Principles Of Anatomy And Physiology PDF

NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN PRINCIPLES OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Introduction to the Human Body  Goals for Learning 2 To introduce the disciplines of anatomy and physiology To ex...

NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN PRINCIPLES OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Introduction to the Human Body  Goals for Learning 2 To introduce the disciplines of anatomy and physiology To explain the importance of the relationship between structure and function. To discuss the organization of the human body To reveal shared properties of all living things Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Anatomy 3 tomy – to cut; ana – apart Study of structure and shape of the body and its parts and their relationships to one another Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Physiology 4 physio – nature; ology – the study of The study of how the body and its parts work or function Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  NOTE: Structure follows function The anatomy (shape/position/structure) of a structure is designed to fulfill its function (physiology) 5 Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  BRANCHES OF STUDY 6 ANATOMY Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Gross or Macroscopic anatomy 7 Study of larger structures that can be seen with the naked eye Approaches of Study Regional Anatomy – specific body regions (ex.head and neck) Systemic Anatomy – specific body systems (ex. digestive) Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Surface Anatomy The study of the external features of the body Breastbone and ribs are palpated to identify regions of the heart 8 Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Variant Anatomy A deviation from the ‘normal’ arrangement of an anatomical structure (anatomic anomalies) without causing a demonstrable impairment to its functioning Example: sternal foramen 9 Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 10 DARWIN’S TUBERCLE Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 11 OSSA SUTURALIA/ WORMIAN BONES Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Microscopic Anatomy 12 Study of structures that cannot be seen with the naked eye and can only be viewed with a microscope Subdivisions: Cytology - cellular structures Histology - structures of tissues Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 13 Gross Anatomy of the Eye Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 14 Histology of the Eye Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 15 Cytology of the Eye Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Embryology Study of the embryo (1st week of the development of a human egg after fertilization) Concerned with all the developmental changes that occur before birth. 16 Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Developmental Biology Study of the complete development of an individual from fertilization to death Traces structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life span. Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 17  Pathology The study of both gross and microscopic changes in structures due to disease path -disease 18 Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Anatomical Imaging The study of internal body structures that can be visualized through the use of imaging techniques such as: X-ray Ultrasound Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Computed Tomography (CT scan) PET scan Endoscopy 19 Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Anatomical Imaging Techniques 20 Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Radiography Shortwave electromagnetic radiation moves through the body, exposing a photographic plate to form a radiograph X-rays do not easily pass through dense structures Bones  white Hollow structures  black Structures of intermediate density  varying shades of gray. Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 22 KUB SKULL XRAY Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 23 Mammography 23 DEXA scan Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 24 24 RADIOGRAPHY Angiogram Urography Barium Contrast Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  ULTRASOUND Uses high-frequency sound waves, which are emitted from a transmitter-receiver placed on the skin over the area to be scanned Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 26 COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY (CT) X-ray beams are sent through the body, taking many 2D pictures from various angles, which a computer later joins together to form a 3D image Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 27 MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI) Uses a powerful magnet and radio waves to produce images of the internal parts of the body The technique is very sensitive in detecting some forms of cancer far more readily than can a CT scan 27 Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 28 MRI MACHINE CT SCAN MACHINE Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 29 Positron Emission Tomography (PET) A radioactive dye called a tracer is introduced into the body, where it is taken up by tissues. Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  ENDOSCOPY Involves the visual examination of the inside of body organs or cavities using a lighted instrument with lenses called an endoscope. Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  BRANCHES OF STUDY PHYSIOLOGY 31 Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Molecular Physiology The study of functions of individual molecules such as proteins and DNA. 32 Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Exercise Physiology Study of changes in cell and organ functions due to muscular activity. 33 Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Pathophysiology Study of functional changes associated with disease and aging. 34 Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Physiological Studies According to Body Systems 35 neuro- = nerve Neurophysiology Study of the functional properties of nerve cells. endo- = within; -crin = secretion Endocrinology Study of the hormones (chemical regulators in the blood) and how they control body functions. cardi- = heart; vascular = blood vessels Cardiovascular physiology Study of the functions of the heart and blood vessels Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Immunology immun- = not susceptible Study of the the body’s defenses against disease-causing agents. Physiological Studies Respiratory Physiology according to respira- = to breathe Study of the functions of the air body systems passageways and lungs. Renal Physiology ren- = kidney Study of the functions of the kidneys. 36 Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Levels of Structural Organization 37 Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Chemical Level Simplest level of structural ladder Atoms combine to form molecules Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Cellular Level Smallest structural and functional units of living things Formed when molecules associate in specific ways Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Tissue Level Formed when similar cells and the materials surrounding them group together to perform a common function Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Organ Level Formed by two or more tissue types that performs a specific function Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Organ System Level Group of organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Organismal Level A network of organ systems that are all mutually dependent on one another. Highest level of structural organization Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  The Eleven Systems of the Human Body 45 Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Skin and accessory structures Hair Nails Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Forms the external body covering Protects deeper tissue from injury Synthesizes vitamin D Location of cutaneous (pain, pressure, and touch receptors and sweat and oil glands Thermoregulation Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  SKELETAL SYSTEM  Bones  Joints Cartilages* Ligaments* Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 49 SKELETAL SYSTEM Supports body and protects vital organs Provides surface area for muscle attachments Aids in locomotion Houses cells that produce blood cells (bone marrow) Stores minerals and lipids (fats). Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 50 MUSCULAR SYSTEM 3 types of muscles: □ Cardiac muscle □ Smooth muscle □ Skeletal muscle  MUSCULAR SYSTEM □ skeletal muscles □ tendons* Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 51 MUSCULAR SYSTEM Locomotion Maintains posture Heat production Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 52 NERVOUS SYSTEM Brain Spinal Cord Nerves Sensory receptors Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 53 NERVOUS SYSTEM Fast-acting control system of the body Responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands. Includes special senses Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 54 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Pituitary gland Pineal gland Thyroid gland Parathyroid glands Thymus gland Adrenal glands Pancreas Testes Ovaries Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 55 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Slow-acting control system Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use by body cells. Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 56 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM Heart Blood vessels Arteries Veins Capillaries Blood* Plasma Cellular components – erythrocytes (RBC), leukocytes (WBC) thrombocytes (platelets) Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 57 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM Heart pumps blood through blood vessels Blood vessels Veins  carry deoxygenated blood Arteries  carry oxygenated blood Capillaries  exchange materials between blood and tissues Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to cells and carbon dioxide and wastes away from cells helps regulate acid–base balance, temperature, and water content of body fluids blood components help defend against disease and repair damaged blood vessels. Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 58 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM Red bone marrow Thymus Lymph nodes Spleen Lymphatic vessels Other lymphatic tissues (tonsils, Peyer’s patches, etc.) Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 59 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood Absorbs dietary fats from the digestive tract Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream Houses white blood cells involved in immunity. Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 60 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Nose Nasal cavity Nasopharynx Larynx Trachea Bronchi Lungs Bronchioles Alveoli Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 61 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air Helps regulate acid–base balance of body fluids Air flowing out of lungs through vocal cords produces sounds Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 62 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ALIMENTARY TRACT ACCESSORY ORGANS Mouth and oral Teeth and tongue cavity Salivary glands Oropharynx Liver Esophagus Gallbladder Stomach Pancreas Small intestines Large intestines Rectum and anus Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 63 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Achieves physical and chemical breakdown of food Absorbs nutrients Eliminates solid indigestible wastes Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 64 URINARY SYSTEM Kidneys Ureters Urinary bladder Urethra Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 65 URINARY SYSTEM Eliminates nitrogen-containing wastes from the body Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood. Helps regulate production of red blood cells by producing erythropoeitin Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 66 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM EXTERNAL GENITALIA Penis Glans penis Prepuce ACCESSORY GLANDS Scrotum Prostate gland INTERNAL RS Cowper’s glands Testes Seminal vesicles Epidydimis Vas deferens Urethra Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 67 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM EXTERNAL GENITALIA Mons pubis Labia majora Labia minora MAMMARY GLANDS Clitoris and hood Hymen INTERNAL RS ACCESSORY GLANDS Ovaries Bartholin’s glands Fallopian tubes Skene’s glands Uterus Cervix Vagina Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 68 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Production of offspring Maintenance of secondary sex characteristics Mammary glands in females produce milk to nourish the newborn Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 69 Support and Movement Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 70 Integration & Control Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 71 Regulation & Maintenance Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN 72 Propagation of the Species Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LIVING HUMAN ORGANISM Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  BASIC LIFE PROCESSES 74 Maintaining boundaries Every living organism must be able to maintain its boundaries so that its “inside” remains distinct from its “outside.” Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  BASIC LIFE PROCESSES 75 Digestion the process of breaking down ingested food into simple molecules that can then be absorbed into the blood. Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  BASIC LIFE PROCESSES 76 Metabolism sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body (catabolism/anabolism) BUILD SPLIT amino acids proteins glycogen glucose Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  BASIC LIFE PROCESSES 77 Responsiveness body’s ability to detect and respond to changes Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  BASIC LIFE PROCESSES 78 Movement motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, and even tiny structures inside cells. Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  BASIC LIFE PROCESSES 79 Growth an increase in body size that results from an increase in the size of existing cells, an increase in the number of cells, or both. Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  BASIC LIFE PROCESSES 80 Development changes an organism undergoes through time, beginning with fertilization and ending at death Involves, growth, differentiation and morphogenesis Differentiation the development of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized state. Morphogenesis change in shape of tissues, organs, and the entire organism Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  BASIC LIFE PROCESSES 81 Reproduction the formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement, the production of a new individual. Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  When any one of the life processes ceases to occur properly, the result is DEATH of cells and tissues, which may lead to death of the 82 organism. Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Survival Needs 83 NUTRIENTS OXYGEN WATER TEMPERATURE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Nutrients 84 Contain the chemicals used for energy and cell building Carbohydrates  major energy providing fuel for body cells Proteins  essential for building cell structures Fats  cushion body organs and provide reserve fuel. Minerals and vitamins  required for the chemical reactions and oxygen transport Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Oxygen 85 Required by chemical reactions that release energy from foods Human cells can survive for only a few minutes without it. Made available to the blood and body cells by the cooperative efforts of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems. Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Water 86 Accounts for 60 to 80 percent of body weight. The single most abundant chemical substance in the body Provides the fluid base for body secretions and excretions. Obtained chiefly from ingested foods or liquids Lost by evaporation from the lungs and skin and in body excretions. Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Body Temperature 87 Should be maintained in normal levels if chemical reactions are to continue If body temperature drops below 37°C (98°F), metabolic reactions become slower and slower and finally stop. If body temperature is too high, chemical reactions proceed too rapidly, and body proteins begin to break down. Most body heat is generated by the activity of the skeletal muscles. Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Atmospheric Pressure 88 The force exerted on the surface of the body by the weight of air Breathing and the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs depend on appropriate atmospheric pressure. In high altitudes  air is thin  lower atmospheric pressure  slow gas exchange  low oxygen intake  inability to support cellular metabolism Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  The mere presence of these survival factors is not sufficient to maintain life. They must be present in appropriate amounts as well; excesses and deficits 89 may be equally harmful. Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN  Reference BOOKS 90 Principles of Anatomy and Physiology by Gerard J. Tortora and Bryan Derrickson Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology by Elaine N. Marieb Anatomy and Physiology by Rod Seeley Ross and Wilson Anatomy and Physiology in Health and Wellness by Anne Waugh and Allison Grant Anatomy and Physiology by Elizabeth Co Prepared by: NELLY JR. C. FREYRA-OMBAO, RN, MAN