FTL Revision PDF

FTL - Revision Groups: Two or more individuals interacting and interdependent. Who have come together to achieve particular objective. Informal Group: A group that is not defined by an organization’s structure; such a group appears in response to other needs, such as social clubs or interest groups...

FTL - Revision Groups: Two or more individuals interacting and interdependent. Who have come together to achieve particular objective. Informal Group: A group that is not defined by an organization’s structure; such a group appears in response to other needs, such as social clubs or interest groups. Formal Group: A designated work group defined by an organization’s structure. Social Identity theory: Perspective that considers when and why individuals consider themselves members of groups. In group Favouritism: Perspective in which we see members of our ingroup as better than other people, and people not in our group as all the same. Outgroup: The inverse of an ingroup, which can mean everyone outside the group but is more usually an identified other group. Punctuated – equilibrium model: A set of phases that temporary groups go through that involves transitions between inertia and activity The stages in this model includes: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) The first meeting set the group’s direction The first phase of group activity is on of inertia and thus slower progress. A transition takes place exactly when the group has used up half its allotted time. This transition initiates major changes. A second phase of inertia follows the transition and The group’s last meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity. Group Property 1) Roles: Work groups shape member’s behaviour, and they also help explain individual behavior as well as the performance of the group itself. Some defining group properties are roles, norms, status, size, cohesiveness and diversity. Shakespeare said “All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players’ using the same metaphor, all group members are actors, each playing a role. Roles Eg: Mahesh is a plant manager with Mahindra Automobiles a large car manufactures in pune. He fulfils a number of roles- employee, member of middle management, and electrical engineer. Off the job, Mahesh holds more roles : Husband, father, hindu, cricket player, member of the gymkhana and treasurer of his home owners association. Role Perception: An individual’s view of how they are supposed to act in a given situation Role Expectations: How others believe a person should act in a given situation Eg: Creative role expectations can lead people to be more creative in their work. Psychological Contract: An unwritten agreement that sets out what a manager expects from an employee and vice versa. This agreement sets out mutual expectations. The management is expected to treat employees justly, provide acceptable working conditions clearly communicate what is a fair day’s work, and give feedback on how well employees are doing. Employees are expected to demonstrate a good attitude follow directions and show loyalty to the organization. When a psychological contract also focuses on relationships between employer (or supervisors) and employees, employees may also be more likely to engage in organizational citizenship behaviours (OCB) Role Conflict: A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations Interrole conflict: A situation in which the expectations of an individual’s different, separate groups are in opposition. Role Play and Assimilation The degree to which we comply with our role perceptions and expectations even when we don’t agree with them initially – can be surprising. Psychologist Philip Zimbardo and his associates: They created a “Prison” in the basement of the Stanford psychology building: hired emotionally stabe, physically healthy, law-abiding students who scored “normal average’ on personality tests; randomly assigned them the role of either “guard” or “prisoner” and established some basic rules. It took little time for the prisoners to accept the authority positions of the guards and for the mock guards to adjust to their new authority roles. Consistent with social identity theory, the guards came to see the prisoners as a negative outgroup, and they developed stereotypes about the “typical’ prisoners personality type. After the guards crushed a rebellion attempt on the second day, the prisoners became increasingly passive. Whatever the guards dished out, the prisoners took. The prisoners actually began to believe and act like they were inferior and powerless. Every guard at some time during the simulation, engaged in abusive, authoritative behaviour. One said “ I was surprised at myself…. Group Property 2: Norms Norms: Acceptable standards of behaviour within a group that are shared by the group’s members. Conformity: The adjustment of one’s behaviour to align with the norms of the group. Reference Groups: Important groups to which individuals belong or hope to belong and with whose norm’s individuals are likely to conform. Deviant workplace behaviour: Voluntary behaviour that violates significant organizational norms and, in so doing, threatens the well-being of the organization or its members. Also called antisocial behaviour or workplace incivility. Typology of Deviant workplace behaviour Production – Leaving early intentionally working slowly wasting resources Property – Sabotage lying about hours worked stealing form the organization Political – Showing favouritism gossiping and spreading rumours blaming co-workers Personal Aggression – Sexual Harassment, Verbal abuse, Stealing form co-workers Group Property: 3 Status A socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. Status characteristics theory: A theory stating that difference in status characteristics create status hierarchies within groups. Status Characteristics – The power a person wields over others, A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals, An individual’s personal characteristics. Group Property 4: Size & Dynamics: Groups with a dozen or more members are good for gaining diverse input, If the goal is fact finding or idea-generating, then larger groups should be more effective. Smaller groups of about seven members are better at doing something productive. Social Loafing: The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively that when working individually. Social loafing appears to have a western bias, it’s consistent with individualist cultures, such as the US and Canada. When research is compared across cultures, groups from eastern cultures had significantly lower rates of social learning. Group Property 5: Cohesiveness: The shared bond driving group members to work together and to stay in the group. For a group to be highly functioning it must act cohesively as a unit, but not because all the group members think and act alike. In some ways the properties of cohesiveness and diversity need to be valued way back at the tacit establishment of roles and norms- will the group be inclusive of all its members. Cohesiveness High Low High High Productivity Moderate Productivity Low Low Productivity Moderate to low Productivity What can you do encourage group cohesiveness? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Make the group smaller Encourage agreement with group goals Increase the time members spend together Increase the group’s status and the perceived difficulty of attaining membership Stimulate competition with other groups Give rewards to the group rather than to individual members and Physically isolate the group Group Property 6: Diversity Diversity: The extent to which members of group are similar to, or different from, one another. Diversity appears to increase group conflict, especially in the early stages of a group’s tenure: this often lowers group morale and raises dropout rates. Faultlines: The perceived divisions that split groups into two or more subgroups based on individual differences such as sex, race, age, work experience and education. Group Decision making The belief – characterized by Juries – that two heads are better than one has long been accepted as a basic component of the U.S. Legal System and those of many other countries. Many decisions in organizations are made by groups, teams, or committees. We’ll discuss the advantages of group decision making along with unique challenges that a group dynamic brings to the decision-making process. Finally, we’ll offer some techniques for maximizing the group decision-making opportunity. Group Think: A phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action. Group Shift: A change between a group’s decision and an individual decision that a member within the group would make; the shift can be toward either conservatism or greater risk but it generally is toward a more extreme version of the group’s original position. Interacting groups: Typical groups in which members interact with each other face-to-face Brainstorming: An idea-generation process that specifically encourages any and all alternatives while withholding any criticism of those alternatives. Nominal Group Technique: A group decision – making method in which individual members meet face-to-face to pool their judgements in a sys/*tematic but independent fashion. Evaluating Group Effectiveness Effectiveness Criteria Number & Quality ideas Social pressure Money Costs Speed Task Orientation Potential for Interpersonal conflict Interacting Brainstorming Nominal Low Moderate High High Low Moderate Low High Low Low Moderate High Low Moderate Low Moderate High Moderate Commitment to solution Development of Group Cohesiveness High Not Applicable Moderate High High Moderate Teams: Work Group: A group that interacts primary to share information, make decisions and help each group member perform within his or her area of responsibility. Work Teams: A group whose individuals efforts result in performance that is greater than the sum of the individual inputs. Problem Solving Teams: Group of five to twelve employees in the same department who meet to a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency and the work environment. Self-managed work teams: Groups of ten to fifteen people who autonomously implement solutions and take responsibility for the outcomes responsibilities normally given to supervisors. Cross Functional Team: Employees from about the same hierarchical level but from different work areas who come together to accomplish a task. Virtual teams: Teams that use technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal. Multiteam Systems: A Collection of two or more interdependent teams that share a superordinate got a team of teams. Organizational Demography: The degree to which members of a work unit share a common demographic attribute such as age, sex, race, educational level or length of service in an organization. Adviser Maintainer Controller Producer Organizer Assessor Promoter Creator Linker Encourages the search for more information Fight external bottles Examines details and enhances rules Provides direction and follow through Provides Structure Offers insightful analysis of options Champions ideas after they’re installed Initiatives creative ideas Coordinates & integrates Reflectivity: A team characteristic of reflecting on and adjusting the master plan when necessary. Team Efficacy: A team’s collective belief that they can succeed at their tasks. Team Identity: A team member’s affinity for and sense of belongingness to their team. Team cohesion: A structure when team members are emotionally attached to one another and motivated toward the team because of their attachment. Mental Model: Team Members k37377nowledge and beliefs about the work gets done by the team. Power and Politics Chapter: Power: The capacity, discretion, and means to enforce one’s will over others. Dependence: The extent to which people depend or rely upon a powerful person. Coercive Power: A power base that depends on fear of the negative results from failing to comply. Reward Power: Compliance achieved based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable. Legitimate power: The power a person receives as a result of his or her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization. Expert Power: Influence based or special skills or knowledge. Referent power: Influence based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits. Power tactics: Ways in which individuals translate power bases on specific actions. Political Skill: The ability to influence others in such a way as to enhance one’s objectives. Sexual Harassment: Any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individual’s employment and creates a hostile work environment. Individual Factors • • • • • • High self-monitors Internal focus of control High/Machiavellian personality Organizational investment Perceived job alternatives Expectations of success Organizational Factors • • • • • • • • • Reallocation of resources Promotion opportunities Low Trust Role ambiguity Unclear performance evaluation system Zero-sum reward practices Democratic decision making High performance pressures Self-serving senior managers Favourable Outcomes • Rewards • Averted punishments Political behaviour: Activities that are not required as part of a person’s formal role in the organization but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within organization. Zero Sum approach: An approach that treats the reward “pie” as fixed so that any gains by one individual are at expense of another. Defensive behaviours: Reactive and protective behaviours to avoid action time or change. Impression Management: The process by which individuals attempt to control the impressions that others form of them. Impression Management (IM) Techniques Conformity Agreeing with someone else’s opinion to gain his or her approval is a form of ingratiation Ex : A manager tells his boss” You’re absolutely right on your reorganization plan for the western regional office. I couldn’t agree with you more” Favours: Doing something nice for someone to gain that person’s approval is a form of in gradation. Ex: A sales person says to a prspective client” I’ve got two tickets to the theatre tonight that I can’t use. Take them. Consider it a thank-you for taking the time to talk with me” Excuses Explaining a predicament-creating event aimed at minimizing the apparent severity of the predicament is a defensive IM technique. Ex: A sales manager says to her boss” we failed to get the ad in the paper on time, but no one responds to those ads anyway” Apologies Admitting responsibility for an undesirable event and simultaneously seeking to get a pardon for the action is s a defensive IM Technique. Eg: An employee says to his boss, “ I am sorry I made a mistake on the report. Please forgive me” Self-Promotion Highlighting your best qualities, downplaying your deficits, and calling attention to your achievements is a self-focused IM technique. Eg: A sales person tells his boss” Matt worked unsuccessfully for three years to try to get that account, I sewed it up in six weeks. I’m the best closer this company has “ to get that account. I sewed it up in six weeks. I’m the best closer this company has” Enhancement Claiming that something you did is more valuable than more other members of the organizations would think is a self-focused IM technique. Eg: A journalist tells his editors” My work on this celebrity divorce story was really a major boost to our sales” ( even though the story only made it to page 3 in the entertainment section) Flattery Complimenting others about their virtues in an effort to make yourself appears perceptive and likeable is an assertive IM technique. Eg: A new sales trainee say to her peer, “ you handled that client’s compliant so tactfully I could never handled that as well as you did” Exemplification Doing More than you need to in an effort to show how dedicated and hard working you are is an assertive IM technique. Eg: An employee sends e-mails from his work computer when he works late so that his supervisor will know how long he’s been working. Slides • Sociometry is often expressed in a sociogram Sociogram: Types of networks • Clusters: Group that exist within networks • Prescribed clusters: Formal groups - departments, work teams, task forces • Emergent clusters: Informal, unofficial groups • Coalitions: Groups that come together temporality to achieve a specific purpose • Cliques: Relatively permanent informal groups that involve friendship • Stars: Individuals with the most linkages in a group • Liaisons: Individuals who connect clusters but are not members of any cluster • Bridges: Individuals who serve as linking pins by belonging to two or more clusters • Isolates: Individuals who are not connected to a social network Group Properties 1. Roles: Expectations of significant others and self. 2. Norms: Acceptable standards of behaviour 3. Status: Socially defined position 4. Size: Small group, Large sized group etc. 5. Cohesiveness: Attracted and motivated stay in the group Decision Making Barriers – Group Illness • • • Groupthink: Concept coined by Janis (1972) - Extreme concurrence seeking behaviour - Detrimental to effective effective decision decision making - Override realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action - Premature consensus as an escape route Group Think Symptoms: The group cannot make mistakes (illusions of invulnerability) - Members censor thoughts that are opposed to group ideas (self – censorship) - Pressure to conform (Pressure on dissenters) - Rejection of outside ideas that may contradict group decision (Mind guarding) Group Think Protection: Group diversity - Respect differences - Leaders: impartial and enco rage encourage dissent - Subgroups to work on independent tasks Rethink/review of important decisions - Receive feedback from all sources Dr. MG Jomon - Seek outside expertise • • Group Shift: Tendency to change decision towards extreme positions: - Cautious approach: Conservative position - Aggressive approach: Risky position Members’ prediscussion inclinations - Exaggeration of the initial positions - Can be considered as a form of group think -Opt for it since even if the decision fails no member can be held wholly responsible Spread think: Views of the individual members of a group is literally spread all over in a scale or in a map - Basis is from the two laws of complexity - The law of inherent conflict: In complex issues and ideas there will always be conflicting views in interpretation and resolving - The law of diverse believes- Members of a group will always have diverse beliefs about issue Measurement of Spread Think (NGT – Nominal Group Technique) • • • • Step1: Silent generation of ideas by individuals on post it sheets Step2: Posting of ideas on the wall Step3: Each member explains his /her ideas to the group Step4: Selection of 5 most important ideas and rank order them Clan think • Clan Think: Affects larger groups like organizations and institutions over long period of time - Big-brother of groupthink - Ex. Centuries people believed that earth was flat - Principle: large organization or institution is best qualified to evaluate itself ¾ Many organizations and departments are victims of clan think • The Nut Island Effect: Affects homogeneous, autonomous and committed groups Groups develop proud and distinct identity (stage 1) - Senior management allow the group to manage their own affaires as they are high performers (stage 2) Develop an “us-against-the world” mentality (stage 3) Deny or minimize problems and avoid all external help Adoption of group rules and norms which are quite different from the parent organization (stage 4) (stage 5) Group members believe that only they can understand their work and moves away from the parent organization. • Team Think: A group decision making processes that is capable of overcoming all group decision making ills (like group think, group spread etc) - Factors contributing towards teamthink, beliefs and assumptions - Are identified and challenged to avoid being imprisoned by collective distortions and biases of Team self dialogue -Self management of self-talk Team mental imagery- Imagination and vision of the future Team thought patterns-The above three create over all thought patters that would lead to team think resulting in high performance. Group Decision Making Techniques: Brain Stroming: An idea generation process without any criticism. Interacting groups: Groups in which members interact with face to face Nominal group technique: A group decision-making method in which individual members meet face-to face to pool their judgments in a systematic but independent fashion Electronic meeting: Meeting in which members interact on computers, allowing for anonymity of comments and aggregation of votes GROUP A collection of two or more interacting individuals who maintain stable patterns of relationships, share common goals and perceive themselves as being a group TEAM A group whose members have complementary skills and are committed to a common purpose or set of performance goals for which they hold themselves mutually accountable Why do people join groups? Security Status Self-esteem Affiliation Power Goal achievement Who are groups? “Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives Types of Groups: Formal group: Work group defined by organization’s structure • Command group: Superior and subordinate group • Task group: A group that works together to complete a task Informal groups: A group that appear in response to a social need • Interest Group that work together to attain a specific objective • Friendship Group that share common characteristics GROUP: Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives (Robbins) ORGANIZATION: A consciously coordinated social unit, composed of two or more people, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals (Robbins) GROUP A collection of two or more interacting individuals who maintain stable patterns of relationships, share common goals and perceive themselves as being a group TEAM A group whose members have complementary skills and are committed to a common purpose or set of performance goals for which they hold themselves mutually accountable. Stages of Group Development Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning Forming: Exploration period Members attachments are tentative Members are anxious and watchful No task clarity Team members assess others capabilities Poor Performance; Low productivity Working relationships guarded, cautious, non-committal. FEELINGS  Anxiety and fear  Excitement and confusion  Pride in being part of the team BEHAVIOUR  Asking a lot of questions  Doubting on the ability to meet the challenges  Making attempts to get to know of members  Anxious to get on with the work  Sharing of acceptable, non-controversial things. Stroming: Assertiveness period  Members grow impatient with groups lack of progress  Realize group task is difficult than initially understood  The gap between expectations and reality seen  Results in conflicts  Growing awareness of others’ hidden agendas  Cliques may be formed  May be dissolved if not able to outgrow this stage. FEELINGS  Anxiety  Doubt  Frustration BEHAVIOUR  Expressing anger  Questioning the leadership  Individual assertions  Resisting to work together in groups  Impatience due to slow progress Stroming Conflict: Natural to group development  Between two or more individuals or the whole team  Principle: Need not like everyone members work with  Agree to disagree  Negotiation/mediation to overcome conflict or reach agreement where group members are ‘comfortable with’ or ‘can live with’  Critical issues: Reach consensus. Conflicts: CONSTRUCTIVE: •Individuals change and grow •Results in solutions •Increased involvement •High morale •Build cohesiveness. DESTRUCTIVE: •Individuals stick to their views •Decisions not reached •Problems continue to exist •Diversion of energy •Low morale •Polarization and division. Norming Stage: Conforming period  It is a pleasant time in group’s evolution  Discover group identity  Critical approach towards the leader/members decreases  Warrior factions mellow down  A sense of belonging  Quantity and quality of work increases  Time where social needs of the group are pursued FEELINGS  New ability to express criticism constructively  Acceptance of membership in the team  Relief that things are going to work out BEHAVIOUR  Achieve harmony by avoiding conflict  Establish and maintain rules and regulations  Friendliness and increased cooperation  Recognize others contribution  Unfocused, irrelevant and overly friendly communications Performing: Is a stage where the team is fully functional  Transform the group into a team  Develops a shared vision  Strategically aware what it must do and what brings in success  Adopts structures best suited for its purposes  Work together to accomplish objectives  Group energy is very high  Move towards permanent work team - maximum output. It is through struggle and fluctuation a group reaches this stage  Members become collaborative in nature  Structured processes and procedures emerge to ensure discipline, allocate resources, resolve conflicts, give warranted feedback and to provide a larger picture of the organization  Define and set high standards for evaluating team and individual performance  Begin to diagnose and solve problems  Celebrate the achievements. FEELINGS  High cohesion  High comfort/security  Mutuality feeling  Feel for the team and willing to do anything that makes the team successful  Enjoy at being a member  Desire to assist other members  Admire the outstanding skills of others  Satisfaction with the group’s progress. BEHAVIOUR  High degree of interdependence and flexibility  Roles and responsibilities change; high degree of trust and task mastery  Able to stand on its own feet; Experience a high degree of autonomy  There is no leadership interference; participation becomes the focus  Team members looks forward to each other for contribution  Disagreements are solved through dialogue and team effort  Performance of task given highest priority; All efforts are directed towards task completion  Accomplishment of tasks through collaborative work  Effective decision making  Continuous development and use of group members skills  Creative and effective problem solving  Open, direct and task oriented communications. Adjourning: Bruce Tuckman added the fifth stage of adjourning in 1975 after 10 years of his original theory  Break-up of the group with concern for closure of activities  Status: Task completed or purpose fulfilled and everyone wants to move on to new areas  Mixed feelings: Sense of achievement, upbeat, sense of insecurity, threat, loss of friendship etc.  Pride in what is achieved  Joy in the relationships developed. Temporary Groups Alternative Model Punctuated - equilibrium model  Temporary groups with deadlines go through transitions between inertia and activity  Awareness of time and deadline transit group members to the state of inertia or activity. Leadership: The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals. Manager Has authority • Cope up with complexity • Order and consistency • Plans, designs, monitors results etc. • Stability agent Leader • May not have authority • Provides direction • Develops vision • Change agent Leadership Competencies Vision • Motivation • Empowerment • Mentoring • Take risks • Change org.l rules • Seek opportunities Managerial Competencies: Planning • Measuring • Deciding • Executing • Control risks • Enforce org.l rules • Coordinates efforts. Theories of Leadership: Trait theories • Personality, social, physical or intellectual attributes contribute towards leadership • Traits differentiate leaders from non-leaders • Implication: Leaders are born • Researches indicate that traits increases likely hood of success, though do not guarantee success • Limitations of the theory. Behavioural theories • Research 1940-Mid 1960 • Specific behaviour differentiate leaders from nonleaders • Implication: Leaders are made. Ohio state studies • Initiated in the year 1940 • Identified independent dimensions of leader behaviour • Over thousand variables were categorized into: • Initiating structure– Structuring of self and others activities towards the goal • Consideration: Extent to which job relationships are maintained  University of Michigan studies • Research done around the same time as the above • Research indicated again two major dimensions • Employee oriented leader • Production oriented leader The managerial grid • Proposed by Blake and Mounton • Nine-by-nine matrix based on two dimensions  Concern for people  concern for production • 81 different leadership styles  Scandinavian studies • Based on the premise that in a changing world, effective leaders would be development oriented • Development oriented leader- one who values experimentation, seeking new ideas and generating and implementing change. Contingency theories • There is no one best way of leadership that will fit all situations • Conditions or circumstances determine which would the most effective Fred Fiedler Model • Effective group performance depends up on the match between the leader’s style and the degree to which the situation gives control to the leader • For effectiveness either change the leader (style fixed) or modify the situation • To measure leadership style-LPC (18): Task Vs. Relationship oriented • To measure situation or contingency variables:  leader- member relations: good or poor  task structure (procedurised): high or low  position power (hiring, firing, discipline etc): strong or Weak • Higher the score, higher the control • Originally 8 categories now he proposes only three.• Task oriented perform best in most favourable and most unfavourable situations • Relationship oriented perform best in moderate situations • Leaders effectiveness:  Change the leader to fit to the situations ex: See the situation in terms of favourableness  Change the situation to fit the leader ex: by looking at the three situational variables. OB Team Leader Measuring the team leadership style: • Scores of Task oriented or people oriented • Administration of the questionnaire LPC  Measuring the situation of OB group activities: Leader- member relations: good or poor Task structure : high or low  Position power : strong or weak  Final assessment : • Most effective, Moderate and Least effective Leadership effectiveness and Action plan: Change the leader to fit to the situations (May not always possible and desirable )  Develop the leader to match and manage the situation better • Leader- member relations • Task structure • Position power  What is the decision about you leader Now? Is the designated leader going to continue or are you going to select another leader? Leadership Matrix: Kindly develop a contingency matrix for your group based on the data generated both on leadership style and situation (Group Project)  You may like to use the fielders model diagram for this. However, use only three categories (Favorable, Moderate and Unfavorable) and not eight as initially proposed by fielder. Predict the performance of each of your team members keeping in mind the activities that you have (by matching style and situation). Select leaders for various activities – If you are able to do this then you are moving towards a SMT Give theoretical rational for your team matrix of leaders Dr. MG Jomon Contingency theories….Contd.  Hersey and Blandhard’s Situational Leadership theory (SLT) • A contingency theory that focus on followers’ readiness • Four leaders behaviours based on four follower readiness Unable and unwilling followers –Directive leadership Unable and willing followers – High task and relationship orientation Able and unwillingsupportive and participative style Able and willing –(Delegate?) How to Manage the Team mates: Analyze and categorize the teammates into four types May refer to the sociogram to understand the hidden dynamics Draw one of the four strategy to deal with the teammates. Contingency Theories: Leader member exchange (LMX) theory • Leaders create in-groups and out groups and has different performance expectations from these groups. • Does this already exist in your group? • Refer to the sociogram and take note of the existing team dynamics  Path goal theory of Robert House • Leader’s behaviour is acceptable to subordinates in so far as they view it as a source of either immediate or future satisfactions • Four leadership behaviours: Directive leader, supportive leader, participative leader and achievement-oriented leader. Leader-Participation model (Victor Vroom and Philip Yetton) • A set of rules to determine participative decision making in different situations. • The model has 12 contingency variables • Complex and impossible to use by a manager Modern Theories of Leadership: Charismatic leadership • Followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary abilities when they observe certain behaviours  Transformational leadership • Leaders who provide individualized consideration and intellectual stimulation (and who possess charisma) resulting in change  Visionary Leadership • The ability to create and articulate a realistic, credible, attractive vision of the future for an organization or organizational unit that grows out of and improves up on the present. Contemporary Issues in Leadership: Emotional Intelligence and Leadership • Self-awareness, self-management, self-motivation, empathy, social skills  Team leadership • Facilitator in a team context  Moral Leadership • How leaders balances work goals and life – moral contents of both • leadership is not value free  Cross cultural Leadership Trust & Leadership: Trust • A positive expectation that another will not act opportunistically • Trust and trust worthy Trust as the foundation of leadership • Primary attribute associated with leadership. Types of Trust: Deterrence-based trust • Trust based on fear of reprisal if the trust is violated • Ex. Trusting a new boss  Knowledge- based trust • Trust based on behavioural predictability that comes from a history of interaction. • Ex. Organizational relationships  Identification-based trust • Trust based on a mutual understanding of each other’s intentions and appreciation of the other’s wants and desires. • Ex. Husband and wife trust. Leadership & Culture: When there are disciplined people, we may not need hierarchy • When there are disciplined thought, we may not need bureaucracy • When there are disciplined action, we may not need excessive controls • Effective Leadership makes hierarchy, bureaucracy and controls minimum/normative and refined. Leadership Style: Fred Fiedler’s (1978) Least Preferred Co-Worker Scale (LPC) assesses your leadership style. Think of a person with whom you work least well. He or she may be someone you work with now or someone you know in the past. This co-worker does not have to be the person you like least but should be the person with whom you had the most difficulty in getting a job done. Describe this person by circling one of the numbers between each pair of adjectives: Power: The capacity that A has to influence the behaviour of B so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes. Power & Leadership: Leaders use power as a means to achieve group goals • Power does not require goal compatibility; operates on dependency • Direction of influence • Leadership is an individual phenomenon (ex. Style etc) while power can be group as well. Bases of Power: Formal Power: Coercive power:  Power that is based on fear (ex: A has power if he can suspend B)  Reward power:  Ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable.  Legitimate power:  Based on the position in the formal hierarchy of an organ.  Information power:  Power that comes from access to and control over information. Bases of power: Personal Power: Expert power:  Influence based on special skills or knowledge  Referent power:  Influence based on desirable resources/ personal traits  Ex: Power that comes from like, respect admiration Celebrities  Charismatic power:  Due to the charisma of the person  Extension of referent power. Dependency The key to power: What creates dependency? Dependency is increased when the resource one control is: • Important • Scarce • non-substitutable. Power Tactics: Ways to translate power into specific actions • Reason: Use of data and logic • Friendliness: Being friendly prior to the request • Coalition: Getting support to back up the request • Bargaining: Use of negotiation keeping favours in mind • Assertiveness: Insisting on compliance • Higher authority: Getting support from higher levels to back up the request • Sanctions: Use of rewards or punishments to get it done Politics in Action: Activities that are not required as part of one’s formal role in the organization, but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization. The Reality of Politics: A fact of life in organizations • If you ignore, do so at your peril • Can organizations be politics free? Types of Political Power: Legitimate political behaviour  Normal everyday politics  Ex. Complaining to the boss, by-passing chain of command  Illegitimate political behaviours • Extreme political behaviour that violates the implied rules of the game. • Ex. sabotage, whistle blowing, and symbolic protests etc. Factors Influencing Political Behaviour: Individual factors  High self-monitors, Internal locus of control and High need for power  Organizational factors  Reallocation of resources, Promotion opportunities, Low trust, Role ambiguity, Unclear performance evaluation system, Democratic decision-making, High-performance pressures, Self-serving senior manager. Impression Management: The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them. Positive perception brings in benefits for people in orgns. Impression Management Techniques (IIM) Conformity – Agreement to gain approval  Excuses – Explanation to reduce severity  Apologies – Admitting responsibility and seeking pardon  Self-Promotion – Calling attention to one’s achievements  Acclaiming – Explanation of favourable events  Flattery – Complementing another to make oneself likable  Favours – Doing something nice to get approval  Association – Protecting ones image by establishing linkages ( Ex: Your boss studied in my B-school) Defensive Behaviour: Reactive and protective behaviour to avoid action, blame, or change. Defensive Behaviours: Avoiding Action  Overconforming, Passing the buck, Playing dumb, Depersonalization, Stretching and smoothing, Stalling (support privately) Avoiding blame  Bluffing, Playing safe, Justifying, Scapegoating, Misrepresenting, Escalation of commitment. Avoiding Change  Prevention  Self-protection. Conflict: A process that begins when ‘A’ perceives that it is negatively affected by ‘B’, or is about to be negatively affected by ‘B’, something that ‘A’ cares about Conflict Views: Traditional view • All conflicts are harmful and must be avoided. Human Relations view • Conflict is a natural and inevitable process in any group. Interactionist view • Conflict is not only a positive force in a group but that is absolutely necessary for a group to perform effectively. Conflict Process Stages: Potential opposition or incompatibility • Communication, Structure, Personal variables. Cognition and personalization (conflict defined) • Perceived conflict, Felt conflict. Intentions (decisions to act) • Competing, Collaborating, Compromising, Avoiding, Accommodating. Behaviour (the act) • Parties behaviour, Other’s reaction. Outcomes • Increased group performance, Decreased group performance. Conflict Management: The use of conflict stimulation and resolution techniques to achieve the desired level of conflict and conflict resolution. Conflict Management Techniques: Stimulation techniques: Communication, bringing in outsiders, restructuring, devils advocate • Resolution techniques: Problem solving, Superordinate goals, Expansion of resources, Avoidance, Smoothing, Compromise, Authoritative command, altering the human variable, altering the structural variable. Negotiation: A process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree upon the exchange rate for them. Negotiation Strategies: Distributive Bargaining • Negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources; a win-lose situation • Ex. Buying/selling a used car, wage settlement • Area of settlement and settlement point. Integrative Bargaining • Negotiation that seeks one or more settlements that can create a win-win solution. • Ex. Purchase stopped because of earlier credit. Negotiation Process: Preparation and planning  Gather information  Strategy- BATNA (Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement –lowest acceptable value)  Definition of ground rules  Charter of demands  Clarification and justification  Bargaining and problem solving  Formalization and implementation  Formalizing the agreement Issues In Negotiation: Personality traits Gender differences Cultural differences. Third Party Negotiations: Mediator • A neutral third party • Facilitates a settlement by using reasoning, persuasion and suggestions • Has his\her view. Arbitrator • Who has legal authority to dictate agreement. Conciliator • A trusted third party • Who provides communication link between partiers • Often formal and will not put forward his views. Consultant