GE 15 First Exam Coverage PDF

Sustainability: This term refers to the which contributes to overall ecosystem capacity of the earth's natural systems and health and stability. human cultural systems to survive, flourish, Provisioning Services: Includes and adapt to changing environm...

Sustainability: This term refers to the which contributes to overall ecosystem capacity of the earth's natural systems and health and stability. human cultural systems to survive, flourish, Provisioning Services: Includes and adapt to changing environmental direct products of ecosystems such as conditions into the very long-term future. drinking water, timber, wood fuel, natural gas, oils, plants for clothes and Environmental Science: This materials, and medicinal benefits. interdisciplinary study connects information Harvestable Goods: Direct products and ideas from natural sciences (ecology, of ecosystems like fruits, vegetables, biology, geology, chemistry), social sciences fish, and livestock. (geography, politics, economics), and Cultural Services: Non-material humanities (ethics, philosophy) to understand benefits that contribute to the how humans interact with their environment. development and cultural advancement of people. Biogeochemical Cycles: Also known as Regulating Services: Benefits nutrient cycling, this principle refers to the obtained from the regulation of circulation of chemicals necessary for life ecosystem processes, such as climate from the environment through organisms and regulation and water purification. back to the environment. Supporting Services: Ecosystem functions like flood prevention and Species Diversity: The level of biodiversity erosion control. that refers to the number and variety of the Pest and Disease Control: Control of species present in any biological community. pests and diseases by natural processes and organisms. Genetic Diversity: The level of biodiversity that refers to the variety of genetic material Ecological Footprint: The amount of within a species or a population. biologically productive land and water needed to provide a region with renewable resources Ecosystem Diversity: The level of and to absorb and recycle wastes and biodiversity that refers to the variety of pollution. Unsustainable use occurs when the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems found in footprint exceeds the earth's biological an area or on the earth. capacity for replenishment. Natural Resources: Anything that we can Pollutants: Chemicals or substances that obtain from the environment to meet our may contaminate the environment. needs and wants, such as sunlight (perpetual resource) and petroleum (nonrenewable Dilution Approach: Pollution control resource). that involves diluting pollutants after production, also known as "end-of- Natural Capital: Supported by solar capital, pipe" strategy. this term includes natural resources (useful Source Reduction: Pollution control materials and energy in nature) and natural exemplified by banning incinerators, services (important nature processes such as which aims to reduce or eliminate renewal of air, water, and soil). pollutant production. Ecosystem Services: The component of Tragedy of the Commons: Refers to the sustainability that refers to natural resources overexploitation and degradation of and services that support life and human commonly shared renewable resources. economies. IPAT Model: An environmental impact model Nutrient Recycling: A category of where I = Environmental Impact, P = ecosystem services involving the Population, A = Affluence, and T = recycling of nutrients essential for life. Technology. Biodiversity Maintenance: Refers to maintaining diverse biological systems Ecological Tipping Points: Often 3. Sustain natural chemical cycles by irreversible shifts in the behavior of natural reducing waste and pollution, avoiding systems caused by environmental overloads, and not depleting natural degradation with delayed effects. chemicals faster than they can be replaced. Cultural Changes: Major events like the agricultural revolution, industrial-medical Systems and Feedback Loops: revolution, and information-globalization revolution have increased our ecological A system is a set of interacting footprints, leading to the current need for a components or parts that function sustainability revolution. together as a whole. Systems have inputs (energy and matter resources Environmental Problems: Major causes from the environment), throughputs include population growth, wasteful and (processes within the system), and unsustainable resource use, poverty, and the outputs (energy and matter released failure to include harmful environmental costs back into the environment). in market prices. Open systems exchange energy and matter with their surroundings. An Affluence: High levels of consumption and example is an ocean, where water pollution, but also can fund technologies to moves in and out from the reduce pollution and resource waste. atmosphere. Feedback loops are mechanisms Poverty: Affects population growth, within systems that can either amplify malnutrition, premature death, and access to changes (positive feedback) or sanitation and clean water. counteract them (negative feedback). Positive feedback can lead to major Environmental Ethics: Different worldviews environmental issues, while negative about how we treat the environment, feedback helps maintain stability. including: Matter and Its Forms: Planetary Management: Viewing ourselves as separate from and in Matter is anything that has mass and charge of nature. takes up space. The basic unit of Stewardship: Managing the earth for matter is the atom. The simplest form our benefit with ethical responsibility. of matter is an element. Environmental Wisdom: Viewing Matter is composed of subatomic ourselves as part of nature and particles: protons (positively charged), engaging in sustainable use. neutrons (neutral), and electrons (negatively charged). Environmentally Sustainable Society: Compounds consist of two or more Meets current needs while ensuring future different elements bonded together in generations' needs are met, living on the fixed proportions. Molecules are natural income of natural capital without combinations of two or more atoms depleting it. held together by chemical bonds. Isotopes are variants of the same Three Big Ideas: element with different numbers of neutrons. Ions are atoms that have 1. Rely more on renewable energy from gained or lost electrons and are the sun, including indirect forms such involved in forming ionic compounds. as wind and flowing water. 2. Protect biodiversity by preventing the Physical and Chemical Changes: degradation of species, ecosystems, and natural processes, and restoring Physical changes involve alterations degraded areas. in the form or appearance of matter without changing its chemical  composition (e.g., cutting aluminum foil Science has limitations, such as the into small pieces). inability to prove hypotheses with Chemical changes involve a change absolute certainty, potential biases, in the chemical composition of and challenges in studying complex substances (e.g., coal burning in a environmental phenomena with power plant). interacting variables. The law of conservation of matter Statistics and probability are states that during any physical or essential tools in science for collecting, chemical change, no atoms are organizing, interpreting numerical data, created or destroyed. and estimating the likelihood of certain outcomes. Energy and Its Forms: Ecosystem Dynamics and Human Impact: Energy is the capacity to do work and exists in two major forms: kinetic Synergistic interactions occur when energy (associated with motion) and two or more processes combine to potential energy (stored energy, such produce effects greater than the sum as chemical energy in food). of their individual impacts, which can The first law of thermodynamics be beneficial or harmful. (law of conservation of energy) states Time delays in feedback loops can that energy cannot be created or lead to tipping points, where systems destroyed, only converted from one undergo significant and often form to another. irreversible changes, such as the The second law of thermodynamics melting of polar ice. states that whenever energy is converted from one form to another, Ecosystem and Environmental Science some of it becomes lower-quality or Reviewer less usable energy. Tropical Rainforests and Environmental Scientific Processes and Principles: Impact Science is a systematic way of Tropical Rainforests cover about 2% knowing and understanding the natural of the earth’s land surface yet contain world. It involves identifying problems, approximately 50% of the world’s gathering data, proposing hypotheses, known plant and animal species. making testable predictions, The disappearance of tropical conducting experiments, and revising rainforests has three major harmful hypotheses based on observations. effects: A scientific theory is a well-tested 1. Reduces biodiversity and widely accepted explanation of a 2. Accelerates global warming natural phenomenon, supported by 3. Changes regional weather extensive evidence. Scientific laws patterns describe predictable relationships or patterns found in nature. Earth’s Life Support Systems Tentative science refers to preliminary scientific results that are The four major components of the not yet fully validated. Reliable Earth’s life-support system are: science is widely accepted by the 1. Atmosphere (air) scientific community, while unreliable 2. Hydrosphere (water) science lacks rigorous testing or peer 3. Geosphere (rock, soil, and review. sediment) 4. Biosphere (living things) Scientific Limitations and Considerations: Life on Earth is sustained by:  1. The one-way flow of energy evaporation, precipitation, and from the sun through the transpiration. biosphere The Carbon Cycle relies on 2. The cycling of nutrients within photosynthesis and respiration, with the biosphere additional CO₂ added to the 3. Gravity, which holds the Earth’s atmosphere by deforestation and atmosphere burning fossil fuels. The Nitrogen Cycle involves nitrogen Ecosystem Dynamics and Components fixation, nitrification, and denitrification, with human activities like burning fossil An ecosystem is composed of biotic fuels impacting the cycle. (living) and abiotic (non-living) The Phosphorus Cycle cycles components: through water, the earth’s crust, and o Biotic components include living organisms, and is impacted by plants, animals, bacteria, and human activities like deforestation and fungi. fertilizer use. o Abiotic components include The Sulfur Cycle involves sulfur found soil, water, air, nutrients, rocks, in various forms across the heat, and solar energy. environment, with human activities like Producers (autotrophs) convert burning coal affecting its natural sunlight into chemical energy through balance. photosynthesis. Consumers (heterotrophs) obtain Ecological Levels of Organization nutrients by consuming other organisms. They include: Biosphere: Parts of the earth where 1. Primary consumers life is found (air, water, soil). (herbivores) Ecosystem: A community of different 2. Secondary consumers species interacting with each other and 3. Tertiary consumers their nonliving environment. (carnivores, omnivores) Community: Populations of different Decomposers (bacteria and fungi) species living and potentially and detritivores (earthworms, interacting in a particular place. vultures) break down dead organisms, Population: A group of individuals of returning nutrients to the environment. the same species living in a particular place. Energy Flow and Nutrient Cycling Organism: An individual living being. Cell: The fundamental structural and Energy flow in ecosystems follows a functional unit of life. one-way path: Molecule: A chemical combination of o From the sun → plants → living two or more atoms. things → environment as heat Atom: The smallest unit of a chemical → radiation to space element that exhibits its chemical Nutrient cycling involves the properties. circulation of essential elements like water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, Ecosystem Productivity and sulfur. The law of conservation of matter Gross Primary Productivity (GPP): states that matter cycles within and The rate at which an ecosystem's among ecosystems, and no atoms are producers convert solar energy into created or destroyed in this process. chemical energy. Net Primary Productivity (NPP): The Biogeochemical Cycles rate at which producers convert solar energy into chemical energy minus the The Water Cycle (hydrologic cycle) energy they use for respiration. includes processes such as Ecosystems vary in their NPP, which  determines how much life they can Genetic Variations: First step in support. biological evolution, occurring through random DNA mutations in reproductive Scientific Study of Ecosystems cells. Natural Selection: Acts on individuals, Scientists study ecosystems through: leading to adaptations and differential 1. Field research (direct reproduction. observation and data collection o Genetic Resistance: Some in natural settings) population members develop 2. Laboratory research the ability to resist a chemical (controlled experiments) designed to kill them. 3. Mathematical models (to simulate and understand Limits of Adaptation through Natural ecosystem dynamics) Selection Science Focus: Have You Thanked the Preceding Traits: Adaptive genetic Insects Today? traits must exist before environmental changes occur. Insects' Bad Reputation: Known for Reproductive Capacity: Species that stinging, biting, spreading diseases, reproduce rapidly and in large eating crops, and invading plants. numbers adapt more quickly. Positive Contributions: o Pollination: Enables flowering Common Myths about Evolution by plants to reproduce sexually. Natural Selection o Natural Pest Control: Insects help control pest populations by 1. “Survival of the fittest” does not preying on other insects. mean “survival of the strongest.” Dependency: Humans rely on insects 2. Traits do not develop out of need or more than they realize. want. 3. No grand plan: Evolution is not Biological Evolution by Natural Selection directed towards perfect adaptation. Fossils: Provide physical evidence of Geological and Environmental Impact on ancient organisms, revealing their Natural Selection external structures. o Fossil Record: Contains only Tectonic Plates: Influence evolution 1% of all species that have ever by shifting the locations of continents lived on Earth. and oceans, leading to species Biological Evolution: Describes how migration, adaptation, or new species life on Earth changes over time formation. through genetic changes in o Earthquakes and Volcanic populations. Eruptions: Also impact natural o Darwin’s Theory: Introduced in selection. "Origin of Species," emphasizes Climate Change and Catastrophes: natural selection where Ice ages, warming periods, and individuals with advantageous asteroid collisions contribute to the traits are more likely to survive evolution of new species and and reproduce. extinctions. o Supported by a vast body of evidence. Science Focus: Earth Is Just Right for Life Evolution by Natural Selection: Mutations Temperature Range: Suitable for life. and Adaptations Orbit Size: Maintains moderate temperatures. Liquid Water: Essential for life.  Rotation Speed: Prevents Species Diversity: Encompasses overheating. species richness and species Size: Earth’s gravity retains its evenness in a particular location. atmosphere. o Species Richness: Number of different species in an area. Speciation: How New Species Evolve o Species Evenness: Relative abundance of individuals within Speciation: The process by which one each species. species splits into two or more Geographical Variation: Diversity species. varies with location, with tropical o Geographic Isolation: Physical rainforests, coral reefs, ocean bottoms, separation of populations for and large tropical lakes being the most extended periods. species-rich. o Reproductive Isolation: Mutations and natural selection Species-Rich Ecosystems: Productivity in isolated populations lead to and Sustainability the inability to produce viable offspring when members of Species Richness: Often leads to different populations mate. increased productivity, stability, and sustainability in ecosystems, providing Extinction is Forever insurance against catastrophic events. Debate: How much species richness is Extinction Types: needed for ecosystem health remains o Biological Extinction: A debated. species is completely gone. o Local Extinction: A species Ecological Niches and Roles in disappears from a particular Ecosystems area but exists elsewhere. o Endemic Species: Found only Ecological Niche: The role a species in one area, making them plays in its ecosystem, including all particularly vulnerable. aspects of its survival and reproduction Extinction Rates: (e.g., water, space, sunlight, food, o Background Extinction: The temperature). natural, low rate of species o Generalist Species: Broad extinction. niches with wide tolerance o Mass Extinction: Occurred 3-5 ranges. times over 500 million years, o Specialist Species: Narrow wiping out large numbers of niches with specific tolerance species. ranges. Science Focus: Changing Genetic Traits Species' Roles in Ecosystems of Populations Five Major Roles: Artificial Selection: Humans o Native Species: Naturally selectively breed or crossbreed found in an ecosystem. species for desired traits. o Nonnative Species: Introduced Genetic Engineering: Involves gene species, sometimes invasive. splicing to alter genetic material. o Indicator Species: Serve as o Considerations: Ethical, moral, early warning signs of privacy issues, and potential environmental damage. harmful effects. o Keystone Species: Play critical roles affecting the types and Species Diversity: Variety and Abundance abundances of other species.  o Foundation Species: Create or enhance habitats, benefiting other species. Indicator and Keystone Species Indicator Species: Act as biological “smoke alarms,” signaling environmental quality. o Examples: Trout, birds, butterflies, frogs. Keystone Species: Have a disproportionately large impact on their ecosystems. o Examples: Pollinators, top predators. Foundation Species: Building Ecosystems Foundation Species: Play a crucial role in shaping ecosystems by creating or enhancing habitats, benefiting other species. o Examples: Elephants, beavers.