and Mexico City had populations in excess of 10 million inhabitants. Greater Tokyo already has 35 million. The Hong Kong/Guangzhow area is even larger, perhaps 120 million. The social magnetism of these urban areas is generating larger and denser metropolitan communities to the point that they are joining together to become regional conurbations. In 1900, 5% of the world population was urban. In 2007, the count passed 50%. By 2050, up to 75% is anticipated. Urban growth is faster outside the Western world, fastest in the poorest areas, such as Africa and the poorer parts of Asia, producing the most serious problems‚ which as the processes of globalization also progress will cease to be African and Asian problems and will become global problems. Movement into cities increases political voice and participation, as previously isolated rural populations become players on city streets, on the Internet, and in migration. As the pace of growth accelerates, the distinguishing cultural features of established historical cities become diluted. Established institutional forms of governance and services do not work with larger numbers. In the past, cities worked differently in culturally different parts of the world, and experienced different problems. Now, institutional innovation is failing to keep up with the rate of growth and change, and the problems confronting urban populations depend more on size and the rate of growth than on cultural expectations. 180 Global Demography Demography: Meaning and Its Origin The term demography was derived from the Greek words demos for “population” and graphia for “description” or “writing,” thus the phrase, “writings about population.” 181 It was coined by Achille Guillard, a Belgian statistician, in 1855. However, the origins of modern demography can be traced back to the John Graunt’s analysis of ‘Bills of Mortality’ which was published in 1662. 182 By its meaning, as cited by Tulchinsky, demography refers to the study of populations, with reference to size and density, fertility, mortality, growth, age distribution, migration, and vital statistics and the interaction of all these with social and economic conditions”. As such, demography is based on vital statistics reporting and special surveys of population size and density; it measures trends over time. 183 88  The Contemporary World 2020 Demographic transition started in mid- or late 1700’s in Europe. During that time, death rates and fertility began to decline. High to low fertility happened 200 years in France and 100 years in the United States. In other parts of the world, the transition began later. It was only in the 20th century that mortality decline in Africa and Asia, with the exemption of Japan. In India, life expectancy in India was only 24 years in the early 20th century while the same life expectancy occurred in China in 1929 until 1931. Fertility decline in Asia did not begin until the 1950’s and so on. 184 In the case of Japan, it was until the 1930’s that “total fertility rate did not drop below five births per woman” 185 This resulted in rapid population growth after the Second World War affecting the age structure of Asia and the developing world. Specifically, the baby boom in the developing world was caused by the decline of infant and child mortality rates. The West, on the other hand, experienced baby boom that resulted from rising birth rates. Effect of Demographic Transition A remarkable effect of the demographic transition is ‘the enormous gap in life expectancy that emerged between Japan and the West on the one hand and the rest of the world on the other.” By 1820, the life expectancy at birth of Japan and the West was 12 years greater than that of other countries. It increased by 20 years by 1900. Although there was an improvement in life expectancy all throughout the world in 1900-1950, the gap had reached 22 years. In 1999, the gap declined to 14 years. These differences in time of transition affected the global population. During the 19th century, Europe and the West had an increased in share in the world’s population, from 22.0 percent to 33.0 percent, while Asia and Oceania’s contribution dropped from 69.0 percent to 56.7. India and China suffered from economic stagnation and decline during that time. 186 There was a reverse in global population shares during the 20th century as Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania had high levels of population growth rates. Population growth shows a more remarkable shift: “Between 1820 and 1980, 69.3 percent of the world’s population growth occurred in Europe and Western offshoots. Between 1950 and 2000, however, only 11.7 percent occurred in the region.” 187 The United States projected that population growth will be shifted toward Africa. It is estimated that by 2150, the region’s share to the world population will be almost 20 percent, relatively much greater than its share in 1820 (seven percent) and in 1900 (six percent). Also, in 2150, there will be a projected increase of two billion if we combine the population of Asia, Latin America, and Oceania. In terms of age structure, the overall trend in Japan and the West was downward until 1950. Their dependency ratio was close to 0.5. It only increased, although temporary, when the baby boom after the Second World War occurred. Japan’s dependency ratio, however, increased between 1888 and 1920. its dependency ratio was higher than the West between 1920 and the early 1950’s. It dropped in 1970 and 89  The Contemporary World 2020 later since its precipitous decline in childbearing during the 1950’s and low fertility rates in recent years. The developing countries like India and the Philippines had higher dependency ratios than the West in 1900. A great increase in dependency ratio was caused by the decline in infant and child mortality and high levels of fertility, with its peak around 1970. Dependency ratios started to disappear because there is a decline in global birth rate. Furthermore, the gap in fertility between the West and the less developed countries became smaller by the 21st century. Over the next 50 years, the cases of dependency ratios of these two areas in the world will be reversed. 188 The aging populations will cause a rise in dependency ratio, starting in the West. Theory of Demographic Transition Demographic transition theory suggests that future population growth will develop along a predictable four- or five-stage model.189 Stage 1 In stage one, pre-industrial society, death rates and birth rates are high and roughly in balance. An example of this stage is the United States in the 1800s. All human populations are believed to have had this balance until the late 18th century, when this balance ended in Western Europe. In fact, growth rates were less than 0.05% at least since the Agricultural Revolution over 10,000 years ago. Population growth is typically very slow in this stage, because the society is constrained by the available food supply; therefore, unless the society develops new technologies to increase food production (e.g. discovers new sources of food or achieves higher crop yields), any fluctuations in birth rates are soon matched by death rates. Stage 2 In stage two, that of a developing country, death rates drop rapidly due to improvements in food supply and sanitation, which increase life spans and reduce disease. Afghanistan is currently in this stage. The improvements specific to food supply typically include selective breeding and crop rotation and farming techniques. Other improvements generally include access to technology, basic healthcare, and education. For example, numerous improvements in public health reduce mortality, especially childhood mortality. Prior to the mid-20th 90  The Contemporary World 2020 century, these improvements in public health were primarily in the areas of food handling, water supply, sewage, and personal hygiene. Another variable often cited is the increase in female literacy combined with public health education programs which emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In Europe, the death rate decline started in the late 18th century in northwestern Europe and spread to the south and east over approximately the next 100 years. Without a corresponding fall in birth rates this produces an imbalance, and the countries in this stage experience a large increase in population. Stage 3 In stage three, birth rates fall. Mexico’s population is at this stage. Birth rates decrease due to various fertility factors such as access to contraception, increases in wages, urbanization, a reduction in subsistence agriculture, an increase in the status and education of women, a reduction in the value of children’s work, an increase in parental investment in the education of children and other social changes. Population growth begins to level off. The birth rate decline in developed countries started in the late 19th century in northern Europe. While improvements in contraception do play a role in birth rate decline, it should be noted that contraceptives were not generally available nor widely used in the 19th century and as a result likely did not play a significant role in the decline then. It is important to note that birth rate decline is caused also by a transition in values; not just because of the availability of contraceptives. Stage 4 During stage four, there are both low birth rates and low death rates. Birth rates may drop to well below replacement level as has happened in countries like Germany, Italy, and Japan, leading to a shrinking population, a threat to many industries that rely on population growth. Sweden is considered to currently be in Stage 4. As the large group born during stage two ages, it creates an economic burden on the shrinking working population. Death rates may remain consistently low or increase slightly due to increases in lifestyle diseases due to low exercise levels and high obesity and an aging population in developed countries. By the late 20th century, birth rates and death rates in developed countries leveled off at lower rates. Stage 5 (Debated) Some scholars delineate a separate fifth stage of below-replacement fertility levels. Others hypothesize a different stage five involving an increase in fertility. The 91  The Contemporary World 2020 United Nations Population Fund (2008) categorizes nations as high-fertility, intermediate-fertility, or low-fertility. The United Nations (UN) anticipates the population growth will triple between 2011 and 2100 in high-fertility countries, which are currently concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa. For countries with intermediate fertility rates (the United States, India, and Mexico all fall into this category), growth is expected to be about 26 percent. Low-fertility countries like China, Australia, and most of Europe will actually see population decline of approximately 20 percent. Global Migration: Meaning and Concept Globalization has made migration possible and an inevitable fact. As defined by Cambridge dictionary, 190 global migration is a situation in which people go to live in foreign countries especially to find a job. Though it can be often seen as a permanent move rather than a complex series of backward or onward series, 191 the term migration is often conceptualized as a move from an origin to a destination, or from a place of birth to another destination across administrative borders within a country or international borders. 192 Types of Migration Internal migration This refers to people moving from one area to another within one country International migration This refers to the movement people who cross the borders of one country to another. The latter can be broken down into five groups: First are those who move permanently to another country (immigrants). The second refers to workers who stay in another country for a fixed period (at least 6 months in a year).193 Illegal immigrants comprise the third group, while the fourth are migrants whose families have “petitioned” them to move to the destination country. The fifth group are refugees (also known as assylum-seekers), i.e., those “unable or 92  The Contemporary World 2020 unwilling to return because of a well-founded fear of persecution on acccount of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. “ 194 Many countries face issues of illegal migration. The United States faces a major influx of illegal immigrants from Mexico and other Central American states 195. A fence is being constructed on the US-Mexico border to control this flow of people. 196 However, its efficacy is questioned and it is thought that it will only be illegal immigrants to adopt more dangerous methods to gain entry. In addition, tighter borders have also had the effect of “locking in” people who might otherwise have left the country. 197 Other countries with similar concerns about illegal immigration include Great Britain, Switzerland, and Greece as well as other countries in Asia. A strong case can be made on the backlash against illegal immigrants 198. In the North, such immigrants constitute a younger workforce that does work which locals may not perform, and they are consumers who contribute to growth. They also send remittances back to family members in the country of origin, which improves the lives of the recipients, reduces poverty rates, and increases the level of education as well as the foreign reserves of the home country 199. Banks are often unwilling or unable to handle the type (small amounts of money) and volume of remittances. As a result, specialized organizations play a major role in the transmission of remittances. In terms of remittances, the Philippines is one of the leaders when it comes to the flow of remittances ($14.7 billion), next to India ($24.5 billion) and China ($21.1 billion). 200 Reasons for Migration People decide to migrate because of push and pull factors. A push factor induces people to move out of their present location, whereas a pull factor induces people to move into a new location. As migration for most people is a major step not taken lightly, both push and pull factors typically play a role. To migrate, people view their current place of residence so negatively that they feel pushed away, and they view another place so attractively that they feel pulled toward it.201 The following are the factors underlying the global movement of the people. 1. Cultural Factor Cultural factor can be especially a compelling push factor, forcing people to emigrate from a country. Forced international migration has historically occurred for two main cultural reasons: slavery and political instability. Millions of people were shipped to other countries as slaves or as prisoners, especially from Africa to the Western Hemisphere, during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Large groups of people are no longer forced to migrate as slaves, but forced international migration persists because of political instability resulting from cultural diversity. 93  The Contemporary World 2020 2. Socio-political Factor Socio-political factors have become more prominent force to initiate migration activities. Political instability in some parts of the world is responsible for migration that needs to be addressed by the scholars of the world. Situation of war, oppression and the lack of socio-political rights are the major factors of migration in contemporary time. Lack of political rights and prevalent exploitation of a particular group or community in any nation state act as push factors for migration to get away from such situation. Social conflict forces millions of human creature to leave sometimes their homes and even their homeland every year to continue breathing on this planet. This displacement creates a humanitarian nightmare. This human crisis threatens the security of displaced people. The journalists around the globe describe such situation with their voice that attracts the people’s attention towards this crisis. For example, we can quote some headlines as sample ‘growing stream of refugees’ from Sudan, a ‘flood of boat people’ trying to reach Australia, and a ‘tide of refugees’ inundating Florida. 202 3. Environmental Factor Despite the fact that human relocation is a fundamental piece of history and culture of world, ecological change assumes a contributing part in influencing populace movement, especially on local level. According to IOM (International Organisation of Migration): “Environmental migrants are persons or groups of persons who, for compelling reasons of sudden or progressive changes in the environment that adversely affect their lives or living conditions, are obliged to leave their habitual homes, or choose to do so, either temporarily or permanently, and who move either within their country or abroad”. 203 This definition comprises the people who have been displaced by natural disasters and those who choose to migrate because of worsening environmental condition of a particular area. The environmentally caused migration can be internal as well as international. Environmental migrants commonly suffer with great risks to remain without legal protection. Sometimes they find themselves outside of their own country and also within the country. When world leaders of most of the countries came together in Paris to discuss the matter of climate change and its consequences for migration, it seemed like they would find long term solution. According to The European Commission, “The greatest single impact of climate change could be on human migration with millions of people displaced by shoreline erosion, coastal flooding, and agricultural disruption—a crisis in the making.” 204 4. Economic Factors Migration is a process affecting individuals and their families economically. It ensues as a response to economic development along with social and cultural factors. Recent studies on the economic impact of migration in European countries as well as other part of the world have reflected fresh comparative evidence that provides boost for economy. International migration has two way effects on economic growth. Though it is 94  The Contemporary World 2020 still debatable about its positive impact on GDP growth of a host country, it is worldwidely recognised that migration expands the skilled workforce. A recent UNCTAD report notes: ‘Remittances are more stable and predictable as compared to other financial flows and, more importantly, they are counter-cyclical providing buffer against economic shocks. In conflict or post–conflict situations, remittances can be crucial to survival, sustenance, rehabilitation, and reconstruction. In providing primarily for household livelihoods, remittances are spent on general consumption items in local communities that contribute to local economies by supporting small businesses. Moreover, in contributing to foreign exchange earnings, remittances can spur economic growth by improving sending countries’ credit worthiness and expanding their access to international capital markets’. 205 It is also important to consider the impact of return migration on the economy of a particular country. Return migration has always put impacts on, at various levels, of economy as well as society in whole. According to World Migration Report published in 2018, “The total estimated 244 million people living in a country other than their country of birth in 2015 is almost 100 million more than in 1990 (when it was 153 million), and over three times the estimated number in 1970 (84 million).While the proportion of international migrants globally has increased over this period, it is evident that the vast majority of people continue to live in the country in which they were born. Most international migrants in 2015 (around 72%) were of working age (20 to 64 years of age), with a slight decrease in migrants aged less than 20 between 2000 and 2015 (17% to 15%), and a constant share 159 (around 12%) of international migrants aged 65 years or more since 2000. 206 95  The Contemporary World 2020 References: The Global City 173. Global city. (n.d). In Britannica.com. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/global-city 174. Sassen, Saskia. (1991).The Global City: New York, London, tokyo. Princeton, N.J.:Princeton University Press 175. Aldama, P. R. (2018). The Contemporary World First Edition. Manila: Rex Book Store 176. Castells, M. (2000). The rise of the network society. New ed. Malden:Blackwell. 177. Bauman, Z. (2003). Liquid love. Cambridge: Polity. 178. Claudio, Lisandro and Patricio N. Abinales. (2018). The Contemporary World. Manila: C&E Publishing Inc. 179. “Hot Spots: Benchmarking Global City Competitiveness” (London: The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2012),https://web.archive.org/web/20140709133545/https://www.economistinsights.com/sitesde faulty/files/ 180. “Globalization FAQ - Globalization Studies in an Urban World”, Retrieved from http://web.sas.upenn.edu Refrences: Global Demography 181. Poston,Jr. D. and Leon F. Bouvier. (2016). An Introduction to Demography. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/population-and- society/an- introduction-to-demography/A646239C30C3E41F767594F87E920FFF 182.Timaeus, I. M. (n.d.). Demography Retrieved from http://www.medicine.mcgill.ca/epidemiology/hanley/c609/Material/DemographyEoB.pdf 183. Tulchinsky, T. H. and Elena A. Varavikova. (2014). The new public health (Third Edition), measuring, monitoring and evaluating the health of population. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/demographic-transition 184.Aldama, P.K. R. (2018). The Contemporary World. Manila: Rex Book Store 185. Shigeyuki, A., La Croix, S.J., & Mason, A. (2002). Population and globalization. Southeast Asian Studies. 40, (3) 186.Ibid. 96  The Contemporary World 2020 187.Ibid. 188.Ibid. 189.Caldwell, J. (2006). Demographic Transition Theory. Springer: Australia. Retrieved from books.google.com References: Global Migration 190.Global migration. (n.d.) In Cambridge Dictionary. Retrieved from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/global-migration 191. Skeldon, R. (2013). Global Migration: Demographic Aspects and Its Relevance for Development. Technical Paper No. 2013/6. UN: New York. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/publications/technicalpapers/doc s/EGM.Skeldon_17.12.2013.pdf 192. Santic, D. and Milena Spasovski. (2016). Contemporary world migration - towards new terminology, patterns and policies. Bulletin of the Serbian Geographical Society. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311987791. DOI: 10.2298/GSGD1602001S 193. Castles, S. (2000). “International Migration at the Beginning of the Twenty-first Century: Global Trends and Issues,” in Global Trends and Issues. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers 269-270 194. Ibid. 195. Thompson, G. (2008, October 3). Fewer people are entering US illegally, report says, New York Times 196.Fletcher, M.A. & Weisman, J. (2006, October 27). Bush signs bill authorizing 700- mile fence for border. New York Times. 197.Fears, D. (2006, October, 27). Citizenship changes draw objections. New York Times 198. Economist. (2008, January 3). Keep the borders open. 199. Economist. (2007, November 1). Illegal but useful. 200. Malkin, E. (2007, October 26). Mexicans miss money from workers up north. New York Times 201. The Cultural Landscape: Migration. Retrieved from https://www.globalization101.org/economic- effects-of-migration/ 97  The Contemporary World 2020 202. Bratton, Michael. “Violence, displacement and democracy in post-conflict societies: evidence from Mali”. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 34:4, 2016.pp. 437-458. 203.International Organization of Migration. (2011). 204.European Commission, “COP21 UN Climate Change Conference, Paris,” http://ec.europa.eu/priorities/energy-union/emissionsreduction/cop21/index_en.htm (accessed 10 April, 2018). 205. Trade and Development Report, 2011: Post-Crisis Policy Challenges in the World Economy. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), 2011. 206.“World Migration Report 2018.” International Organization for Migration. Retrieved from www.iom.int/wmr/world-migration-report-2018. 98  The Contemporary World 2020 UNIT V GLOBAL POPULATION AND MOBILITY Unit Test: A. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. __________ 1.Forced international migration has historically occurred for two main cultural reasons a. slavery and political instability b. poverty and absence of legal protection c. lack of income and environmental threat d. employment and education __________ 2.According to European Commission, which of the following is greatly affected by climate change? a. agriculture b. environment c. economy d. migration __________ 3.The following are the contributions of remittance to economic growth, except: a.contributes to foreign exchange earnings b.improves sending countries’ credit worthiness c. expands access to international capital markets d. serves as savings in financial institutions __________ 4. Which of the following acts as push factor for migration in a nation state? a. lack of political rights and prevalent exploitation of a particular group or community b. environmental threat and agricultural disruption c. lack of political protection and resurgence of military elements d. employment opportunities and educational grants __________ 5.In contemporary time, the following are considered to be the major socio- political factors of migration, except: a.situation of war c. political conflict b.oppression d. lack of socio-political rights __________ 6.In conflict or post–conflict situations, remittances can be crucial to the following, except: a.survival b. sustenance c. debt d. reconstruction 99  The Contemporary World 2020 __________ 7. Forced international migration persists because of political instability resulting from; a. cultural diversity b. political war c. sovereignty d. cross-border conflict __________ 8. This term refers to people moving from one area to another within one country. a. internal migrants b. immigrants c. refugees d. petitioned __________ 9. This term refers to people crossing the borders of one country to another. a. refugees b. petitioned c. international migrants d. internal migrants __________10.This refers to persons or groups of persons who, for compelling reasons of sudden or progressive changes in the environment are obliged to leave their habitual homes, either temporarily or permanently. a. intenal migrants b. international migrants c. immigrants d. environmental migrants __________ 11.This term refers to persons of groups of person returning to their country of origin after having been international migrants in another country. a. Immigrants b. international migrants c. returning migrants d.internal migrants __________ 12.This term refers to the migration of people into a country in violation of the immigration laws of the country. a.illegal migration b. internal migration c. international migration d. migration law __________ 13.Dependency ratios started to disappear due to a. decline in global birth rate c. increased rate in migration b. increase in mortality rate d. decline in old age structure 100  The Contemporary World 2020 __________ 14. During the 19th century, these two regions had an increased in share in the world’s population, from 22.0 percent to 33.0 percent a. Europe and West b. US and Japan c. Africa and China d. Philippines and India __________ 15. Which is NOT true about global cities? a.important nodes in a variety of global networks b.major beneficiaries of globalization c. with populations of over 5 million d. with high influx of immigrants B. Modified True or False. Identify whether the statement is correct or not. Write True if it is corect, False if not. Modify the word or phrase that makes it incorrect. __________ 1. Specialized organizations play a major role in the transmission of remittances. __________ 2.The rise of internationalization of capital accelerates the formation of global cities. __________ 3.In some part of the world, political instability is responsible for migration of people. __________ 4.According to World Migration Repprt in 2018, most international migrants in 2015 were of working age between 20 to 64. __________ 5.Return migration has always put impacts on, at various levels, of economy as well as society in whole. __________ 6.Ecological change assumes a contributing part in influencing populace movement, especially on international level. __________ 7. Birth rate decline can also be caused by a transition in values; not just because of the availability of contraceptives. __________ 8.The birth rate decline in developed countries started in the late 19th century in western Europe. __________ 9. Death rates may remain consistently low or increase slightly due to increases in lifestyle diseases. __________ 10. Unless the society develops new technologies to increase food production , any fluctuations in birth rates are soon matched by mortality rates. __________ 11. It was only in the 18th century that mortality decline in Africa and Asia, with the exemption of Japan. 101  The Contemporary World 2020 __________ 12. The United Nations (UN) anticipates the population growth will double between 2011 and 2100 in high-fertility countries, which are currently concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa. __________ 13. Use of contraception may not always be attributed to decline in birth rate. __________ 14. World cities are categorized as such based on the global reach of organization found in them. __________ 15. Ecological change forces millions of human creature to leave their homes and even their homeland every year. C. Essay (5 pts each) 1. Given the attributes of a global city, can the Philippines be also considered as a global city? Justify your answers. 2. Aside from the above mentioned factors in human migration, what other factors can you suggest that may contribute to internal and international migration? Explain. 102  The Contemporary World 2020 UNIT VI TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE WORLD Coverage: Weeks 15 and 16 Duration: 6 hours Sustainable Development (3 hours; week 15) Global Food Security (3 hours; week 16) Learning Objectives: After studying the unit, students should be able to: Examine the measures of the governments in addressing environmental crisis like climate change Relate everyday encounters with the various environmental problems Analyze the effect of environmental problems that the world faces today Identify the four dimensions of food security Explain the issues, interventions and public policy implications of global food security Identify the challenges in food security Critique existing models of global food security 1. Sustainable Development 2. Global Food Security Sustainable Development and Climate Change By its meaning, sustainable development has been variously defined, but one of the most quoted definitions of this term is from the Brundtland Report also known as Our Common Future, which is a publication released by the World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987, “sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” 207 As this term primarily relates to how the needs of the people basically through the consumption and utilization of resources, sustainable development is often linked with climate change which due to its hazardous effects in the environment is known to be a major restriction in achieving sustainability. 103  The Contemporary World 2020 This link between sustainable development and climate change is considered strong. Poor developing countries particularly those developed countries tend to be the most severely affected by climate change. Undoubtedly, climate change is often seen as a part of the broader challenge in sustainable development thru a two-fold link: 208 1. Impacts of climate change can severely hamper development efforts in key sector (e.g. increased threat of natural disasters and growing water stress will have to be factored into plans for public health infrastructure) 2. Development choice will influence the capacity to mitigate and adapt to climate change (e.g. policies for forest conservation and sustainable energy will improve communities’ resilience reducing thereby the vulnerability of their sources of income to climate change) In the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, Member States express their commitment to protect the planet from degradation and take urgent action on climate change. The Agenda also identifies, in its paragraph 14, climate change as “one of the greatest challenges of our time” and worries about “its adverse impacts undermine the ability of all countries to achieve sustainable development. Increases in global temperature, sea level rise, ocean acidification and other climate change impacts are seriously affecting coastal areas and low-lying coastal countries, including many least developed countries and Small Island Developing States. The survival of many societies, and of the biological support systems of the planet, is at risk”. 209 Various efforts are underway to deal with climate. However, strong resistance on the part of governments and corporations counters these. There are significant challenges involved in implementing various measures such as “carbon tax” and ‘carbon neutrality” to deal with environmental problems. 210 It is also difficult to find alternatives to fossil fuels. For instance, the use of ethanol as an alternative to gasoline has an attendant set of problems - it is less efficient and it has led to escalation in the price of corn, which currently serves as major source of ethanol. Although biofuels themselves produce lower emissions, their extraction and transport contribute significantly to total emissions. 211 The World’s Leading Environmental Problems The Conserve Energy Future website 212 lists the following environmental challenges that the world faces today: 1. Depredation caused by industrial and transportation toxins and plastic in the ground; the defiling of the sea, rivers, and water beds by oil spills and acid rain; the dumping of urban waste 2. Changes in global weather patterns (flash floods, extreme snowstorms, and the spread of deserts) and the surge in ocean and land temperatures leading to a rise in 104  The Contemporary World 2020 sea levels (as the polar ice caps melt because of the weather), plus the flooding of many lowland areas across the world 3. Overpopulation 4. Exhaustion of the world’s natural non-renewable resources from oil reserves to minerals to potable water 5. Waste disposal catastrophe due to excessive amount of waste (from plastic to food packages to electronic waste) unloaded by communities in landfills as well as on the ocean; and dumping of nuclear waste 6. Destruction of million-year-old ecosystems and the loss of biodiversity (destruction of the coral reefs and massive deforestation) that have led to the extinction of particular species and decline in the number of others 7. Reduction of oxygen and increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to deforestation, resulting in the rise in ocean acidity by as much as 150 percent in the last 250 years 8. Depletion of ozone layer protecting the planet from the sun’s deadly ultraviolet rays due to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in the atmosphere 9. Deadly acid rain as a result of fossil fuel combustion, toxic chemicals from erupting volcanoes, and the massive rotting vegetables filling up garbage dumps or left on the streets 10. Water pollution arising from industrial and community waste residues seeping into underground water tables, rivers and seas 11. Urban sprawls that continue to expand as a city turns into a megalopolis, destroying farmlands, increasing traffic gridlock, and making smog cloud a permanent urban fixture 12. Pandemics and other threats to public health arising from wastes with drinking water, polluted environment that become the breeding grounds for mosquitoes and disease carrying rodents, and pollution 13. A radical alteration of food systems because of genetic modifications in food production 105  The Contemporary World 2020 Global Food Security What is Food Security? As said, food security exists when all people, at all times, have access to adequate, safe, and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. 213 This widely accepted definition of food security emphasizes the four dimensions of food security 214 which are as follows: 1. food access: access to adequate resources to acquire a healthy and nutritious diet 2. food use: use of food through adequate diet, clean water and health care to reach the state of a healthy well-being 3. availability: availability of adequate supply of food, produced either through domestic or foreign import, including as well the food aid received from outside the country 4. stability: access to sufficient food at all times, without losing access to food supply brought by either economic or climatic crisis Global Food Security: Issues, Interventions and Public Policy Implications The global food security situation and outlook remains delicately imbalanced amid surplus food production and the prevalence of hunger, due to the complex interplay of social, economic, and ecological factors that mediate food security outcomes at various human and institutional scales. Food production outpaced food demand over the past 50 years due to expansion in crop area and irrigation, as well as supportive policy and institutional interventions that led to the fast and sustained growth in agricultural productivity and improved food security in many parts of the world. However, future predictions point to a slow-down in agricultural productivity and a food- gap mainly in areas across Africa and Asia which are having ongoing food security issues. The problem of food insecurity is expected to worsen due to, among others, rapid population growth and other emerging challenges such as climate change and rising demand for biofuels. Climate change poses complex challenges in terms of increased variability and risk for food producers and the energy and water sectors. There is a need to look beyond agriculture and invest in affordable and suitable farm technologies if the problem of food insecurity is to be addressed in a sustainable manner. This requires both revisiting the current approach of agricultural intervention and reorienting the existing agricultural research institutions and policy framework. 106  The Contemporary World 2020 Proactive interventions and policies for tackling food security are to be discussed which include issues such as agriculture for development, ecosystem services from agriculture, and gender mainstreaming, to extend the focus on food security within and beyond the agriculture sector, by incorporating cross-cutting issues such as energy security, resource reuse and recovery, social protection programs, and involving civil society in food policy making processes by promoting food sovereignty. 215 Challenges in Food Security Demand for food will be 60% greater than it is today and the challenge of food security requires the world to feed 9 billion people by 2050. Global food security means delivering sufficient food to the entire world population. It is, therefore, a priority of all countries, whether developed or less developed. The security of food also means the sustainability of society such as population growth, climate change, water scarcity, and agriculture. The case of India show how complex the issue of food security is in relation to other factors: Agriculture accounts for 18% of the economy’s output and 47% of its workforce. India is the second biggest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world. Yet, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, some 194 million Indians are undernourished, the largest number of hungry people in any single country. An estimated 15.2% of the population of India are too malnourished to lead a normal life. A third of the world’s malnourished children live in India (n.p.) 216 But perhaps the closest aspect of human life associated with food security is the environment. A major environmental problem is the destruction of natural habitats, particularly through deforestation. 217 Industrial fishing has contributed to a significant destruction of marine life and ecosystems. 218 Biodiversity and usable farmland have also declined at a rapid pace. Another significant environmental challenge is that of the decline in the availability of fresh water. 219 Because of the degradation of soil or desertification, decline in water supply has transformed what was once considered a public good into a privatized commodity. 220 The poorest areas of the globe experience a disproportionate share of water-related problems. The problem is further intensified by the consumption of “virtual water”, wherein people use up water from elsewhere to produce consumer products.221 The destruction of the water ecosystem may lead to the creation of “climate refugees, people who are forcibly displaced due to effects of climate change and disasters.222 Pollution through toxic chemicals has had a long-term impact on the environment. The use of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) has led to significant industrial pollution. 223 Greenhouse gases, gases that trap sunlight and heat in the earth’s atmosphere, contribute greatly to global warming. In turn, this process causes the melting of land- based and glacial ice with potentially catastrophic effects 224, the possibility of substantial flooding, a reduction in the alkalinity of the oceans, and the destruction of existing ecosystems. Ultimately, global warming poses a threat to the global supply of 107  The Contemporary World 2020 food as well as to human health. 225 Furthermore, population growth and its attendant increase in consumption intensify ecological problems. The global flow of dangerous debris is another major concern, with electronic waste often dumped in developing countries. There are different models and agenda pushed by different organizations to address the issue of global food security. One of this is through sustainability. The United Nations has set ending hunger, achieving food security and improved security, and promoting sustainable agriculture as the second of its 17 Sustainable Goals (SDGs) for the year 2030. The World Economic Forum (2010) also addressed this issue through the New Vision of Agriculture (NVA) in 2009 wherein public-private partnerships were established. 226 It has mobilized over $10 billion that reached smallholder farmers. 108  The Contemporary World 2020 References: Sustainable Development 207.What is sustainable development? (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.iisd.org/about- iisd/sustainable- development 208.The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI). A Background Paper under contract. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Division for Sustainable Development, New Delhi, April7.Retrievedfromhttps://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/1489mitigation_ paper.pdf 209. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/climatechange 210.Armitage, K.C. (2005). State of denial:The United States and the politics of global warming. Globalizations. 2, (3). 211.Barrionuevo, A. (2007, January, 23). Springtime for ethanol. New York Times. 212.Conserve energy Future, “Environmental Problems,” Retrieved from https://www.conserve- energy- future.com/15-current-environment-problems.php (accessed last July 29, 2020) References: Global Food Security 213.World Food Summit 1996, Rome Declaration on World Food Security 214.Food and Agriculture Organization. Food Security. Policy Brief, June 2006, Issue 2 215.Hanjra, Munir A.; Ferede, T.; Blackwell, J.; Jackson, T. M.; Abbas, A. 2013. Global food security: facts, issues, interventions and public policy implications. In Hanjra, Munir A. (Ed.). Global food security: emerging issues and economic implications. New York, NY,USA: Nova Science Publishers.pp.1-35.(GlobalAgricultureDevelopments)Retrievedfrom https://hdl.handle.net/10568/37212 216.Breene, k. (2016). Food security and why it matters. World Economic Forum. 217.Diamond, J. (2006). Collapse: How societies choose to fail or succeed. Nwe York: Penguin 218.Goldburg, R. J. (2008). Aquaculture, trade, and fisheries linkages:Unexpected synergies. Globalization. 5, (2) 219.Conca, K. (2006). Governing water: Contentious transnational political and global institution building. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 220.Glantz, M. (1977). Desertification. Boulder, CO: Westview. 221. https://www.foodandwaterwatch.org. 109  The Contemporary World 2020 222. https://www.unhcr.org 223. Revkin, A. C. (2008, March 2). Skeptics on human climate impact seize on cold spell. New York Times. 224. Brown, D. (2007, December 17). As temperature rise, health could decline. Washington Post. 225.Dinham, B. (2007). Pesticides. In Scholte, J.A. & Robertson, R. (eds.). Encyclopedia of globalization. New York: MTM Publishing 226. World Economic Forum (2010). Realizing a new vision for agriculture: A roadmap for stakeholders. Retrievedfromhttps://www.weforum.org/docs/IP/2016/NVA?WEF_IP_NVA_Roadmap_Report.p df. 110  The Contemporary World 2020 UNIT VI TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE WORLD Unit Test: A. Matching Type. Match the items in column with those in column B. Write the letter before the number. Column A Column B _______ 1. depredation a. increased birth rates _______ 2. waste disposal catastrophe b. loss of biodiversity _______ 3. overpopulation c. dumping of urban waste; defiling of sea and rivers by oil spills _______ 4. extinction of particular species d. excessive amount of waste unloaded in _______ 5. massive deforestation landfills _______ 6. deadly acid rain e. Destruction of million-year-old _______ 7. water pollution ecosystem _______ 8. ozone layer depletion f. CFC’s in the atmosphere _______ 9. oxygen reduction in atmosphere g. genetic modification in food production _______ 10. radical food system alteration h. fossil fuel combustion; massive rotting of vegetables filling up garbage dumps i. industrial and community waste residues seeping into underground water tables, rivers and seas j. deforestation B. Completion Type. Fill the blanks with word or phrase to complete the statement. 1.The global food security situation and outlook remains delicately _____________ amid surplus food production and the prevalence of hunger. 2.Food production outpaced _______________ over the past 50 years due to expansion in crop area and irrigation. 3. ______________ poses complex challenges in terms of increased variability and risk for food producers and the energy and water sectors. 111  The Contemporary World 2020 4.There is a need to look beyond agriculture and invest in affordable and suitable_________________ if the problem of food insecurity is to be addressed in a sustainable manner. 5. Proactive interventions and policies for tackling food security are discussed which include issues such as agriculture for development, ecosystem services from agriculture, and ________________. 6. Demand for food will be ___________ greater than it is today and the challenge of food security requires the world to feed 9 billion people by 2050. 7. Global food security means delivering _______________ to the entire world population. 8. The security of food also means the _________________ of society such as population growth, climate change, water scarcity, and agriculture. 9.The closest aspect of human life associated with food security is the ____________. 10. A major environmental problem is the _______________, particularly through deforestation. 11.Decline in water supply is caused by degradation of soil or ________________. 12.______________ is the use up of water to produce consumer products. 13. One of the models and agenda being pushed by different organizations to address the issue of global food security is through ______________. 14. The destruction of the water ecosystem may lead to the creation of _________________, people who are forced to migrate due to lack of access to wated due to flooding. 15. Instead of dealing with the causes of global warming, there is some interest in “technological fixes” such as __________________. C. Essay (5pts each) 1. List and explain 3 practical steps on how people may avert the impact of man-made pollution on the environment. 112  The Contemporary World 2020 2. What examples of short term environmental projects do you propose that your immediate community may adopt to curb the impact of environmental degradation? 3. Examine the existing environmental policy/ies in the Philippines. Which do you think need to be revisited/amended to resolve the environmental crises in the Philippines? Why? 113  The Contemporary World 2020 UNIT VII GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP Coverage: Weeks 17 Duration: 3 hours Learning Objectives: After studying the unit, the students should be able to: Define global citizenship Distinguish the salient features of global citizenship Relates global citizenship with global economy and governance Articulate a personal definition of global citizenship GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP Global Citizenship as Defined As there is no widely accepted definition of global citizenship, oftentimes, educators use this term loosely. Having been derived from the word city, the term citizenship tends to suggest allegiance to one’s own country or state. Quitely so, the concept of citizenship has taken on a new meaning from its historical usage as it has gone “global”. 227 According to Oxfam International, global citizenship is the idea that, as people, we are all citizens of the globe who have an equal responsibility for what happens on, and to our world. 228 This means to say that every global citizen has a duty to address issues affecting our being citizens. As there could be no formal process to become a global citizen, holding this citizenship status is something that we all have a right to and obligation as well. Given this above definition, citizenship can thus be associated with rights and obligations. For instance, the right to vote and the obligation to pay taxes. Both rights and obligations link the individual to the state. It also has to do with our attitude. We need to be willing to engage and to spend time and effort to the community of which we feel part of. Caecilia Johanna van Peski (as cited in Baraldi, 2012) defined global citizenship “as a moral and ethical disposition that can guide the understanding of individuals or groups of local and global contexts, and remind them of their relative responsibilities within various communities.” Global citizens are the glue which binds local communities together in an increasingly globalized world. In van Peski’s words, “global citizens might 114  The Contemporary World 2020 be a new type of people that can travel within these various boundaries and somehow still make sense of the world”. 229 Salient Features of Global Citizenship Global citizenship may seem to have far broader meanings than the above given ones. Equally, it is still important to note its salient features 230 for a better understanding of this concept. 1. Global citizenship as a choice and a way of thinking People come to consider themselves as global citizens through various formative life experiences and have different interpretations of what it means to them. For many, the practice of global citizenship is primarily exercised at home through engagement in global issues or with different cultures in a local setting. For others, global citizenship means firsthand experience with different countries, people and cultures. 2. Global citizenship as self-awareness and awareness of others Self-awareness helps students identify with the universalities of human experience, thus increasing their identification with fellow human beings and their sense of responsibility toward them. 3. Global citizenship as they practice cultural empathy Cultural empathy or intercultural competence is commonly articulated as a goal of global education. Intercultural competence occupies a central position in higher education’s thinking about global citizenship and is seen as an important skill in the workplace. 4. Global citizenship as the cultivation of principled decision making Global citizenship entails an awareness of the interdependence of individuals and systems as well as a sense of responsibility that follows from it. Although the goal of undergraduate education should not be to impose a correct set of answers, critical thinking, cultural empathy and ethical systems and choices are an essential foundation to principled decision making. 5. Global citizenship as participation in the social and political life of one’s community There are various types of communities that range from local to global, from religious to political group. Global citizens feel a sense of connection towards their communities and translate this connection to participation. 115  The Contemporary World 2020 Global Citizenship and Globalization Global citizenship does not automatically entail a single attitude and a particular value with globalization. We must remember that globalization is not a single phenomenon; rather, there are many globalizations. They are bound to be multiple futures for multiple globalizations. These globalizations created enemies because according to one broad view, globalization failed to deliver its promises. 231 The so- called bottom billion lacks infrastructures and has been disenfranchised. The opponents of globalization blame either Westernization or global capitalism. Thus, the enemies resist globalization, especially when it comes to global economy and global governance. Global Citizenship and Global Economy There are three approaches to global economic resistance. Trade protectionism involves the systematic government intervention in foreign trade through tariffs and non- tariff barriers in order to encourage domestic producers and deter their foreign competitors. 232 Although there exists a widespread consensus regarding its inefficiency, trade protectionism is still popular since it shields the domestic economy from systemic shocks. Fair trade is a different approach to economic globalization, which emerged as a counter to neoliberal “free trade” principles. 233 Fair trade aims at a moral and equitable global economic system in which, for instance, price is not set by the market; instead, it is negotiated transparently by both producers and consumers. Its ability to supply a mass market and its applicability to manufacture products are also doubted. The third form of resistance to economic globalization relates to helping the bottom billion. 234 Increasing aid is only one of the many measures that is required. International norms and standards can be adapted to the needs of the bottom billion. The reduction of trade barriers would also reduce the economic marginalization of these people and their nations. Global Citizenship and Global Governance When it comes to dealing with political globalization, increased accountability 235 and transparency are the key issues. All political organizations, at different levels, should be more accountable for their actions because they are now surrounded by an “ocean of opacity”.236 Increased transparency has been aided by various mechanism such as transnational justice systems, international tribunals, civil society and particularly the Transparency International. Like globalization, resistance to globalization is multiple, complex, contradictory, and ambiguous. This movement also has the potential to emerge as the new public sphere, which may uphold progressive values such as autonomy, democracy, peace, ecological sustainability, and social justice. These forces of resistance are products of globalization and can be seen as globalization from below. 237 The impetus for such a 116  The Contemporary World 2020 movement comes from individuals, groups and organizations which are oppressed (i.e., self-perception) by globalization from above (neoliberal economic systems or aggressively expanding nations and corporations). They seek a more democratic process of globalization. However, globalization from below also involves less visible, more right-wing elements, such as the America First Party and the Taliban. 238 The World Social Forum (WSF) is centered on addressing the lack of democracy in economic and political affairs. 239 However, the diversity of elements involved in WSF hinders the development of concrete political proposals. A significant influence on WSF has been that of cyberactivism, which is based on the “cultural logic of networking” and “virtual movements”, such as Global Huaren. This cyberpublic was formed as a protest against the violence, discrimination, and hatred experienced by Chinese residents in Indonesia after the 1997 Asian financial crisis. In 1998, worldwide rallies condemning the violence were made possible through the Global Huaren. Given that there is no world government, the idea of global citizenship demands the creation of rights and obligations. However, fulfilling the promises of globalization and the solution to the problems of the contemporary world does not lie on single entity or individual, but on citizens, the community, and the different organization in societies. 117  The Contemporary World 2020 References: Global Citizenship 227.Global education and global citizenship. (n.d.). Retrieved