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INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY F I R S T S E M E S T E R , S. Y. 2 0 2 4 - 2 0 2 5 D E PA R T M E N T O F A N AT O M Y, O L F U DEFINITIONS H U M A N A N AT O M Y & P H Y S I O L O G Y HUMAN ANATOMY Study of normal structures of the human body and their relationships with o...

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY F I R S T S E M E S T E R , S. Y. 2 0 2 4 - 2 0 2 5 D E PA R T M E N T O F A N AT O M Y, O L F U DEFINITIONS H U M A N A N AT O M Y & P H Y S I O L O G Y HUMAN ANATOMY Study of normal structures of the human body and their relationships with one another HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY Study of the different functions of the normal structures of the human body and the involved processes and how these body parts work DIVISIONS OF HUMAN ANATOMY H U M A N A N AT O M Y & P H Y S I O L O G Y DIVISIONS OF HUMAN ANATOMY GROSS / Surface Anatomy MACROSCOPIC Systemic Anatomy Regional Anatomy Cytology MICROCSOPIC Histology EMBRYOLOGY NEUROANATOMY DIVISIONS OF HUMAN ANATOMY GROSS / normal structures of the human big enough to be seen MACROSCOPIC by the eye Surface Anatomy Landmarks on the body surface of the different visceral organs Systemic Anatomy Specific body systems (e.g. circulatory system, digestive system) Regional Anatomy Specific body regions (e.g. head region, thoracic region) DIVISIONS OF HUMAN ANATOMY Structures not visible in the naked eye MICROSCOPIC Study of structures of the human body through use of the microscope Cytology Chemical and microscopic study of cells Histology Study of normal tissues of the body DIVISIONS OF HUMAN ANATOMY Study of development of the human body from EMBRYOLOGY fertilization of ovum up to 8 weeks after conception Study of processes of the central and peripheral NEUROANATOMY nervous system DIVISIONS OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY H U M A N A N AT O M Y & P H Y S I O L O G Y DIVISIONS OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY CELL SPECIAL SYSTEMIC PATHOLOGIC DIVISIONS OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY Study of the functions of living cells CELL Cornerstone of human physiology Study of the functions of specific organs (e.g. cardiac SPECIAL physiology: study of heart functions) Includes all aspects of the functions of specific organ SYSTEMIC systems Study of the effects of diseases on an organ or PATHOLOGIC system functions HOMEOSTASIS & LIFE PROCESSES H U M A N A N AT O M Y & P H Y S I O L O G Y HOMEOSTASIS Maintenance of the body’s internal environment Negative feedback loop Cells lack oxygen à chemicals would be AUTOREGULATION released to dilate the blood vessels EXTRINSIC During exercise, the nervous system commands REGULATION increase of heart rate à blood will circulate faster LIFE PROCESSES Chemical processes that occur in the body METABOLISM Body’s reaction to changes in the environment RESPONSIVENESS both internally or externally Motion occurring inside the human body, either MOVEMENT the whole body or individual cells or even the organelles within these cells An increase in body size that results from an GROWTH increase in the size or number of cells LIFE PROCESSES Development of cells from an unspecialized to a DIFFERENTIATION specialized state Maturation Formation of new cells for growth, repair or REPRODUCTION replacement or the production of a new individual LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZ ATION H U M A N A N AT O M Y & P H Y S I O L O G Y LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION IN THE BODY CHEMICAL LEVEL CELLULAR LEVEL TISSUE LEVEL ORGAN LEVEL SYSTEM LEVEL  LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION IN THE BODY CHEMICAL LEVEL CELLULAR LEVEL TISSUE LEVEL ORGAN LEVEL SYSTEM LEVEL  LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION IN THE BODY CHEMICAL LEVEL Cells: smallest unit of life CELLULAR LEVEL Perform all activities necessary to maintain life TISSUE LEVEL Metabolism, assimilation, digestion, excretion, reproduction ORGAN LEVEL SYSTEM LEVEL  LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION IN THE BODY CHEMICAL LEVEL CELLULAR LEVEL Made up of different types of cells: TISSUE LEVEL Epithelial: covers and protects Connective: binds and supports other tissues Muscle: movement ORGAN LEVEL Nervous: connects sensory structures to motor structures Hemopoietic: Blood cells for distribution of substances and protection from infection SYSTEM LEVEL  LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION IN THE BODY CHEMICAL LEVEL CELLULAR LEVEL TISSUE LEVEL Tissues with same function grouped together ORGAN LEVEL e.g. stomach, lungs, brain SYSTEM LEVEL  LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION IN THE BODY CHEMICAL LEVEL CELLULAR LEVEL TISSUE LEVEL ORGAN LEVEL A group of organs that perform a common function SYSTEM LEVEL LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION IN THE BODY LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION BODY SYSTEMS INTEGUMENTARY RESPIRATORY SKELETAL URINARY REPRODUCTIVE / ARTICULAR GENITAL MUSCULAR ENDOCRINE NERVOUS LYMPHATIC / IMMUNE CARDIOVASCULAR HEMATOPOIETIC DIGESTIVE / ALIMENTARY Taken form : Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 11th Edition BODY REGIONS HEAD NECK TRUNK THORAX PELVIC CAVITY ABDOMEN PERINUEM UPPER EXTREMITIES LOWER EXTREMITIES Taken from Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology BODY ORIENTATION  ANATOMICAL POSITION Standing or erect Head and eyes directed forward Upper limbs by the sides with palms facing forward Lower limbs together with toes facing forward  ANATOMICAL PLANES Median Plane Sagittal Plane Coronal / Frontal Plane Horizontal / Transverse Plane  SECTIONS OF THE BODY Longitudinal / Vertical Section Transverse / Cross Section Oblique Section ANATOMICAL TERMS OF RELATIONSHIP SUPERIOR / DISTAL CRANIAL SUPERFICIAL / INFERIOR / CAUDAL EXTERNAL ANTERIOR / DEEP / INTERNAL VENTRAL POSTERIOR / DORSAL CENTRAL MEDIAL PERIPHERAL LATERAL PARIETAL PROXIMAL VISCERAL Taken from Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology BODY CAVITIES Dorsal: back or posterior – cranial, spinal Ventral: front or anterior – thoracic, abdominopelvic Taken from Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology TERMS OF MOVEMENT FLEXION EXTENSION ABDUCTION ADDUCTION ROTATION CIRCUMDUCTION EVERSION INVERSION SUPINATION PRONATION PROTACTION RETRACTION ELEVATION DEPRESSION DORSIFLEXION PLANTAR FLEXION OPPOSITION  THE CELL F I R S T S E M E S T E R , S. Y. 2 0 2 4 - 2 0 2 5 D E PA R T M E N T O F A N AT O M Y, O L F U  THE CELL The basic unit of biological organization Basic Composition: Protoplasm / Cytoplasm Cell Membrane Nucleus T YPES OF CELL THE CELL TYPES OF CELL PROKARYOTES (Bacteria) EUKARYOTES (Human)  TYPES OF CELL PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES (HUMAN) (Bacteria) ORGANISM bacteria protist,fungi,plants Animals ORGANELLES few /none nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, etc. DNA Circular / in the Linear / circular cytoplasm Bounded by a membrane RNA and PROTEIN RNA and protein synthesize RNA synthesized in the in the same compartment nucleus / protein in the cytoplasm CELL DIVISION Binary fission Mitosis / meiosis PHYSIOLOGY THE CELL  PHYSIOLOGIC PROPERTIES OF CELL Irritability / Excitability Conductivity Contractility Absorption and Secretion Excretion Respiration Growth and Reproduction Organization PARTS OF THE CELL THE CELL PRINCIPAL PARTS Trilaminar CELL MEMBRANE Semi-permeable Colloidal CYTOPLASM With organelles, inclusions, and cytoskeleton With DNA in the form of: NUCLEUS Heterochromatin (inactive) Euchromatin (active) PRINCIPAL PARTS PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Double phospholipid layer with embedded proteins (TRILAMINAR) PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Membrane Transport = Semi-permeable Membrane Osmosis Protein Channels Active Transport Fluid Mosaic Model PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Transport Processes across the cell membrane: PASSIVE Simple Diffusion Osmosis Facilitated Filtration Diffusion ACTIVE Active Transport Endocytes: Phagocytosis, Pinocytosis Exocytosis PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Transport Processes across the cell membrane: PASSIVE Simple Diffusion Osmosis Facilitated Filtration Diffusion K+ K+ Na+ Na+ - Movement of solute from an area of high solute concentration to an area of low solute concentration PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Transport Processes across the cell membrane: PASSIVE Simple Diffusion Osmosis Facilitated Filtration Diffusion Gluc c Gluc - Movement of solute from an area of high solute concentration to an area of low solute concentration with a CARRIER PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Transport Processes across the cell membrane: PASSIVE Simple Diffusion Osmosis Facilitated Filtration Diffusion Na+ Na+ H20 H2O - Movement of solvent (WATER) from an area of LOW solute concentration to an area of HIGH solute concentration PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Transport Processes across the cell membrane: ACTIVE Active Transport Exocytosis Endocytes K+ K+ Na+ Na+ - Movement of solute from an area of LOW solute concentration to an area of HIGH solute concentration needing Energy molecule( ATP) PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Transport Processes across the cell membrane: ACTIVE Active Transport PHAGOCYTOSIS Engulfing: Endocytes internalization Exocytosis PINOCYTOSIS “water drinking” PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Transport Processes across the cell membrane: ACTIVE Active Transport Endocytes Exocytosis PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Mostly water with chemical compounds in solution or colloid Solution: atoms or ions distributed in medium Polar compounds go into solution Nonpolar compounds go into colloidal suspension With organelles, inclusions, cytoskeleton Organelles Inclusions Cytoskeleton PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Organelles MITOCHONDRIA (CHONDRIOSOME) Powerhouse of the cell Cristae: inner folds where cellular respiration occurs Inclusions Synthesis of ATP Energy requirements of cell determine cristae number Cytoskeleton Also accumulate Ca++, synthesize nucleic acid and proteins, oxidation of fatty acids PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Organelles RIBOSOMES Distributed throughout cytoplasm Attached to ROUGH endoplasmic Inclusions reticulum No membrane covering Cytoskeleton Site of protein synthesis free ribosomes– protein for intracellular use PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Organelles ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM Inclusions System of membranes that make up channels Connects with outer Cytoskeleton nuclear and cell membranes Types of ER Rough: for protein synthesis attached ribosomes (protein: Extracellular) Smooth: fat transport and sex hormone synthesis, HCL synthesis, release and recapture Ca++ in skeletal PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Organelles GOLGI APPARATUS Collection of flat sac-like cisternae Inclusions Concentration and collection of cellular compounds Cytoskeleton Storage warehouses Carbohydrate synthesis site “Packaging” PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Organelles LYSOSOMES Digestive enzyme packages with acid Inclusions hydrolases Lack oxidases and Cytoskeleton catalases Function in cellular defense Digest stored food Maintenance and repair of organelles Suicide agents for old and weak cells PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Organelles PEROXISOMES / MICROBODIES Contains catalase – Inclusions converts H2O2 into H2O and O2 Cytoskeleton Oxidase PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Organelles GLYCOGEN LIPID Inclusions PIGMENTS Cytoskeleton Exogenous Endogenous Lipofuscin Melanin Hemoglobin Bilirubin CRYSTALS Crystals of Reinke: Leydig cells (testosterone) Crystals of Charcot-Bottcher: Sertoli cells PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Organelles MICROFILAMENTS (7nm in diameter) Actin in muscles Inclusions INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS (10nm in diameter) Keratin: epithelial cells Cytoskeleton Vimentin: mesenchymal cells Desmin: muscle cells Glial fibrillary protein: glial cells of nervous system Neurofilaments: neurons MICROTUBULES (25nm in diameter) Centrioles: determine polarity of the cell Basal Bodies: anchoring points of cilia and flagella Cilia: lining of respiratory tract Flagella: tail of spermatozoa PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Organelles Inclusions Cytoskeleton PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Organelles MICROTUBULES (25nm in diameter) Centrioles Two centrioles at right angles to each other – composed of Inclusions nine sets of triplet fibers Form spindle fibers during cell division Cytoskeleton Guide duplicated chromosomes to daughter cells PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Organelles MICROTUBULES (25nm in diameter) Cilia and Flagella Hair-like protrusions from cell membranes Inclusions Nine double fibrils around 2 central fibrils Cilia: move materials across cell surfaces Cytoskeleton Flagella: propels cell through a medium  PRINCIPAL PARTS CELL MEMBRANE CYTOPLASM NUCLEUS Control center of the cell Nuclear membrane: protective covering of the nucleus; contains pores to allow substances to pass Chromatin: genetic material inside nucleoplasm Nucleolus: site of ribosome formation CELL CYCLE THE CELL CELL CYCLE  CELL CYCLE INTERPHASE CELL DIVISION G1 (Gap 1) Phase RNA and Protein synthesis 30-50% of length of Interphase G0 Phase Cells pull out of the cycle S (Synthesis) Phase DNA Synthesis / Replication 35-45% of length of interphase G2 Phase Phase before onset of mitosis 10-20% of length of interphase  CELL CYCLE INTERPHASE CELL DIVISION MITOSIS MEIOSIS Two daughter cells with exactly the Four daughter cells with half the same genetic material genetic material Cellular division for growth, Cellular division for reproduction maintenance, repair 2n 2n REPLICATION REPLICATION REPLICATION MI 2n 2n 2n 2n M II n n n n  CELL CYCLE INTERPHASE CELL DIVISION Phases of MITOSIS PROPHASE Chromosomes progressively shorten and thicken to form double structures Nucleolus gradually disappears Mitotic apparatus begins to form METAPHASE Chromatids align at the equatorial plane  CELL CYCLE INTERPHASE CELL DIVISION Phases of MITOSIS ANAPHASE Separation of sister chromatics and migrate towards the opposite poles by the translocation of spindle microtubules TELOPHASE Nucleoli and nuclear membranes re-appear at the opposite ends of the cell Mitotic apparatus gradually disappears A purse string constriction (cleavage furrow) of bands of microfilaments appear at the equatorial plate dividing the cytoplasm and eventually the daughter cells CELL CYCLE INTERPHASE CELL DIVISION Phases of MITOSIS FUNDAMENTAL TISSUES F I R S T S E M E S T E R , S. Y. 2 0 2 4 - 2 0 2 5 D E PA R T M E N T O F A N AT O M Y, O L F U LEARNING OBJECTIVES: ❖ Identify the different types of tissues , their functions and classifications ❖ Identify the characteristic features of the different types of tissues FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF TISSUES EPITHELIAL CONNECTIVE MUSCLE NERVOUS  FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF TISSUES Functions Protection EPITHELIAL Secretion Classification Lining / Surface Epithelium Glandular Epithelium CONNECTIVE MUSCLE NERVOUS EPITHELIAL CLASSIFICATION LINING / SURFACE GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM EPITHELIUM Composition Epithelial cells Extra / Inter– cellular substance Characteristics Contiguous cells Basal Lamina Avascular Sheet or layers EPITHELIAL CLASSIFICATION LINING / SURFACE GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM EPITHELIUM Subtypes Number of SIMPLE layers of cells Single layer of cells Pseudostratified: single layer of columnar shaped cells with nucleus at variable location of the cell giving it false stratification or appearance of several layers of cells STRATIFIED More than one layer Transitional: several layer of cells where the shape changes according to functional status of the organ Specific: number SIMPLE : Single layer of cells of cell layer + Squamous shape of cell + Cuboidal special feature Columnar: Non-ciliated vs Ciliated (presence / Pseudostratified: Non-ciliated vs Ciliated absence of cilia STRATIFIED : More than one layer or keratin) Squamous: Keratinized vs Non-keratinized Cuboidal Columnar Transitional: changes, stretches EPITHELIAL CLASSIFICATION LINING / SURFACE GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM EPITHELIUM Subtypes SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM LINING EPITHELIUM OF BLOOD VESSEL AND ORGANS , ALVEOLI SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM: TUBULES OF THE KIDNEYS SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM STOMACH, INTESTINES STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM SKIN, VAGINA, ESOPHAGUS STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM SEBACEOUS, BIG DUCTS STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM MAMMARY GLANDS Pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium trachea , bronchus Transitional or urothelium epithelium ureter, urinary bladder, urethra Multilaminar or Stratified EPITHELIAL CLASSIFICATION LINING / SURFACE GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM EPITHELIUM Number of Cells Unicellular Multicellular Presence / Exocrine: with ducts Absence of Ducts Endocrine: without ducts; secretions are proteinous (hormones) Nature of Mucus: sticky Secretion Serous: watery Muco-serous / Mixed Cytogenic: new cells Fate of Secreting Merocrine: young age Cells Apocrine: teenage Holocrine: malodorous (adults) EPITHELIAL CLASSIFICATION LINING / SURFACE GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM EPITHELIUM Morphology Tubular Simple Simple Tubular Simple Coiled Tubular Simple Branched Tubular Compound Compound Tubular Alveolar Simple Alveolar Compound Alveolar Tubulo-alveolar TUBULAR GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM ALVEOLAR GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM  FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF TISSUES Characterized Large amounts of extracellular materials that separate cells from one another EPITHELIAL Components of Protein Fiber Extracellular Collagen Matrix Reticular Elastic Ground Substance CONNECTIVE the shapeless background against which cells and collagen fibers are seen (in microscope) Important component: proteoglycans made up of protein and polysaccharide Fluid MUSCLE Function Enclosing and separating tissues Connecting tissues to one another Supporting and moving Storing energy NERVOUS Cushioning and insulating Transporting Protecting  FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF TISSUES Classification Fibrous / Connective Tissue EPITHELIAL Collagenous Loose Connective Tissue Dense Reticular Connective Tissue Dense Irregular Connective Tissue Elastic CONNECTIVE Embryonic Mesenchymal Mucous Specialized Bone: compact, spongy MUSCLE Cartilage: hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage Adipose: brown, white Reticular Hemopoietic NERVOUS Nerves  FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF TISSUES Classification EPITHELIAL Fibrous / Connective Tissue Collagenous Loose Connective Tissue Aka Loose Areolar Tissue Consists of collagen and CONNECTIVE elastic fibers Most common cells found: fibroblast à for production of fibers of the matrix Dense Reticular Connective Tissue MUSCLE Same direction of collagen fibers E.g. Tendon Dense Irregular Connective Tissue Different direction of collagen fibers NERVOUS E.g. dermis (skin) Elastic DENSE REGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE DENSE IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE ELASTIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE Bundles and sheets of collagenous and elastic fibers oriented in multiple directions In walls of elastic arteries (aorta), lungs, vocal ligaments Strong, yet elastic; allows for recoil of tissue after being stretched  FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF TISSUES Classification EPITHELIAL Embryonic Mesenchymal Source of all adult connective tissues CONNECTIVE Derived from mesoderm Delicate collagen fibers embedded in semi-fluid MUSCLE matrix Mucous Found only in the umbilical cord NERVOUS (Wharton’s Jelly)  FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF TISSUES Classification EPITHELIAL Specialized Reticular Connective Tissues Adipose CONNECTIVE Bones Cartilages Hemopoietic Nerves MUSCLE NERVOUS RETICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE Figure 4.12d ADIPOSE TISSUE Figure 4.12c BONES Figure 4.12c CARTILAGES MUSCLES Main characteristic” ability to contract or shorten à movement NERVES Comprises the Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves Neurons: functional cells Neuroglia / Glial Cells: supporting cells Parts: Cell Body: contains the nucleus Axon Hillock: where the axon rises Carries impulses away from the cell body Single process that tapers as it goes away from the cell Dendrite: plenty processes as it goes towards the cell body Receives impulses Nissl’s Bodies: ribosomes Nodes of Ranvier: interruptions in the myelin sheet for rapid transmission of impulses Myelin sheath: protects the axons NERVES Types of Neuroglia / Glial Cells (supporting cells): Astrocytes Star-shaped Most numerous supporting cells Microglial Cells Immunologic or phagocytic cells Ependymal Cells Lines the cavities in the brain Moves the CSF Oligodendrocytes Produces the myelin sheath in the CNS Schwann Cells Produces the myelin sheath in the PNS  AXIAL SKELETON and APPENDICULAR SKELETON and JOINTS Learning objectives: By the end of the lecture, you should be able to: Identify the different APPENDICULAR and AXIAL BONES Identify the characteristic features of the different BONES inn the skeletal system Acknowledgement: images taken from Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology  FUNCTION OF BONES 1. SUPPORT 2. PROTECT 3. MUSCLE ATTACHMENT 4. HEMOPOIESIS - Red bone marrow 5. STORAGE OF MINERALS (Phosphorus, Calcium)  HISTOLOGY OF BONES COMPONENTS 1. BONE CELLS 2. MATRIX COLLAGENOUS FIBERS - give resilience to bones CALCIFIED GROUND SUBSTANCE - give hardness to bones - Calcium Phosphate - Calcium Carbonate  BONE CELLS OSTEOBLASTS - embryonic bone cells - active in bone formation OSTEOCYTES - mature osteoblasts OSTEOCLASTS - bone reabsorption/ resorption and remodeling  MAINTAINING THE BONE Endocrine system control In Hypocalcemia →→ Parathormone → calcium release from bone → increased Ca++ in the blood In Hypercalcemia → Calcitonin → deposition of calcium in the bone → decreased calcium in blood  CLASSIFICATION OF BONES ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE COMPACT / DENSE SPONGY / CANCELLOUS OSTEON  CLASSIFICATION OF BONES ACCORDING TO SHAPE LONG EPIPHYSIS SHORT FLAT DIAPHYSIS IRREGULAR SESAMOID (develops within a tendon)  CLASSIFICATION OF BONES ACCORDING TO DEVELOPMENT: ENDOCHONDRAL / CARTILAGINOUS - formed via endochondral/ intracartilaginous ossification Ca++ CARTILAGE BONE INTRAMEMBRANOUS - formed via intramembranous ossification Ca++ MEMBRANE BONE CLAVICLE – 1st bone to start developing (5th week intrauterine)  CLASSIFICATION OF BONES ACCORDING TO LOCATION AXIAL - 80 BONES APPENDICULAR - 126 BONES AXIAL SKELETON  AXIAL SKELETON SKULL OSSICLES HYOID STERNUM RIBS VERTEBRAE  SKULL CRANIAL - 8 FACIAL - 14 Frontal Ethmoid CRANIAL Unpaired Sphenoid Occipital Squamous Paired Parietal Mastoid Temporal Tympanic Petrous Fig. 6.11  CRANIAL BONES CALVARIUM Frontal Parietal Temporal Sphenoid Occipital PTERION* - H-shaped union of: 1. Frontal 2. Parietal 3. Sphenoid 4. Temporal *related to the MIDDLE MENINGEAL ARTERY (common cause of EPIDURAL HEMORRHAGE) suture  CRANIAL BONES SUTURES Coronal Sagittal Lambdoidal FONTANELLES Anterior fontanelle* Posterior fontanelle SUNKEN FONTANELLE - DEHYDRATION BULGING FONTANELLE - MENINGITIS  FACIAL BONES VOMER UNPAIRED MANDIBLE NASAL LACRIMAL PAIRED ZYGOMATIC MAXILLAE PALATINE INFERIOR NASAL CONCHA  OSSICLES MALLEUS (HAMMER) INCUS (ANVIL) STAPES (STIRRUP) HYOID  STERNUM PARTS: Manubrium Body Xiphoid Process LANDMARKS: Jugular /Supraternal Notch - T2-T3 Angle of Louis / Manubrio-sternal Joint – T4-T5 Xiphisternal Joint – T9  RIBS TYPES ACCORDING TO ATTACHMENT 1. True (Vertebro-sternal) - 1st – 7th 2. False (Vertebro-chondral) – 8th- 10th 3. Floating (Vertebral) – 11th-12th TYPES ACCORDING TO MORPHOLOGY 1. Typical - 3rd- 9th 2. Atypical – 1st,2nd, 10th-12th TYPICAL RIB: 2 costal facets on head 1 costal facet on tubercle rounded upper border, sharp inferior border ATYPICAL RIB VERTEBRA  VERTEBRA TYPES: CERVICAL Typical – C3-C6 Atypical- C1 (Atlas), C2 (Axis), C7 (Vertebra Prominens) THORACIC Typical – T3-T10 Atypical – T1, T2, T11, T12 LUMBAR SACRAL COCCYGEAL SACRUM COCCYX TYPICAL CERVICAL VERTEBRA -Quadrangular body -Transverse foramen -Bifid spine -Triangular vertebral foramen  ATYPICAL CERVICAL VERTEBRA C1 (ATLAS) C2 (AXIS) (-) body (+) (-) spine dens/odontoid process C7 (VERTEBRA PROMINENS) (-) bifid spine  THORACIC VERTEBRA - heart-shaped body - costal facets on body and transverse processes - long pointed spine obliquely going down  LUMBAR VERTEBRA -Kidney-shaped body -Short wide straight spine -Mamillary process APPENDICULAR SKELETON PECTORAL GIRDLE HUMERUS RADIUS /ULNA  CARPALS/METACARPALS/ PHALANGES * NAVICULAR * ** *** ** GREATER CMC MULTANGULAR ** LESSER MULTANGULAR MCP PIP DIP PELVIC GIRDLE FEMUR/PATELLA FIBULA / TIBIA TARSALS/METATARSALS/ PHALANGES * ** *ASTRAGALUS ** OS CALCIS JOINTS  JOINTS / ARTICULAR SYSTEM ACCORDING TO MOBILITY SYNARTHROSIS…immobile joint or nearly immobile; allows movement under normal conditions. They are fixed, fibrous joints. Ex: sutures, manubrio-sternal AMPHIARTHROSIS… slightly movable joint… ex; symphysis pubis, intervertebral DIARTHROSIS… most common type of joint; freely movable joint; ex: elbow joint  JOINTS / ARTICULAR SYSTEM ACCORDING TO INTERVENNG STRUCTURE FIBROUS - fixed joint ( synarthrosis); found only in the cranium; Ex: suture, gomphosis, schindylesis, syndesmosis CARTILAGINOUS – adjacent bones are united by a hyaline or fibrocartilage cartilage; it lacks a cavity; EX: pubic symphysis, epiphyseal plate in long bones, synchondroses (sterno-costal) SYNOVIAL – joint between bones; free moving and enclosed in a capsule; EX: shoulder, hip, elbow, knee joints SYNOVIAL JOINTS a. Spheroid (cotyloid/ball and socket) … rounded surface of one bone moves within a depression on another bone … provides greatest flexibility of movement among all joints EX:- hip joint - shoulder joint b. Ginglymus/Hinge joint …the articular surface are molded to each other to permit motion along one plane Ex: - elbow joint - ankle joint - knee joint - Interphalangeal joint  c. Trochoid/Pivot joint … bone moves around a central axis Ex: … atlantoaxial joint … superior radio-ulnar joint d. Condyloid joint ….modified ball and socket joint that allows flexion, extension, abduction and adduction Ex: … metacarphophalangeal joint … wrist joint ( radiocarpal) e. Ellipsoid joint (biaxial joint) …. movement is in 2 planes, back and front; in angular motion …radiocarpal joint … metatarsophalangeal joint *** in some books, condyloid & ellipsoid joints are considered the same type of joint  f. Sellar/Saddle joint … a type of biaxial and movable joint on 2 planes ( flexion or extension; abduction or adduction) EX: … trapeziometacarpal joint (trapezium and metacarpal bone of thumb)  g. Plane joint … between 2 bones in which the articular surface of bones are flat EX: … wrist joint … acromioclavicular … between two carpal bones Thank you for your kind attention! MUSCULAR SYSTEM Types of Muscle Tissue Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle Smooth muscle  Types of Muscle Tissue Skeletal Attach to and move skeleton 40% of body weight Fibers = multinucleate cells (embryonic cells fuse) Cells with obvious striations Contractions are voluntary Cardiac: only in the wall of the heart Cells are striated Contractions are involuntary (not voluntary) Smooth: walls of hollow organs Lack striations Contractions are involuntary (not voluntary) SARCOLEMMA – cell membrane SARCOPLASM – cytoplasm SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM – stores Ca++ COVERINGS OFMUSCLE EPIMYSIUM PERIMYSIUM BUNDLE (FASCICLE) ENDOMYSIUM  Skeletal muscle Epimysium: surrounds whole muscle Endomysium is around each Perimysium muscle fiber is around fascicle  SKELETAL CARDIAC SMOOTH MUSCLE MUSCLE MUSCLE MORPHOLOGY Cylindrical Branched Fusiform cylindrical NUCLEUS Multinucleated Mono/Bi-nuc- Mono-nucleated (peripheral) leated (central) (central) STRIATION (+) ( +) (-) CONTROL Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary FUNCTIONAL Sarcomere Sarcomere Smooth muscle UNIT cell  MYOFILAMENTS ACTIN – thin filament 1. F-ACTIN – with binding site 2. TROPOMYOSIN 3. TROPONIN a. troponin I b. troponin C c. troponin T MYOSIN – thick filament - with cross-bridges SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION SARCOMERE MUSCLE CONTRACTION NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION  Neuromuscular Junction Motor neurons innervate muscle fibers Motor end plate is where they meet Neurotransmitters are released by nerve signal: this initiates calcium ion release and muscle contraction Motor Unit: a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates (these all contract together) Average is 150, but range is four to several hundred muscle fibers in a motor unit The finer the movement, the fewer muscle fibers /motor unit The fibers are spread throughout the muscle, so stimulation of a single motor unit causes a weak contraction of the entire muscle  ACETYLCHOLINE Neurotransmitter at the NMJ Binds to CHOLINERGIC RECEPTORS at the MOTOR-END PLATE Metabolized by ACETYLCHOLINEESTERASE acetylcholine  SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION STIMULUS REACHES THE NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION STIMULUS ENTERS THE MUSCLE FIBERS VIA THE T-TUBULE SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM IS STIMULATED SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM RELEASES CALCIUM CALCIUM BINDS WITH ACTIN (Troponin) TROPOMYOSIN MOVES BINDING SITES ARE EXPOSED MYOSIN (Cross-bridges) ATTACH TO BINDING SITES “MUSCLE CONTRACTION”  Excitation - Contraction Coupling All the steps that occur from the muscle action potential reaching the T tubule to contraction of the muscle fiber. 20 Intercalated disc__________ Cardiac muscle Bundles form thick myocardium Cardiac muscle cells are single cells (not called fibers) Cells branch Cells join at intercalated discs 1-2 nuclei in center Here “fiber” = long row of joined cardiac muscle cells Inherent rhythmicity: each cell! (muscle cells beat separately without any stimulation)  Smooth muscle Muscles are spindle-shaped cells One central nucleus Grouped into sheets: often running perpendicular to each other Peristalsis No striations (no sarcomeres) Contractions are slow, sustained and resistant to fatigue Does not always require a nervous signal: can be stimulated by stretching or hormones 6 major locations: 1. inside the eye 2. walls of vessels 3. respiratory tubes 4. digestive tubes 5. urinary organs 6. reproductive organs  MUSCLE CONTRACTION MOTOR UNIT – a nerve fiber and all the muscle fibers it innervates MUSCLE TWITCH – a single contraction of muscle fiber produced by a single stimulus (chemical, electrical, mechanical) TREPPE EFFECT – continued stimulation of muscle eventually producing a maximal contraction MUSCLE TONE – muscle fibers always maintained in a state of partial contraction (ABNORMALITIES: hypotonia, hypertonia) ISOTONIC CONTRACTION – muscle decreases in length but with the same tension ISOMETRIC CONTRACTION – muscle increases in tension but with the same length  PARTS OF A MUSCLE ORIGIN INSERTION BELLY  MUSCLE ACCORDING TO ACTION PRIME MOVER ANTAGONIST SYNERGIST FIXATOR BASIS OF MUSCLE NOMENCLATURE SHAPE – deltoid, trapezius, rhomboid SIZE – minimus, medius, maximus LENGTH – longus, brevis LOCATION – frontalis, thoracis, abdominis POSITION – superficialis, profundus, superior NUMBER OF HEADS – biceps, triceps, quadriceps DIRECTION OF FIBERS – rectus, obliquus ACTION – flexor, extensor, abductor, adductor ATTACHMENT - sternohyoid STRUCTURE – semitendinosus, semimembranosus COMBINATION (of the above) MUSCLES OF FACIAL EXPRESSION MUSCLES OF FACIAL EXPRESSION  MUSCLES OF MASTICATION MASSETER TEMPORALIS LATERAL PTERYGOID MEDIAL PTERYGOID MUSCLES OF THE TONGUE EXTRAOCULAR MUSCLES MUSCLES OF THE MIDDLE EAR STAPEDIUS TENSOR TYMPANI MUSCLES OF PHARYNX 1. SUPERIOR PHARYNGEAL 2. MIDDLE CONSTRICTOR 3. INFERIOR 4. PALATOPHARYNGEUS 5. SALPINGOPHARYNGEUS 6. STYLOPHARYNGEUS  MUSCLES OF NECK 1. PLATYSMA 2. STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID 3. SCALENE ANTERIOR 4. SCALENE MEDIUS 5. SCALENE POSTERIOR MUSCLES OF NECK 1. SUPRAHYOID a. digastric b. geniohyoid c. mylohyoid d. stylohyoid 2. INFRAHYOID a. sternohyoid b. sternothyroid c. thyrohyoid d. omohyoid  MUSCLES OF NECK SCALENE ANTERIOR SCALENE MEDIUS SCALENE POSTERIOR MUSCLES OF THE THORACIC WALL EXTERNAL INTERCOSTAL INTERNAL INTERCOSTAL TRANSVERSUS THORACIS DIAPHRAGM  MUSCLES OF ABDOMINAL WALL EXTERNAL OBLIQUE INTERNAL OBLIQUE TRANSVERSUS ABDOMINIS MUSCLES OF THE BACK SUPERFICIAL LAYER trapezius latissimus dorsi rhomboid major rhomboid minor levator scapula INTERMEDIATE LAYER serratus post. sup. serratus post. inf. levatores costarum MUSCLES OF THE BACK DEEP LAYER erector spinae iliocostalis longissimus spinalis transversospinalis interspinalis intertransversarii MUSCLES OF THE PELVIS PIRIFORMIS OBTURATOR INTERNUS MUSCLES OF THE PECTORAL REGION PECTORALIS MAJOR PECTORALIS MINOR SUBCLAVIUS SERRATUS ANTERIOR  SCAPULOHUMERAL MUSCLES SUPRASPINATUS* TERES MINOR* INFRASPINATUS* SUBSCAPULARIS* TERES MAJOR DELTOID * rotator cuff muscles MUSCLES OF THE ARM ANTERIOR ARM biceps brachi brachialis coracobrachialis POSTERIOR ARM triceps brachi MUSCLES of the ANTERIOR FOREARM Superficial Layer PRONATOR TERES FLEXOR CARPI RADIALIS PALMARIS LONGUS FLEXOR CARPI ULNARIS MUSCLES of the POSTERIOR FOREARM Superficial Layer EXT. CARPI RADIALIS BREVIS EXT. DIGITORUM EXT. DIGITI MINIMI EXT.CARPI ULNARIS ANCONEUS INTRINSIC MUSCLES OF HAND THENAR MUSCLES *abductor pollicis brevis *flexor pollicis brevis *opponens pollicis adductor pollicis HYPOTHENAR MUSCLES abductor digiti minimi flexor digiti minimi opponens digiti minimi PALMARIS BREVIS *THENAR EMINENCE MUSCLES  MUSCLES OF GLUTEAL REGION GLUTEUS MAXIMUS PIRIFORMIS* GLUTEUS MEDIUS SUPERIOR GEMELLUS* GLUTEUS MINIMUS OBTURATOR INTERNUS* INFERIOR GEMELLUS* * Small lateral rotators of thigh QUADRATUS FEMORIS* MUSCLES OF ANTERIOR THIGH SARTORIUS* ILIOPSOAS PECTINEUS QUADRICEPS FEMORIS rectus femoris vastus lateralis vastus intermedius vastus medialis * PES ANSERINUS, together with gracilis and semitendinosus MUSCLES OF POSTERIOR THIGH BICEPS FEMORIS* SEMITENDINOSUS* SEMIMEMBRANOSUS* ADDUCTOR MAGNUS (hamstring part) * Hamstring muscles MUSCLES OF ANTERIOR LEG TIBIALIS ANTERIOR EXTENSOR HALLUCIS LONGUS EXTENSOR DIGITORUM LONGUS PERONIUS TERTIUS MUSCLES OF DORSUM OF FOOT EXTENSOR HALLUCIS BREVIS EXTENSOR DIGITORUM BREVIS MUSCLES OF LATERAL LEG PERONIUS LONGUS PERONIUS BREVIS MUSCLES OF POSTERIOR LEG Superficial Layer GASTROCNEMIUS* SOLEUS* PLANTARIS* * triceps surae * freshmen’s nerve MUSCLES OF POSTERIOR LEG Deep Layer POPLITEUS TIBIALIS POSTERIOR FLEXOR DIGITORUM LONGUS FLEXOR HALLUCIS LONGUS