Fundamental Attribution Error PDF

Fundamental attribution error: Tendency to assume that people’s actions are more the result of internal dispositions than situational context. (passenger asking to move seat on a plane we think they are rude and intitled but they may have a disability) Social influence: people are influenced by the...

Fundamental attribution error: Tendency to assume that people’s actions are more the result of internal dispositions than situational context. (passenger asking to move seat on a plane we think they are rude and intitled but they may have a disability) Social influence: people are influenced by the idea that other people are watching them. Big 5 Theory: - 5 basic personality traits (OCEAN) o Openness: whether a person is open to new experiences o Conscientiousness: whether a person is disciplined and responsible o Extroversion: whether a person is sociable, outgoing and affectionate o Agreeableness: whether a person is cooperative, trusting, and helpful o Neuroticism: whether a person is unstable and prone to negative emotions and insecurity Historical Approaches Bodies: − Fluid types (Galen) – temperament related to four bodily fluids o Sanguine: excess of blood = vigor and athleticism o Choleric: (expression of pissed off) excess of urine = easily angered o Melancholic: excess of feces = depressed or sad o Phlegmatic: excess of mucus = tired or lazy (when your sick you get tiered) − Body somatotypes (Sheldon) o Endomorph: overweight = jolly, extraverted, slow o Mesomorph (alpha male): muscular = athletic, aggressive o Ectomorph: skinny = thinking, withdrawn, fearful Contributions/Critiques of Psychoanalytic theory: - many Freud’s ideas not empirically supported, psychoanalytic theory contributed to answering fundamental questions a human personality o popularized idea that thoughts can occur below our conscious awareness. o The importance of early development. starting point for later theories of child development. o The influence of mind on body. Freud thought the psychological processes of the mind could account for medically inexplicable disorders of the body o Freud’s basic proposition that people could be cured of psychological disorders or relieve their symptoms by talking to someone about their experience was absolutely groundbreaking. Freuds psychocosial states of personality development: - erogenous zone area of the body where id’s pleasure-seeking is focused during a stage of psychosexual development o change in erogenous zones designates the beginning of a new stage - Fixation portion of the id’s pleasure- seeking energy remains in a stage because of excessive gratification or frustration Anal-Retentive/expulsive personality: - Parents try to get child to have self-control during toilet training o o If child reacts to harsh toilet training by trying to get even with the parents by withholding bowel movements, an anal-retentive personality with the traits of orderliness, neatness, stinginess, and stubbornness develops anal-expulsive (act of Rebelion) personality develops when the child rebels against the harsh training and has bowel movements whenever and wherever he desires Neo-Freudian theories of personality: - Caral Jungs collective unconscious o collective unconscious: universal human experiences that we all share o These experiences are manifested in archetypes, which are images and symbols of all the important themes in the history of humankind (e.g., explorer, mother, hero) o Archetypes represent personality styles each one has a primary desire (e.g., to connect with others) o Notions of collective unconscious and archetypes are more mystical than scientific and cannot be empirically tested - Alfred Adlers striving for superiority o “striving for superiority” – overcome the sense of inferiority felt as infants (totally helpless and dependent state) o A healthy person learns to cope with these feelings, becomes competent, and develops a sense of self-esteem o Inferiority complex felt by those who never overcome this initial feeling of inferiority - Karen Horney and the need for security o Focused need for security, rather than a sense of inferiority o child’s caregivers must provide a sense of security for a healthy personality to develop or else neurotic personality types will develop o Three neurotic personality patterns ▪ Moving toward people- A compliant, submissive person ▪ Moving against people- An aggressive, domineering person ▪ Moving away from people- A detached, aloof person Humanistic theories: - developed in 1960s from psychoanalytic theories (too deterministic) and behavioral theories (too mechanical) - humanistic approach emphasizes conscious free will and uniqueness of the individual person, and personal growth o Developed by Maslow who studied lives of very healthy and creative people Maslow's self-actualization: Characteristics of self-actualized people (who have met all their needs) include: o Accepting of themselves, others, and the nature of world for what they are o Being independent, democratic, and very creative o Having peak experiences, (deep insight, wonder, awe, or ecstasy) Rogers Self Theory: - Rogers o Our parents up conditions of worth, via behaviors/attitudes for which give us positive regard o Meeting conditions of worth continues throughout life, and people develop a self concept of what others think they should be • Unconditional positive regard – acceptance and approval without conditions o Empathy from others, and having others be genuine with respect to their own feelings, is necessary if we are to feel self-actualized Personality disorder (Sex/age): Sex Differences - - - Prevalence is generally higher among women Depends on the PD Higher in Men: o Antisocial PD o Narcissistic PD Higher in Women: o Dependent o Histrionic o Borderline Could be due to gender bias in the diagnosis of PDs (e.g., histrionic and sex) Changes across age and sex o Most PD most prevalent in early/ middle life o Woman/ men roughly equal in older age Personality Disorders (DSM Disorders): Cluster A - Odd/Eccentric - Paranoid • Schizoid • Schizotypal Cluster B – Dramatic/Erratic • Antisocial • Borderline • Histrionic • Narcissistic Cluster C – Anxious/Fearful • Avoidant • Dependent • Obsessive-compulsive A-Paranoid PD: - Pervasive suspiciousness and distrust of others - Tendency to see self as blameless - On guard for perceived attacks/betrayal by others - Hostile world attribution bias - Reads hidden insults in benign remarks - Holds on to a grudge - Recurrent suspicions about fidelity of partner/spouse A-Schizoid PD: no desire for people - Pervasive detachment from social relationships - Low pleasure - Flat emotional expressions - Preference for solitary activities - Few friends/family - Indifferent to praise or criticism A- Schizotypal: - Interpersonal problems - Eccentric/odd - Strange beliefs - Unusual perceptions - Inappropriate affect - Lack of close friends - Extreme social anxiety - Believe they have magic powers or engage in magic rituals B – Antisocial - Violate others’ rights - Aggressive - Impulsive - Illegal behaviors - Irritable/angry - Deceitful - Lack of remorse B – Borderline PD: instability of emotions - Unstable emotions, relationships, identity - Impulsive behavior - Feelings of emptiness - Flash anger - Recurrent suicidal behaviors, gestures, or threats (or self-mutilating behaviors) B – Histrionic PD: attention seaking - Excessive attention-seeking behavior - Excessive emotionality - Dramatic/theatrical - Center of attention - Uses physical appearance to draw attention B – Narcissistic PD - Grandiosity - Preoccupied with unlimited success - Requires excessive admiration - Sense of entitlement - Exploits others - Believes others envy them - Lacks empathy C – Avoidant PD - Extreme social avoidance, introversion, loneliness - Does not want to be alone but fears socializing (being rejected, criticized, or embarrassed) - Feels socially inadequate C – Depended PD - Extreme need to be taken care of - Clingy and submissive behavior - Lack of self-confidence - Constant helplessness - Needs a lot of advice and reassurance C – Obsessive compulsive PD: perfectionism - Perfectionism - Excessive concern for order and control - Preoccupied with rules - Rigid and stubborn - Devoted to work - Does not trust others to do work, takes control: "If you want something done right..." Definition of Disorder: - Deviance: Thoughts, behaviors and feelings that are not in line with normal/accepted standards - Distress: Upsetting behaviours/thoughts/feelings that cause suffering - Dysfunction: Thoughts behaviors and feelings that disrupt one’s regular routine/ day to day function - Dangerous: Thoughts that may lead to harm/injury of self or others Biopsychosocial model: psychological disorders result from an interaction between biological factors, psychological experiences and ones social environment. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: chronic psychological disorder that afflicts about 2% of people. (worsens over time & starts in early life) thought action fusion, magical thinking (2 events are related when not), Amygdala more active - Obsessions: unwanted and disturbing thoughts (infection, strangling children) - Compulsions: ritualistic actions performed to control the obsessions (cleaning, hand washing, organizing, mental ritual) Vulnerability-stress models: individual vulnerabilities + stressful experiences = depression • Depression has a genetic component, and the search for specific genes continues • Studies of serotonin are inconclusive Attributional theory of depression: ppl who attribute things as internal (my fault) vs external, global (affects everything) vs specific. And stable (always going to happen) vs temporary are more prone to depression Cognitive habits of depression: executive dysfunction, impaired learning/memory, reduced attention/concentration, and lower processing speed Schizophrenia: Loss of contact with reality and breakdown of normal functions of the mind (bizarre perceptions) Positive psychotic symptoms (smth added): thoughts or behaviors not in healthy people (delusions)(hallucinations of voices and shadows)(disorganized behaviour - etc giggle or cry out of the blue) (abnormal Moter behaviors eg. Catatonic behaviors(lack of response) Negative Psychotic symptoms (behaviors lost since the onset of the disorder): Loss of motivation to take care of oneself (avolition), Flat or blunted affect, Reduced speech production (alogia), Asociality (don’t socialize and don’t want to socialize) Psychoanalysis/psychodynamic therapy: analyzing unconscious processes through different methods. Identifies themes/patterns in behavior and thoughts. Focus on interpersonal relationships and development Humanistic/ Person-Centered Therapy: Empathy, Genuineness, Positive regard w/ patient & therapist, therapist shows acceptance and support of client without judgement fostering an environment of self-exploration and personal growth. - no hierarchy between client and therapist, non-directive, therapist does not guide and advise client who is considered expert on themselves. Goal to increase individual insight. Cognitive Behavior Therapy: major practice today. Interactions w/ feelings, behaviors, cognitions. What we feel affects what we think which affects how we act (identify/change) negative thoughts, emotions the hardest to change but can change how we feel by changing how we think/act) - First wave: classic behavioral therapies o Classical and operant conditioning (a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior )systematic desensitization o Focus is on behaviors not thoughts - Second wave: incorporation of cognitions o Rise of mainline cognitive- behavioral therapy - Third wave: less about change and more about acceptance o Acceptance and commitment therapy o Mindfulness based cognitive behavioral therapy o Dialectical behavior therapy Acceptance and Commitment Therapy: approaching negative thought with acceptance and without hanging on to thoughts, discourages client avoidance (meditation practice of Buddhism) Cognitive behavioral therapy focuses on disputing thoughts - ACT hypotheses that psychopathology stems from the clients efforts to escape unpleased feeling using avoidance behaviors ex. Substance use disorders, eating disorders, panic disorders, PTSD, OCD - ACT components (psychological flexibility at the focus) o Acceptance: reducing the motivation for experiential avoidance o Cognitive de-fusion: watching negative thoughts with the awareness that they are only thoughts o Self as Context: ones identity is separate from ones thoughts o Being present: mindful awareness of thought and feelings o Values: clarifying values o Committed action: setting tasks to live in accordance with values - ACT Critique of CBT o CBT too mechanistic (the assumption that behaviors can be understood in the same way physiological processes are understood) humans do not change thoughts like computers o Too focused on symptoms change; attention should be moved to changing the context and broadening focus of change o CBT developed in science lab (issues with evidence based approach) o Empirical support for hypothesized mediators of change is weak CBT critique of ACT o Act is not new is instead a reframing of CBT o Cognitive restructuring and diffusion share similar processes ▪ Restructuring is incompatible with thought suppression ▪ Disputing both decreases experiential avoidance and diffusion “thought as fact” o Exploring schemas and rules is similar to exploring values in ACT Cognitive Distortions: - All or nothing(black or white thinking), - Over-generalising, - Mental Filter(only paying attention to certain types of evidence), - Disqualifying the positive (discountng the good things that happened or that you have done for some reason) - jumping to conclusions, - Magnification/minimization (blowing things out of proprotion or inappropately shrinking something to make it seem less important) - emotional reasoning (I feel embarrassed so I must be an idiot labelling ourselves or other people - personalization (blaming yourself or taking responsibility for something that wasn’t completely your fault. Or conversely blaming other ppl for something that was your fault) - Cognitive Restructuring: Process of identifying and disputing irrational thoughts/cognitive distortions to change the way you think (write them down, identify moods, reason it out). Core component of CBT. (questions include: where were you?, emotion and feeling, negative automatic thought, evidence that supports the thought, evidence that doesn’t support that thought) Behavioral Activation: Part of CBT that helps combat depression (do it without motivation). Increase involvement, instruct someone to engage in activities eg. Jogging, walking, reading the newspapers. Systematic Desensitization: Slowly exposing yourself to an anxiety-producing situation so that you can regulate slowly w/o being traumatized Dodo Bird Effect: All therapies produce equivalent outcomes (just going to therapy will make a difference) Common Factors in therapy: - Client characteristics (positive expectancies) - Therapist Qualities (cultivate hope, warmth/positive regard, empathy and collaborative), - Relationship elements (development of alliance) - Treatment structure (techniques, exploration of inner world) - Change processes (opportunity for ventilation, practice of new behavior, awareness)