FUCKING Crop Protection PDF

MUSCULAR SYSTEM SENSES IN INSECTS MUSCLE CONTRACTION – facilitated by nerve impulses at Locate food nerve endings Find mates MOVEMENT & APPENDAGES – produced by an i...

MUSCULAR SYSTEM SENSES IN INSECTS MUSCLE CONTRACTION – facilitated by nerve impulses at Locate food nerve endings Find mates MOVEMENT & APPENDAGES – produced by an intrinsic Avoid enemies system of musculatures Make nests Activities: Perform internal functions Feeding BASIC SENSES Walking 1. SIGHT Jumping 2. SMELL (olfaction) Flying 3. TASTE (gustation) MUSCLES – made up contractile units called myosin filaments 4. TOUCH STRIATED – light and dark bands made up of actin and myosin 5. HEARING FIBERS – myofibrils situated in a matrix of multinucleated GROUPS OF ORGANS/RECEPTORS cytoplasm 1. PHOTORECEPTORS – detect presence and quality of MYOSIN FILAMENTS – protein, long coiled chains of incident light; when images are produced it is called sight polypeptides ❖ COMPOUND EYES – perceive images, color, PRINCIPAL TYPES OF INSECT MUSCLES movement; not found in primitively wingless insects 1. TYPICAL – fibrils (a small filament or fiber) only slightly OMMATIDIUM – facet is part of the individual differentiated, enclosed in thick layer of superficial sensory units plasma Number of Facets to a CE varies 2. MICROFIBRILLAR – fibrils closely packed, interspersed 20,000 in dragonflies with columns of mitochondria 12,000 or more in Lepidoptera SARCOLEMMA – plasma membrane 4,000 in Musca (housefly) SARCOPLASMA – plasma LIGHT-RECEPTOR APPARATUS (LRA) – SARCOPLASM – cytoplasm comprises 6 – 8 retinula cells 3. LAMELLAR or TUBULAR – direct flight muscles; nuclei RHABDOM – central light sensor found only along the central portion forming a column ❖ SIMPLE EYES/OCELLI – present in many immatures of and surrounded by alternating rows of mitochondria and Endopterygota; Also believed to perceive images fibrils although probably produce a less complete mosaic; 4. FIBRILLAR – found in indirect flight muscles of very some appreciation of color; perceive movement of efficient fliers (located along dorsum, thorax); in between objects in their vicinity; responsible for orientation to light fibrils are mitochondria and sarcoplasm 2 Classes CATEGORIES OF MUSCLES OF INSECTS DORSAL OCELLI – imagines and nymphs 1. VISCERAL MUSCLES – occur in circular, longitudinal LATERAL OCELLI – endopterygote larvae or oblique bands around the digestive tract = produce 2. CHEMORECEPTORS – detect the presence of chemical peristaltic movements of the gut that moves food and substances in the air thru the sense of smell (OLFACTION) wastes along its length OR on substrates thru the sense of taste (GUSTATION) 2. SEGMENTAL MUSCLES – series of bands that connect FORMS OF CHEMORECEPTORS body segments; Longitudinal bands connect the tergites ❖ TASTE RECEPTORS – sense molecules from liquids; and sternites in the abdomen; Tergites to sternites of have fine nerve endings exposed to the environment at same segment are connected by oblique muscles on hair tips each side of the body - Preferred to distilled H20 dilute acid/salt solution 3. APPENDAGE MUSCLES – movable appendages have - Rejected esters, alcohols, amino acids muscles either in them or attached to them ❖ SMELL RECEPTORS – perceived by olfactory sensilla LOCOMOTION IN INSECTS characterized by the presence of numerous pores A. WALKING – basic mode of locomotion - PHEROMONES – highly specific, volatile TRIPOD MANNER – adult insects substances perceived thru the olfactory sensilla B. CRAWLING – basic mode of locomotion for worm- after being secreted by other members of the same shaped immatures species C. FLYING – only adults can accomplish flight 3. MECHANORECEPTORS – detect movements, vibrations, D. UP-AND-DOWN BEAT CYCLE – mode of locomotion in other mechanical disturbances more primitive insects (dragonflies, roaches, beetles) ❖ TOUCH – monitored by hair sensilla, innervated by a single neuron  ❖ HEARING – perception of aerial vibrations by long, 2. SETAE or HAIRS or MACROTRICHIA or TRICHOID slender, trichoid sensilla SENSILLA – multicellular with specialized cells ❖ TYMPANUM – perceived by chordotonal organs made - LARGE SETAE – bristles/chaetae up of scolopidia - FLATTENED SETAE – scales on Lepidoptera ST - 1 ABDOMINAL SEGMENT – grasshopper 3 separate cells form each setae - TIBIAE – crickets - ABDOMEN AND METATHORAX – moths - TRICHOGEN CELL – hair formation - JOHNSTON’S ORGAN – in the pedicel of adult - TORMOGEN CELL – socket formations insects responds to movements of antennae; maybe - SENSORY CELL involved in hearing 3. ACANTHAE – unicellular in origin 4. AUDITORY ORGANS 4. MICROTRICHIA – subcellular, from several to many 5. TEMPERATURE & HUMIDITY RECEPTORS extensions per cell SENSILLA PORE CANALS – passageways of secretions by the epidermis COELONICA & CAMPANIFORMIA from inside to outside CHAETICA TRICHOIDEA EXOSKELETON – support system BASICONICA Functions of the Exoskeleton INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM 1. Provides a rigid foundation of the body INTEGUMENT or BODY WALL – outer covering of the living 2. Serves as a point of attachment of muscles tissues of insects; sclerotized for protection from abrasion as well 3. Serves as a covering to protect internal organs as water proofing 4. Helps prevent desiccation EPIDERMIS – single layer of cells MOLTING – casting of old cuticle; triggered by hormones CUTICLE – produced by the epidermis; covers e entire body released when an insect’s growth reaches physical limits of its surface = restricts water loss exoskeleton LAYERS OF THE CUTICLE ❖ APOLYSIS – separation of cuticle from the epidermis ❖ ECDYSIS – actual process of shedding off of the old skin ❖ EPICUTICLE – thin outer layer, 3mµ to 0.1 mµ thick; 1. Change in epidermal cells permeable to chemicals and nutrients for growth but 2. Secretion of molting fluid impermeable to enzymes that breakdown parts of the old 3. Secretion of cuticulin layer cuticle before it is shed 4. Activation of molting fluid Layers 5. Absorption of the digested remains of old cuticle and start o HOMOGENOUS LAYER – innermost layer of secretion of new procuticle o LAYERS OF CUTICULIN (lipoprotein) – critical 6. Formation of wax and cement layer in the growth process 7. Ecdysis and expansion of the new cuticle o WAX – long hydrocarbon chain 8. SCLEROTIZATION/TANNING – processes by which the o CEMENT – tanned protein with lipids serving as new cuticle are made more resistant to degradation, stiffer, a varnish-like covering of the wax or maybe in less soluble; controlled by BURSICON the form of an open meshwork providing a - QUINONES – tanning substance for the cuticle coming reservoir of lipids to replace lost surface lipids from tyrosine or para-OH phenylalanine in the ❖ EXOCUTICLE – thicker layer; Forms the exuvium at hemolymph molting; Gives the cuticle its characteristic strength and - B-SCLEROTIZATION – hardening without development resilience; Formed of chitin (C18H13NO5) of new color - CHITIN – polymerized compound, a nitrogenous - QUINONE SCLEROTIZATION – hardening with colors polysaccharide linked to a protein 9. Start of wax secretion ❖ ENDOCUTICLE – still a thicker layer ❖ PHARATE CONDITION – insect actively constructing ❖ BASEMENT MEMBRANE – composed of new exoskeleton takes days or weeks with very little mucopolysaccharide secreted by hemocytes evidence of change CUTICULAR EXTENSIONS ❖ TENERAL CONDITION – newly molted insect, soft unpigmented (white or ivory), until the tanning process 1. SPINES – multicellular with undifferentiated epidermal is completed (a day or two) cells  PHYSIOLOGY OF MOLTING/DISTINCT SEQUENCE OF MALE’S REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM EVENTS ❖ SPERMATOGONIA – a group of germ cells at the distal end 1. Changes in epidermal cells of each follicle, dividing thru mitosis and increase in size to 2. Secretion of molting fluid form spermatocytes 3. Secretion of outer layer of cuticulin ❖ SPERMATOCYTES – migrate toward the end of the follicle, 4. Secretion of homogenous layer of cuticulin push along by continued cell division of spermatogonia; 5. Activation of molting fliid undergo meosis: 4 haploid spermatids 6. Absorption of the digested remains of old cuticle ❖ VASA EFFERENTIA – where mature sperm from the testes 7. Start of secretion of new procuticle pass out (exo/endocuticle) ❖ SEMINAL VESICLE (STORAGE CHAMBER) – where 8. Ecdysis and expansion of the new cuticle mature sperms collect 9. Sclerotization ❖ VASA DEFERENTIA – join one another near midline to form 10. Start of wax secretion a single ejaculatory duct ❖ EJACULATORY DUCT – where sperm passes out of the CONTROL OF MOLTING AND ASSOCIATED PROCESSES males body thru a copulatory organ called aedeagus 1. ECDYSONE – play a vital role in controlling the events ❖ ACCESSORY GLANDS – 1 or more pairs of secretory of molting; triggers the epidermal cells to change in glands; Connected to the system thru short ducts: some near number and size (MOLTING HORMONE) the testes or seminal vesicles, others associated with the 2. BURSICON – controls sclerotization ejaculatory duct; in Periplaneta, form dense bunches of 3. A hormone released from the corpora allata-corpora tubules called the “MUSHROOM GLAND” of Huxley cardiaca complex with ecdysone to control wax FEMALE’S REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM secretion 4. A hormone with ecdysone controlling endocuticle ❖ PAIR OF OVARIES – swell with developing eggs when production insect is actively reproducing, nearly filling the abdomen; 5. ECDEPTEROIDS – induce sclerotization in ligated subdivided into OVARIOLES abdomen of blowfly larvae resulting to the induction of ❖ OOGONIA – 1st stage in the differentiation of an egg cell de novo synthesis of enzyme dopa-decarboxylase in the ❖ OOCYTES – egg cell differentiated from the oogonium, epidermal cells before maturation ❖ FEMALE ACCESSORY GLANDS – 1 or more pairs; usually DIFFERENT TYPES OF CUTICLE connected by small ducts to common oviduct or bursa 1. RIGID CUTICLE – produced as a result of tanning in the copulatrix; supply lubricants for the system; secrete protein- outer part of the procuticle to form the exocuticle, but the rich egg shell (chorion) that surrounds the egg extent of tanning, and hence the hardness of the cuticle INSECT DEVELOPMENT – the growth and transformation of the varies insect from egg stage to the embryo, immature and adult stages 2. MEMBRANOUS CUTICLE – sclerites are joined by flexible arthrodial membranes and in these the procuticle 2 Phases: remains untanned but it also differs quantitatively from 1. EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT – development and the cuticle of the sclerites in containing proteins with a growth of the insect embryo inside the egg after the egg different amino acid composition of the female has been fertilized by the sperm of the 3. ELASTIC & EXTENSIBLE CUTICLE – some parts of male insect the cuticle contains a colorless, rubber-like protein called 2. POST-EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT – insect resilin development and growth after the egg has hatched. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM During this period, the insect will undergo Developing eggs move down the ovariole metamorphosis or change in form and size Copulation (male deposits spermatophore in bursa ATYPICAL MODES OF REPRODUCTION copulatrix) ❖ PARTHENOGENESIS – development from an unfertilized Ovulation takes place egg Fertilization occurs as soon as sperm’s nucleus fuses - THELYTOKOUS – female may produce only females with egg cell’s nucleus - ARRHENOTOKOUS – female produce only males Oviposition or egg – laying follows closely - AMPHITOKOUS or DEUTEROTOKOUS – female Egg begins embryonic development produce both sexes ❖ PAEDOGENESIS – reproduction in an immature stage  - LARVAL PAEDOGENESIS – reproduction in an 2. PUPARIUM TANNING FACTING – regulates synthesis immature stage of enzymes at the transcriptional level necessary for the - PUPA PAEDOGENESIS – embryos are formed in the hydroxylation of tyrosine haemocoele of paedogenetic mother-pupa (hemi-pupa) HOW THE DIFFERENT HORMONES REGULATE ❖ NEOTENY – a non-terminal instar develops reproductive DEVELOPMENT features of an adult, including the ability to locate a mate, copulate and deposit eggs (or larvae) in a conventional A stimulus from the environment is received by the insect’s manner brain - STREPSIPTERA – female development ceases at This is passed on to the nerves, then to the ganglia. puparium stage Gland release hormone and is transported by the ❖ HERMAPRODITISM – having individuals that possess both haemolymph testes and ovaries Hormone reaches target site ❖ POLYEMBRYONY – production of more than one embryo TOXICOLOGY from one egg by subdivision; restricted to parasitic insects TOXICOLOGY – one of the oldest branches of pharmacology Reproductive Strategies : “To Lay Eggs or Not To Lay Eggs” The study of the harmful actions of chemicals on biologic ❖ OVIPARITY – egg laid shortly after fertilization tissues ❖ OVOVIVIPARITY – eggs retained until embryogenesis - metabolism and excretion of poisons, complete - action of poisons ❖ VIVIPARITY – eggs retained and embryo fed by mother - treatment of poisoning ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - systematic chemical and physical analyses and diagnosis HORMONES – internal secretions produced in or by one of the endocrine glands PESTICIDES – substances or mixture of substances intended to TYPES OF ENDOCRINE ORGANS prevent, destroy, repel or mitigate any pest 1. NEUROSECRETORY CELLS OF THE BRAIN – groups Insecticides of modified nerve cells in the dorsal part of the Miticides/Acaricides protocerebrum that produce: Nematicides - Peptide hormone which activate the thoracic glands Fungicides - Prothoracicotrophic hormone (brain hormone) Bactericides - Bursicon 2. SPECIALIZED ENDOCRINE GLANDS Rodenticides A. CORPORA CARDIACA – responsible for Molluscicides discharging into the hemolymph neurosecretory INSECTICIDE TOXICOLOGY – study of a particular group of materials produced by the brain toxic chemicals rather than on their effects in a particular group B. CORPORA ALLATA – pair of small, ovoid cellular of animals bodies of ectodermal origin associated with the DEFINITION OF TERMS stomodaeal ganglion behind the brain. Produce juvenile hormone (JH) ABSORPTION – process by which a chemical crosses the - JUVENILE HORMONE – controls various membrane barriers of a living organism and especially metamorphosis and regulation of reproductive those processes by which a chemical is taken up from development such as synthesis of yolk environmental media, including food and other ingested material precursors or vitellogenins (regulates yolk TOXICITY – refers to the ability of a poison (pesticide) to produce deposition in eggs) adverse effects ranging from slight symptoms as headaches to C. THORACIC/PROTHORACIC GLANDS – a pair of severe symptoms like coma, convulsions or death diffused glands at the back of the head or in the thorax TYPES OF TOXICITY - ECDYSONE – molting hormone ❖ ACUTE TOXICITY – due to short-term exposure and OTHER HORMONES adverse effects occurs within a relatively short period of time of dosing or exposure 1. ANTERIOR SEGMENT REFRACTION FACTOR – - ACUTE ORAL cerebral neurosecretions released from the peripheral - ACUTE DERMAL nerve endings - ACUTE INHALATION  - LD50 (Lethal Dose 50) – single dose of a toxic R& D Process-HISTORY OF INSECTICIDE DEVELOPMENT substance administered by any route, other than by A. INORGANICS & BOTANICALS – 1st recorded use of inhalation, that causes the death of 50% of an insecticides: 2500 BC by Sumerians who believed that animal population rubbing the foul smelling sulfur on their bodies repel insects - LD Lo (Lethal Dose Low) – lowest dose of a and mites substance reported to have caused death in humans - Inorganic sulfur or animals - Arsenic - LC50 (Lethal Concentration 50) – concentration of - Lead arsenate, calcium arsenate, sodium arsenate, a material in the air that kills 50% of a group of test sodium fluorides, cryolite or sodium animals when administered as a single exposure in fluoroaluminate, sodium fluorosilicate and boric a specific time period (usually 1hr) acid ❖ CHRONIC TOXICITY – due to a repeated or long-term - NATURAL PYRETHROIDS – 18-19th century exposure and happens over a longer period of time than in - ROTENOIDS – 19th century acute toxicity - Pyrethrum & derris – 1750 – 1880 DOSE – amount available for interaction with metabolic - DERRIS – a source of rotenone became popular to processes or biologically significant receptors after crossing the control leaf- eating caterpillars; pyrethrum from relevant biological boundary. This is the total amount of a chrysanthemum flowers was used as louse powder substance administered to, taken up, or absorbed by an - NICOTINE – alkaloid compound was first used as organism, tissue, or organ insecticide in 1763; isolated in pure form in 1828 by Posselt and Reimmann and synthesized in 1904 by PPM – parts per million Pictet and Rotschy; Effective against aphids and other PPB – parts per billion soft-bodied insects; Highly toxic to mammals; easily PPT – parts per trillion absorbed in the skin RESPONSE – the proportion of an exposed population with a - ROTENONE – was the 1st rotenoid to be identified; used defined effect or the proportion of a group of individuals that as an insecticide before the advent of organosynthetic demonstrates a defined effect in a given time at a given dose insecticides; was isolated by Geoffroy in 1892 and rate named nicoulene - NATURAL PYRETHROIDS – insecticides derived from HALF-LIFE – time required for the concentration of a reactant in flowering plants Chrysanthemum a given reaction to reach a value that is the arithmetic mean of - SYNTHETIC PYRETHROIDS – based from pyrethrum its initial and final (equilibrium) values compounds consisting of 6 esters TOLERANCE – the ability of an organism to show less response B. MODERN INSECTICIDES (Synthetic Organics) – to a specific dose of a chemical that it demonstrated on a prior Organochlorines – Organophosphates – Carbamates – occasion; it refers to acquired resistance Pyrethroids – Neonicotinoids - Highly effective insecticidal activity & low mammalian INSECTICIDE USE PATTERN toxicity: DDT as the most widely used pesticide in the ❖ INSECTICIDE USE PROFILE world until the 1960s - Great transformation of Phil. agriculture in the last 50 – C. BIO-RATIONAL PESTICIDES – based on some type of 60 years where productivity started to increase in the naturally occurring products, e.g. biological insect 1960s is a consequence of improved agricultural hormones, developmental inhibitors, microbes, plant infrastructure, massive increase in agricultural inputs extracts. These are synthesized to produce the new (fertilizers & pesticides) and introduction of high yielding generation insecticides such as Bt, pyrethroids , spinosads varieties. Pesticides = 18.2% in total agrochemical inputs and pheromones expenditure INSECTICIDE PRODUCTION - The most commonly used are organophosphates, carbamates and pyrethroids; mostly used on 1. SYNTHESIS vegetables, bananas and rice - 1st synthesized in small scale by trained chemists in - Endosulfan – an organophosphates that is most widely a well-equipped and sophisticated lab used over the last 3 decades. Misused as a molluscicide - Involves modifying organic molecules on bioassay- for golden snail control when organotin compounds assisted efficacy trials of a considerable number of became scarce due to regulation test compounds or could even be a result of ❖ INSECTICIDE IMPORTATION – insecticides represent 56% serendipitous findings of the total pesticide trade in the country in 1996  - If compound proves viable in terms of activity and o Ensures that such products do not pose unintended or cost-effectiveness, scale-up synthesis begins in the unreasonable risks to humans, animals and the factory environment under the FIFRA and Food Quality 2. FORMULATION Protection Act( FQPA) - Formulation of product in liquid or solid in the same o Conduct comprehensive review of pesticides that were place or sent to a formulator first registered with the EPA prior to Nov. 1984 to 3. DILUTION consider the effect of older pesticides on human health - Material is diluted to produce the amount of and the natural environment and to decide on the future pesticide desired use of these pesticides (health and safety data) - In most instances, the final product consists of 0.5 ❖ EUROPEAN FOOD SAFETY AUTHORITY (EU) to 1 percent of the original a.i. in which it is now ❖ FERTILIZER & PESTICIDE AUTHORITY (PH) ready to be applied MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET (MSDS) DATA GENERATION AND THEIR VALUES SAFETY A form with data regarding the properties of a particular REGULATORY AGENCIES IN DATA GENERATION substance, copies of which are submitted to regulatory FOR SAFETY VALUES. The crop protection industries agencies including local officials are among the highly regulated in the world. Before a Data which is available on most pesticide products providing new pesticide reaches the market, extensive laboratory relevant health and safety information on hazardous and field tests are required by regulatory agencies chemicals WHY REGULATE CHEMICAL PESTICIDES? To May include instructions for the safe use and potential provide man and the environment with maximum hazard associated with a particular product (proper possible protection from potential adverse effects and procedures for handling or working with a particular facilitate international trade in food through the substance) establishment of approved pesticide regulations Includes information on physical data (melting/boiling/flash points), toxicity health effects, first aid, reactivity, storage, REGULATORY AGENCIES disposal, protective equipment to be used in handling and Duties of chemical company: spill/leak procedures - Identify uses of pesticide Specific to country and supplier since manufacturing and - Test effectiveness of pesticide in the lab, formulation vary between manufacturers even within the greenhouse, field under different environmental same country conditions ECONOMIC & LEGAL ASPECT OF INSECTICIDE USE - Provide data on o Chemical structure BENEFITS: o Production 1. Higher yield, lower losses, higher quality products, more o Formulation uniform products and higher profit for the producers o Fate persistence 2. Higher quality with less wastage, lower cost, uniform o Environmental impact product for ease of handling for the processors - Submits a registration data package to regulatory 3. Lower risk of bio-contamination for the caterer agency 4. More uniform products with fewer blemishes and increased - Data includes: sales for the retailer o Studies on acute, chronic, reproductive and 5. Higher quality products, possibly lower costs for the developmental toxicity to mammals, birds consumer and fish 6. Eradication of vectors by those concerned in public health o Pesticide’s environmental fate, degradation 7. Best treatment for structural pests and translocation to other sites o Ecological studies on its harmful effects to, CONSEQUENCES: an on non-target plants and animals 1. Inappropriate use caused problems of toxicity to non-target ❖ ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (USA) – organism grants registration of the product for certain uses, with 2. Residue on crops or environmental contamination agreed label data and directions for use after being reviewed 3. Development of resistance by govt. and other scientists 4. Need for frequent subsequent application o Responsible for regulating pesticides with public health 5. As persistent organic pollutant – dangerous pesticide found uses in artesian wells around agricultural areas in Ilocos Norte,  Laguna and Nueva Ecija, e.g. DDT, carbofuran, endosulfan, PROBIT ANALYSIS – statistical method in biological assay; it is endrin, parathion residues of Ops, organochlorines, the most frequently used method in understanding dose- pyrethroids found in soil and vegetables in Benguet response relationship 6. Pesticide misuse causes health impacts in farming - A type of regression used to analyze binomial response communities variables ( a response variable with only 2 outcomes) - increased mortality -dermal contamination - It transforms the sigmoid dose-response curve to a - depression in cholinesterase level straight line that can be analyzed by regression either - fetal abnormalities thru least squares or maximum likelihood - spontaneous abortion among pregnant women - allergic reaction in eyes and skin, abdominal and chest PEST RESURGENCE – a situation in which a population, after pain, dizziness, headache and nosebleed are common having been suppressed rebounds to numbers higher than complaints of vegetable farmers in Benguet before suppression occurred. As a consequence of insecticide resistance and destruction of natural enemies, a dramatic TYPE OF BIOASSAY increase in numbers of the targeted pest can occur, and if natural BIOASSAY – a process of determining the biological activity of enemies recover much more slowly than the pest population, the a substance and comparing its effect with those standard pest can exceed levels found prior to insecticide treatment preparations on a test organism SECONDARY PEST OUTBREAK – combination of suppression ❖ INJECTION METHOD – these method eliminates the of original target pest and effects of development of resistance differences in surface activity, penetrability and other and destruction of natural enemies can lead to insects previously properties of the body wall, digestive tract or the considered not pests being released control and become major respiratory system of different insects pest ❖ TOPICAL METHOD – insecticide maybe applied MECHANISM OF BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF INSECTICIDES topically to the outer surface of the insect using a micropipettor or a special syringe directly to insects. This ❖ STOMACH INSECTICIDES – exert toxic action only after is use to measure the relative toxicity of test compounds, being introduced into the alimentary canal through feeding particularly contact poisons on treated substrates ❖ DIPPING or IMMERSION METHOD – also known as ❖ CONTACT INSECTICIDES – cause e toxicity when insects “larval dip” method; another form of topical application come in contact with them and transported to site of action using diluted solution of formulated insecticide via the circulatory system developed for simple toxicological evaluation in field ❖ SYSTEMATIC INSECTICIDES – when applied to the plant, conditions for extensions and field workers soil or used as a solution, preferably in the presence of ❖ RESIDUAL CONTACT TOXICITY TEST – involves significant water to aid uptake by plants, they are coating a thin film of diluted solutions of formulated translocated to the untreated parts in concentrations that insecticide onto a leaf, filter paper, glass or plastic make translocation sites toxic surfaces and insects are released unto the treated INSECTICIDE NOMENCLATURE – formal process surface and thus exposed to the insecticide ❖ LEAF-DIP METHOD – insects are released on the INSECTICIDE TOXICITY – degree or intensity of virulence of a treated leaf surface and allowed to feed poison ❖ ANTIFEEDANT TEST – dissolved compounds and the MODES OF ACTION – involves ANATOMICAL, PHYSICAL, & other half with methanol only and insects are introduced BIOCHEMICAL RESPONSES to the treated leaf and allowed to feed. Insects will not feed on the portion laced with antifeedant substances MAJOR GROUPS BASED ON MODE OF ACTION and feed only on the toxic free surface 1. NERVE POISON – affect the insect’s nervous system ❖ DIET INCORPORATION TEST – incorporates the e mostly as narcotics, axonic poisons and synaptic toxicant in the artificial diet poisons ❖ IN PLANT ASSAY – use to assess the effects of o NARCOTICS – mostly physical systemic insecticides on sucking insects. Plants are o AXONIC POISONS – act primarily by interrupting allowed to take in first the toxin before the test insects /disrupting normal axonic transmission of the are released nervous system ❖ HIGH-THROUGHPUT SCREENING – designed to - AXONIC TRANSMISSION – type of nerve screen efficiently hundreds or thousands of chemicals in trans. conveying an impulse from an arrival a short period of time with limited manpower point along the axon to another neuron, muscle, or gland, or from a receptor cell  o SYNAPTIC POISONS – act by interrupting synaptic 1b. Cationic – carry positive charge transmission of the nervous system 1c. Non-ionic surfactants – have no residual - SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION – type of impulse charge and electrically neutral trans. which is mainly chemical 2. STICKERS – materials that increase the - Nicotine adhesion of solid particles to target surfaces - Nicotine sulfate 3. EXTENDERS – function like stickers by - Neonicotinoids – poison by mimicking retaining pesticides longer on the target area, acetylcholine at the synapse; the receptors slow down evaporation and inhibit degradation cannot distinguish between acetylcholine and by sunlight nicotine 4. PLANT PENETRANTS – have molecular - Spinosyns configuration that enhances penetration of some - Formamidines – cause death by affecting pesticides into plants enzymes involved with other chemical 5. DRIFT CONTROL ADHESIVE/DEPOSITION transmitters at certain nerve synapses AIDS – improve on target placement of the 2. MUSCLE POISON – have a direct influence on muscle pesticide spray by increasing droplet size tissue 6. DEFOAMING AGENTS – can reduce or 3. PHYSICAL TOXICANTS – block metabolic process by eliminate the foam or frothy “head” in sprayer physical rather than chemical means tanks produced by the formulation 7. THICKENERS – used to control drift or slow INSECTICIDE FORMULATIONS – involves manufacture of a down evaporation after the deposition of spray technical grade material materials on target area WHY ARE INSECTICIDES FORMULATED IN MANY FORMS? o Preservatives – antioxidants to slow down decomposition of a.i 1. For storability o Perfume – gives a pleasant odor to the pesticide 2. Ease and simplicity of application o Coloring materials – added to differentiate them 3. Safety to applicator and environment from non-toxic ones; may or may not be added 4. Improved biological efficacy Synergists – chemicals that do not possess insecticidal - A single insecticide is sold in different formulations. In property but enhance the efficacy of the a.i. choosing the right formulation, one has to consider the following: TYPES OF INSECTICIDE FORMULATIONS o Content of active ingredient 1. CONVENTIONAL or “TRADITIONAL” o Ease in handling and mixing FORMULATIONS o Safety of the applicator o Wettable powder o Nature of pest to be controlled ( agri., forest, o Dustable powder (DP) urban, structure, etc.) o Granules (GR) o Efficacy against the pest o Solution concentrate (SL) o Habitat of pests o Emulsifiable concentrate (ES) COMPONENTS OF INSECTICIDE FORMULATIONS o Suspension concentrates o Seed treatments Active ingredient (a.i.) o Fumigants Inert materials/other ingredients o Baits o Solvents – a liquid that dissolves the a. i.. It 2. NEW-GENERATION FORMULATIONS distributes the solute evenly throughout the solution o Oil-in-emulsion (EW) o Carriers or diluents – liquid or solids added to a o Suspoemulsion (SE) formulation to aid in the delivery of a.i. o Controlled-release formulation o Adjuvant – a chemical that does not possess o Water-dispersable granules (WG) pesticidal activity but improves its toxicity and o Gelatinized fluids effectiveness o Ultra-low-volume (ULV) liquids TYPES OF ADJUVANTS o Microencapsulated product (ME) 1. SURFACTANTS – wetting agents that o Water-soluble packets (WSP) physically alter the surface tension of a spray o Attractants droplet 1a. Anionic Surfactants – carry a negative charge, usually salts of certain organic acids  CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTICIDES Egg-shell thinning Degenerative lesions in the liver Stage of development of arthropod intended to be Abnormal reproduction killed Hypersensitivity Route of entry – contact, stomach or fumigant Class of compound – inorganic, organic PESTICIDE RESIDUES – any substance or mixture of Origin of a.i. – natural-based or synthetic substances in food for humans and animals resulting from the Mode of action – nerve poisons, muscle poisons, use of a pesticide and includes any specific derivatives, such as physical toxicants degradation and conversion products, metabolites, reaction Chemical structure – chlorinated hydrocarbons, products, and impurities which are considered to be of organophosphorous, carbamates, pyrethroids, toxicological importance neonicotinoids, developmental insecticides, microbials MAXIMUM RESIDUE LIMIT – maximum concentration for a MOVEMENT OF INSECTICIDES IN THE ENVIRONMENT pesticide residue resulting from the use of a pesticide A. PENETRATION OF INSECTICIDE THRU THE GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE – the officially INSECT’S CUTICLE recommended or authorized usage of pesticides under practical B. RESIDUES OF INSECTICIDES (water, soil, air, conditions at any stage of products’ storage, transport, animals, humans, commodities [food / feed]) distribution, and processing of food, agricultural commodities C. ENVIRONMENTAL ALTERATION OF INSECTICIDE and animal feed, bearing in mind the variations in requirements RESIDUES within and between regions, which take into account the D. HAZARDS OF INSECTICIDES TO NON-TARGET minimum quantities necessary to achieve adequate control ORGANISMS applied in a manner so as to leave a residue which is the smallest amount practicable and which is toxicologically acceptable RESIDUES – quantity of the original active ingredient or its biologically -active transformation product which remains in or on ENVIRONMENTAL ALTERATION OF INSECTICIDAL a substrate after weathering factors have taken effect RESIDUES FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF INSECTICIDE DEGRADATION to less toxic forms or in some instances BREAKDOWN more toxic products 1. MICROBIAL DEGRADATION – yeasts, bacteria Chemistry of the insecticide (water and fungi known to breakdown carbaryl and solubility/polarity/volatility/chem. reactivity- chlorpyrifos stability) 2. Degradation by sunlight and other physical Chemical and physical property of spray additives factors Chemistry (pH, hardness) of the spray water TRANSFER/TRANSLOCATION or BIOCONCENTRATION Environmental factors (temperature, humidity, into some ecosystems rainfall) IMMOBILIZATION Plant factors (surface chemistry, waxiness, etc) HAZARDS OF INSECTICIDES TO NON-TARGET RESIDUE CHARACTERISTICS OF I IN SOILS ORGANISMS 1. ORGANOCHLORINES – highly persistent in soil and 1. ACUTE TOXICITY (short-term toxicity) – measures water direct effect on organism but cannot totally represent 2. ORGANOPHOSPAHATES – breakdown in soil slow; ecological hazard of compound persistence increases in acidic soils 2. CHRONIC TOXICITY (long-term toxicity) – associated 3. CARBAMATES – have soil half-life of 7-28 days with the build up or persistence of insecticides in the 4. BOTANICALS – short persistence on soil, water & environment plants UNDESIRABLE EFFECTS OF INSECTICIDES BIOLOGICAL MAGNIFICATION or BIOLOGICAL CONCENTRATION – process by which biological organisms 1. DEVELOPMENT OF RESISTANCE increase their pesticide content in relation to their position in the 2. DESTRUCTION OF NON-TARGET ORGANISMS, food chain including pollinators and natural enemies of pests and soil arthropods EFFECTS OF ACCUMULATION OF PESTICIDES IN THE 3. PEST RESURGENCE BODY OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANISMS Death  WAYS TO AVOIDANCE OF RESISTANCE 1. REDUCE PESTICIDE APPLICATION, thus reduce the selection pressure, and the population is allowed to recover 2. SPOT APPLICATION 3. USE NP INSECTICIDES 4. ENCOURAGE NATURAL ENEMIES 5. USE OF NEGATIVELY CORRELATED PESTICIDES (affect different organ/enzyme systems) 6. SECONDARY PEST OUTBREAK 7. ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS resulting to contamination of soils, water system and the produce itself that accumulate biologically, especially in vertebrates, as a result of biological magnification thru food chains. 8. DANGERS TO HUMAN HEALTH EITHER DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY