Foundation of Individual Behaviour PDF

Monday, 18 September 2023 6:32 am What are the focus and goals of organisational behaviour? Behaviour The actions of people Organisational behaviour The study of the actions of people at work One of the challenges in understanding organisational behaviour is that it addresses issues that aren't ob...

Monday, 18 September 2023 6:32 am What are the focus and goals of organisational behaviour? Behaviour The actions of people Organisational behaviour The study of the actions of people at work One of the challenges in understanding organisational behaviour is that it addresses issues that aren't obvious., Like an iceberg. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Organizational behavior encompasses a wide range of factors and dynamics within a workplace. These factors can be categorized into both visible and hidden aspects. Understanding both visible and hidden aspects is essential for effective management and organizational development. Here's an overview of each: Visible Aspects of Organizational Behavior: Structure and Hierarchy: The organizational structure, including the reporting relationships, roles, and departments, is a visible aspect. It can be represented in organizational charts, job descriptions, and formal policies and procedures. Policies and Procedures: The written rules, policies, and procedures that govern the organization's operations are visible aspects. These documents outline how employees are expected to behave and interact within the organization. Physical Environment: The physical workspace, office layout, design, and amenities provided to employees are visible aspects. A well-organized and comfortable physical environment can impact behavior and productivity. Formal Communication: Official communication channels, such as emails, memos, meetings, and reports, are visible aspects. These channels are often documented and follow a structured process. Performance Metrics: Key performance indicators (KPIs), goals, and metrics used to evaluate employee and organizational performance are visible. These metrics are often communicated and tracked openly. Dress Code and Appearance: The dress code and appearance expectations, if any, are visible aspects. Organizations may have formal guidelines or standards regarding employee attire. Official Company Culture: Some aspects of company culture are visible, such as stated values, mission statements, and company slogans. These are often communicated through official channels. Hidden Aspects of Organizational Behavior: Informal Norms: Informal norms and unwritten rules that govern behavior within the organization are hidden aspects. These norms may include unwritten expectations about work hours, communication styles, or how decisions are made. Power Dynamics: Hidden power dynamics can exist within an organization, influencing decision-making, resource allocation, and promotion opportunities. These dynamics may not be readily apparent but can significantly impact behavior. Communication Networks: Informal communication networks, including gossip, cliques, and personal connections, are often hidden aspects of organizational behavior. These networks can influence information flow and decisionmaking. Conflict and Tensions: Conflicts, disagreements, and tensions among employees or within teams may not always be visible but can have a profound impact on behavior and morale. Organizational Politics: Political behavior, including favoritism, alliances, and maneuvering for personal gain, can be hidden from official view but can shape behavior and decisions. Organizational Culture in Practice: While official culture statements are visible, the actual culture experienced by employees may differ. Hidden cultural elements can include tolerance for workaholism, resistance to change, or risk aversion. Perceptions and Beliefs: Employees' individual perceptions and beliefs about the organization, their colleagues, and their leaders are hidden but influence their behavior, motivation, and job satisfaction. Emotions: The emotional well-being and emotions of employees are often hidden but can significantly impact their behavior, productivity, and relationships. Understanding and managing both the visible and hidden aspects of organizational behavior is crucial for leaders and managers. Effectively addressing hidden aspects often requires open communication, active listening, and efforts to build trust and transparency within the organization. By doing so, organizations can create a more positive and productive work environment. Regenerate From <https://chat.openai.com/c/4f043f1c-f6d5-4b5b-b898-4cb2916f2bd8> Visible aspects: Strategies Objectives Policies and procedures Structure Technology Formal authority Chains of command Emotional intelligence (ei) The ability to notice and manage emotional cues and information. Non-cognitive skills. Self-awareness: Being aware of what you are feeling Self-management: Managing your own emotions and impulses. Self-motivation: Persisting in the face of setbacks and failures. Empathy: Sensing how others are feeling Social Skills: Adapting to and handling the emotions of others Locus of control: The degree to which people believe they control their own fate Machiavellianism: A measure of the degree to which people are pragmatic, maintain emotional distance and believe that ends justify means Self-esteem: An individual's degree of like or dislike for themselves. Self-monitoring: A personality trait that measures the ability to adjust behaviour to external situational factors. Risk-taking: A preference to assume or avoid risk How do we match personalities and jobs? Johan Holland: 6 basic personality types There do appear to be intrinsic differences in personality among individuals There are different types of jobs People in job environments compatible with their personality types should be more satisfied Realistic- Prefer physical activities that require skill, strength and coordination. Investigative- prefers activities involving thinking, organising and understanding Social- Prefers activities that involve helping and developing others Conventional- Prefers rule-regulated, orderly and unambiguous activities Enterprising- Prefers verbal activities that offer opportunities to influence others and attain power Artistic- prefers ambiguous and unsystematic activities that allow creative expression Do personality attributes differ across cultures? It's essential to recognize that while cultural differences in personality exist, there is also considerable overlap and diversity within cultures. Moreover, individuals may deviate from cultural norms and exhibit personality traits that are not typical of their cultural background. Therefore, when assessing and understanding personality across cultures, it's crucial to consider both cultural influences and individual variations. Researchers continue to study the intricate relationship between culture and personality, and understanding these dynamics can be valuable in fields such as psychology, sociology, and cross-cultural communication. Additionally, recognizing cultural diversity in personality attributes is essential for promoting cultural sensitivity and effective intercultural interactions in today's globalized world. From <https://chat.openai.com/c/4f043f1c-f6d5-4b5b-b898-4cb2916f2bd8> How can an understanding of personality help managers be more effective? Job-person compatibility- Matching personality with jobs will lead to better results. Hidden aspects: Attitudes Perceptions Group norms Informal interactions Interpersonal and Intergroup conflicts Understanding different approaches to work- People approach problem-solving, decision making and job interactions differently. What is the focus of organisational behaviour? Being a better manager- appreciation of personality traits and emotions with your employees. What is perception, and what factors influence it? Individual behaviourAttitudes Personality Perception New Section 1 Page 1 employees. What is the focus of organisational behaviour? What is perception, and what factors influence it? Individual behaviourAttitudes Personality Perception Learning Motivation Perception A process by which we give meaning to our environment by organising and interpreting sensory impressions. What influences perception? Group behaviourNorms Roles Team building Leadership Conflict 1. Organisational aspectsStructure Culture Human resource policies 2. What are the goals of organisational behaviour? Explain, Predict and influence behaviour. Six employee behaviours Employee productivity- performance measure of both work efficiency and effectiveness. Absenteeism- the failure to show up at work. Cost to business. Turnover- is the voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an organisation. - Work disruption, recruitment costs. Organisational clientship behaviour- discretionary behaviour that’s not part of an employee's formal job description. Helping others in a group, volunteering for extended job activities, avoiding unnecessary conflicts, and making constructive statements about one's work group. Job satisfaction- Refers to the employee's general attitude towards their job. Workplace misbehaviour- an intentional employee behaviour that is harmful to the organisation. Deviance Aggression Antisocial behaviour Violence 16. Employee Productivity: Employee productivity refers to an individual's performance measure, encompassing both work efficiency and effectiveness. Productive employees complete tasks efficiently and meet or exceed the expected output standards. High productivity contributes to the organization's overall success and profitability. 17. Absenteeism: Absenteeism refers to the regular or occasional failure of employees to show up for work as scheduled. It can result from various factors, such as illness, personal issues, or disengagement. Absenteeism can disrupt workflow, increase workloads for others, and incur additional costs for the organization. 18. Turnover: Employee turnover occurs when employees voluntarily or involuntarily leave an organization. It can have significant consequences, including disruptions in workflow, recruitment and training costs, and the loss of institutional knowledge. High turnover rates may indicate underlying issues in the workplace. 19. Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB): Organizational citizenship behavior encompasses discretionary behaviors that are not part of an employee's formal job description but contribute positively to the organization. Examples include helping colleagues, volunteering for additional tasks, avoiding unnecessary conflicts, and speaking positively about the work group. OCB can enhance teamwork and overall organizational performance. 20. Job Satisfaction: Job satisfaction refers to an employee's general attitude toward their job. Satisfied employees tend to have positive feelings about their work, co-workers, and the organization. High job satisfaction is often associated with increased motivation, productivity, and lower turnover rates. 21. Workplace Misbehavior: Workplace misbehavior includes intentional employee behaviors that are harmful to the organization and its employees. This category encompasses various negative actions, such as deviance (violations of organizational norms), aggression (hostile or harmful actions), antisocial behavior (harmful actions toward others), and even violence (extreme forms of harm). Addressing workplace misbehavior is crucial for maintaining a safe and productive work environment. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. How do managers judge employees? From <https://chat.openai.com/c/cd531fac-6599-475a-b039-2f4ab0f18fe8> 4 physiological factors Employee attitudes Personality Perception Learning. 13. What role do attitudes play in job performance? Attitudes are evaluative statements, either favourable or unfavourable, concerning objects, people or events 14. What are the three components of an attitude? Cognition- beliefs, options, knowledge and information held by a person. Affective component- the emotional or feeling part of an attitude. Behaviour- the intention to behave in a certain way towards someone or something. 15. What attitudes might employees hold? Interested in their job-related attitudes. Job satisfaction- is the employee's general attitude towards the job. Job involvement- the degree to which an employee identifies with their job, actively participates in it, and considers New Section 1 Page 2 Perception is the process by which individuals interpret and make sense of sensory information from the environment. It is a complex and multifaceted process influenced by various factors. Here are some key factors that influence perception: Sensory Input: The nature and quality of sensory input play a significant role in perception. Different sensory modalities, such as vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch, provide distinct information about the environment. The clarity, intensity, and accuracy of sensory input affect how it is perceived. Attention: What individuals choose to focus on and pay attention to can greatly influence their perception. Attentional processes filter and prioritize sensory information, allowing individuals to concentrate on certain stimuli while ignoring others. Expectations and Beliefs: People often perceive what they expect to see or believe. Preconceived notions, beliefs, and prior experiences can shape perception. This is known as perceptual bias or cognitive bias. Context: The context in which sensory information is presented can influence perception. For example, the same object or event may be perceived differently depending on the surrounding environment or circumstances. Emotions and Mood: Emotional states and moods can influence perception. People in different emotional states may interpret the same information differently. For instance, someone in a positive mood may perceive a neutral statement as more positive than someone in a negative mood. Cultural and Social Influences: Cultural and social factors, including cultural norms, values, and social expectations, can shape perception. What is considered normal or appropriate in one culture may differ from another. Biological Factors: Biological factors, such as age, genetics, and sensory acuity, can influence perception. As people age, for example, changes in vision or hearing can impact how they perceive the world. Individual Differences: Each person has a unique set of perceptual abilities and tendencies. Some individuals may have heightened sensory perceptions, while others may have impairments that affect their perception. Motivation and Goals: People's goals and motivations can influence what they perceive. They may perceive information that aligns with their goals more readily than information that does not. Gestalt Principles: The Gestalt principles of perception, such as proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, and simplicity, describe how people organize and make sense of visual stimuli. Learning and Experience: Learning and experience play a significant role in perception. Individuals acquire perceptual skills and knowledge through exposure and practice. This can lead to the development of expertise and the ability to perceive subtle details in specific domains. Selective Perception: Individuals tend to selectively perceive information that confirms their existing beliefs or attitudes while filtering out or downplaying contradictory information. This is known as confirmation bias. 16. Managers typically evaluate and judge employees based on various factors and performance indicators to assess their contributions to the organization. The specific criteria and methods for evaluating employees can vary from one organization to another, but here are some common ways in which managers judge employees: Job Performance: Job performance is often the primary factor in employee evaluations. Managers assess how well employees perform their assigned tasks and responsibilities. This assessment may include factors such as quality of work, productivity, accuracy, and consistency. Goal Achievement: Many organizations set performance goals and objectives for employees. Managers judge employees based on their ability to meet or exceed these goals. Goal achievement is often linked to performance evaluations and rewards. Skills and Competencies: Managers evaluate employees based on their skills, competencies, and qualifications relevant to their roles. This may include technical skills, problem-solving abilities, communication skills, leadership skills, and other competencies required for the job. Adaptability and Learning: Managers assess an employee's ability to adapt to changes in the workplace and their willingness to learn and acquire new skills. Adaptability and continuous learning are increasingly important in dynamic work environments. What attitudes might employees hold? Interested in their job-related attitudes. Job satisfaction- is the employee's general attitude towards the job. Job involvement- the degree to which an employee identifies with their job, actively participates in it, and considers their job performance important for self-worth. Organisational commitment- employee's orientation, their loyalty to, identification with and involvement in the organisation. Employee engagement- the extent employees are connected to, satisfied with and enthusiastic about their jobs. The top 5 contributing factors to employee engagement are: Respect Type of work Work/life balance Providing good service to customers Base pay. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. The factors you've listed can indeed contribute to employee engagement, and their relative importance can vary from one organization to another and among employees themselves. Here's a breakdown of each of these factors: Respect: Feeling respected and valued is a fundamental driver of employee engagement. When employees are treated with respect by their peers, managers, and the organization as a whole, they are more likely to feel motivated and committed. Respect can manifest in various ways, such as acknowledging employees' contributions, listening to their ideas, and providing a supportive and inclusive work environment. Type of Work: The nature of the work itself plays a significant role in employee engagement. Employees are more likely to be engaged when they find their tasks and responsibilities interesting, challenging, and meaningful. Job satisfaction is closely tied to the alignment between an individual's skills, interests, and the tasks they perform. Work/Life Balance: Achieving a healthy work-life balance is essential for employee well-being and engagement. When employees have the flexibility to balance their professional and personal lives, they are less likely to experience burnout and stress, leading to higher engagement levels. Employers that promote work-life balance through flexible schedules, remote work options, and paid time off can positively impact engagement. Providing Good Service to Customers: For organizations that focus on customer service, employees who feel a sense of pride and accomplishment in delivering excellent service are likely to be more engaged. When employees understand the value of their contributions to customer satisfaction and receive recognition for their efforts, it can enhance engagement. Base Pay: While base pay is a necessary component of an employee's compensation package, it may not be the primary driver of engagement for all employees. Fair and competitive base pay is essential to attract and retain talent, but it often takes more than just financial rewards to keep employees engaged over the long term. Other factors, such as those mentioned above (respect, meaningful work, work-life balance), can be equally or more influential in engagement levels. From <https://chat.openai.com/c/cd531fac-6599-475a-b039-2f4ab0f18fe8> Do individuals' attitudes and behaviours need to be consistent? What is cognitive dissonance theory? When people try to make their behaviour and attitudes consistent, its due to cognitive dissonance. Any incompatibility or inconsistency between attitudes, or between behaviour and attitudes. How hard we try to reduce dissonance is determined by three things: The importance of the factors creating the dissonance The degree of influence the individual believes they have over those factors The rewards that may be involved in dissonance. If the factors creating the dissonance are relatively unimportant, the pressure to correct the inconsistency will be low. However, if those factors are important, individuals may change their behaviour, conclude that the dissonant behaviour isn't so important, change their attitude, or identify compatible factors that outweigh the dissonant ones. How much influence individuals believe they have over the factors also affects their reaction to the dissonance. If they perceive the dissonance as something about which they have no choice, they won't be receptive to attitude change or feel the need to do so. Rewards also influence the degree to which individuals are motivated to reduce dissonance. New Section 1 Page 3 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. communication skills, leadership skills, and other competencies required for the job. Adaptability and Learning: Managers assess an employee's ability to adapt to changes in the workplace and their willingness to learn and acquire new skills. Adaptability and continuous learning are increasingly important in dynamic work environments. Attendance and Punctuality: Regular attendance and punctuality are typically considered important factors in employee evaluations. Consistent attendance and timeliness are indicators of reliability and commitment. Teamwork and Collaboration: Collaboration and teamwork are essential in many workplaces. Managers evaluate how well employees work with colleagues, their ability to contribute to team goals, and their interpersonal skills. Initiative and Innovation: Managers may assess an employee's initiative in taking on new projects, proposing improvements, or finding innovative solutions to problems. Initiative and creativity can be highly valued attributes. Communication and Interpersonal Skills: Effective communication and interpersonal skills are critical for building relationships with colleagues, clients, and stakeholders. Managers judge employees on their ability to communicate clearly, listen actively, and work well with others. Leadership and Management Skills: For employees in leadership roles, managers evaluate their leadership and management abilities. This includes their capacity to lead teams, make decisions, delegate tasks, and mentor or coach subordinates. Customer and Client Satisfaction: In customer-facing roles, employee evaluations may include feedback from customers or clients. High levels of customer satisfaction can be an indicator of an employee's effectiveness. Ethical Behavior and Professionalism: Ethical behavior and professionalism are important considerations in employee evaluations. Managers assess an employee's adherence to company policies, ethical standards, and professional conduct. Feedback and Self-Assessment: Many performance evaluations involve a two-way feedback process, where employees are given the opportunity to self-assess their performance and provide input on their strengths, weaknesses, and career goals. Overall Contribution to Organizational Goals: Managers often consider an employee's overall contribution to the organization's success. This includes the impact of their work on the company's mission and objectives. From <https://chat.openai.com/c/4f043f1c-f6d5-4b5b-b898-4cb2916f2bd8> What is attribution theory? A theory used to explain how we judge people differently, based on what meaning we attribute to a given behaviour. Internal vs external attributions Stability Controllability Distinctiveness- refers to whether an individual displays a behaviour in many situations or whether it is particular to one situation. Consensus- if everyone who is faced with a similar situation responds in the same way, we can say the behaviour shows consensus. Consistency- does the individual engage in the behaviours regularly and consistently? Attribution theory is a psychological framework that explores how individuals explain the causes of events or behaviors, both their own and those of others. It is concerned with understanding the reasons people attribute to specific outcomes and how these attributions influence their thoughts, emotions, and behavior. Attribution theory was first developed by Fritz Heider in the 1950s and has since been expanded upon by various psychologists. The main components of attribution theory include: 26. Internal vs. External Attributions: Attribution theory distinguishes between internal (dispositional) and external (situational) attributions: • Internal Attribution: This occurs when an individual attributes the cause of a behavior or outcome to personal traits, characteristics, or abilities. For example, if someone succeeds on a test, an internal attribution might be that they are intelligent or hardworking. • External Attribution: This happens when the cause of a behavior or outcome is attributed to external factors or situational circumstances. For instance, if someone fails a test, an external attribution might be that the test was too difficult or the teacher was unfair. 27. Stability: Attributions can also be classified as stable or unstable: • Stable Attribution: This suggests that the cause of a behavior or outcome is unlikely to change over time. For example, if someone attributes their poor performance in sports to a lack of athletic talent (a stable attribution), they may believe that they will always be bad at sports. • Stable Attribution: This suggests that the cause of a behavior or 28. How can an understanding of attitudes help managers be more effective? Satisfied and committed employees have lower rates of turnover and absenteeism. They want to do things that generate positive job attitudes. Job productivity vs job satisfaction. The correlation is strong between the two. Making work challenging and interesting, providing equitable rewards and creating supportive working conditions and supportive colleagues. Managers should survey their employees about their attitudes. Better done multiple times. What do managers need to know about personality? 29. An individual's personality is a unique combination of emotional, thought and behavioural patterns that affect how a person reacts to a situation and interacts with others. Personality traits influence how you interact with others and how you solve problems. 30. Myers-briggs Big Five model. Myers-briggs type indicator (MBTI) A personality assessment that uses four dimensions of personality to identify different personality types. 4 dimensions 16 different personality types. 100 item questionnaire 31. Based on Carl Jung's theory that individuals have distinctive tendencies in the ways they experience the world. It measures people's tendencies, or the way they prefer to behave on four personality dimensions. Extraversion vs introversion (EI)-Describes the individual's orientation towards the external world of the environment or the inner world of ideas and experiences (I). From <https://chat.openai.com/c/4f043f1c-f6d5-4b5b-b898-4cb2916f2bd8> Sensing vs intuition (SN)- Indicates the individual's preference for gathering data while focusing on a standard routine based on factual data (S) to focusing on the big picture and making connections among the facts (N). Can attributions be distorted? Thinking vs feeling (TF)- Reflects the individual's preference for making decisions in a logical and analytical manner (T) or on the basis of values and beliefs, and the effects the decision will have on others (F). Fundamental attribution errorThe tendency to underestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgements about the behaviours of others. Judging vs perceiving (JP)- reflects an attitude towards how an individual deals with the external world, either in a planned and orderly way (J) or preferring to remain flexible and spontaneous (P). 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. MBTI stands for the "Myers-Briggs Type Indicator." It is a widely used personality assessment tool based on Carl Jung's theory of psychological types. The MBTI is designed to help individuals gain insights into their personality preferences, decision-making styles, and communication tendencies. Here are some key points about the MBTI: Personality Types: The MBTI classifies individuals into one of 16 personality types based on four dichotomies or pairs of preferences: • Extraversion (E) vs. Introversion (I) • Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N) • Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F) • Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P) Preference Exploration: The assessment is used to determine a person's preferences within each of the four dichotomies. For example, an individual may be categorized as an "ENTJ," indicating preferences for extraversion, intuition, thinking, and judging. Psychological Functions: Each of the preferences is associated with specific psychological functions, such as how individuals gather information, make decisions, and interact with the world. For example, extraverts tend to draw energy from social interactions (E), while introverts prefer quieter, reflective activities (I). Applications: The MBTI is often used in personal and professional development, team building, career counseling, and relationship counseling. It is used to help individuals understand their natural inclinations and work more effectively with others. Criticism: The MBTI has faced criticism for its binary nature, limited scientific validity, and the potential for individuals to exhibit different preferences in different situations. Critics argue that personality is more complex and dynamic than the MBTI suggests. Ethical Use: Ethical use of the MBTI emphasizes that it should not be used for hiring or employment decisions, as it is not a reliable predictor of job performance. Self-Discovery: Many people find value in the MBTI as a tool for self-discovery and selfawareness. It can help individuals better understand their strengths, weaknesses, and interpersonal dynamics. It's important to note that while the MBTI can offer insights into personality preferences, it is just one of many tools available for understanding human personality and behavior. Additionally, individuals may exhibit a range of behaviors and preferences that go beyond the 16 MBTI personality types, making it a simplified model of personality. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. From <https://chat.openai.com/> How can MBTI assessment help managers? New Section 1 Page 4 outcome is unlikely to change over time. For example, if someone attributes their poor performance in sports to a lack of athletic talent (a stable attribution), they may believe that they will always be bad at sports. • Unstable Attribution: This implies that the cause is temporary and may change over time. Using the same example, attributing poor sports performance to a lack of practice (an unstable attribution) suggests that with more practice, their performance could improve. Controllability: Attribution theory considers whether the cause of an event is perceived as controllable or uncontrollable: • Controllable Attribution: When individuals believe that they or others have control over the cause of an event, they may feel a greater sense of responsibility. For instance, someone attributing their weight gain to overeating (a controllable attribution) may feel responsible for their actions. • Uncontrollable Attribution: Conversely, attributing a cause to factors beyond one's control, such as genetics or a medical condition, may lead to feelings of reduced responsibility. Attribution theory has practical applications in various fields, including psychology, education, management, and social psychology. Here are a few examples of how it is applied: Education: Understanding how students attribute their academic successes and failures can help educators provide more effective feedback and support. Students who attribute their failures to lack of effort may benefit from motivation and study strategies, while those attributing their failures to external factors may need different types of assistance. Management: Managers can use attribution theory to understand how employees perceive the causes of their performance, which can inform performance feedback and goal-setting. Recognizing when employees attribute success to their own skills and effort and when they attribute failure to factors beyond their control can guide management strategies. Social Psychology: Attribution theory is central to understanding social behavior and the way people perceive and judge others. It plays a role in stereotyping, prejudice, and the formation of impressions about individuals and groups. Overall, attribution theory helps us understand the cognitive processes involved in making sense of the world around us, as well as the social and emotional consequences of our attributions. Yes, attributions can be distorted, and this phenomenon is known as attribution bias. Attribution bias refers to the systematic errors or biases in the way people explain the causes of their own behavior and the behavior of others. These biases can lead individuals to make inaccurate or unfair attributions about the causes of events or behaviors. There are several common types of attribution bias: Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE): FAE occurs when individuals attribute the behavior of others primarily to internal factors (personality, character) while downplaying the role of external factors (situational circumstances). For example, if someone sees a person acting rudely, they might assume the person is inherently rude without considering that they might be having a bad day or facing stressful circumstances. Self-Serving Bias: This bias involves attributing one's successes to internal factors (e.g., personal skill or effort) while attributing failures to external factors (e.g., bad luck or situational factors). It allows individuals to take credit for positive outcomes while avoiding responsibility for negative ones, which can protect their self-esteem. Actor-Observer Bias: This bias refers to the tendency for individuals to attribute their own behavior to external factors (situational factors) while attributing the behavior of others to internal factors (personal traits or disposition). For example, if someone is late for a meeting, they might blame traffic (an external factor), but if someone else is late, they might assume that person is simply irresponsible. Confirmation Bias: Confirmation bias occurs when people selectively seek and interpret information in a way that confirms their preexisting beliefs or expectations. They may attribute information that aligns with their beliefs to credible sources and dismiss contradictory information as unreliable. Halo Effect: The halo effect is a cognitive bias where an individual's overall impression of a person or thing influences their perceptions of specific traits or qualities. For example, if someone finds a person physically attractive, they may assume that person also possesses positive personality traits, even without evidence. Ultimate Attribution Error: This bias involves attributing the actions of an entire group to the inherent traits of that group, rather than considering situational factors or individual variation within the group. personality types, making it a simplified model of personality. From <https://chat.openai.com/> How can MBTI assessment help managers? It is important to know these personality types because they influence the way people interact and solve problems. BIG FIVE model: A personality trait model that examines five traits: Extraversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness Emotional l stability Openness to experience 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. The Big Five Model, also known as the Five-Factor Model (FFM), is a widely accepted and studied framework in the field of psychology for understanding human personality. It identifies and categorizes personality traits into five broad dimensions, providing a comprehensive description of an individual's personality. The Big Five Model consists of the following five personality factors: Openness to Experience: This factor reflects the degree to which an individual is open-minded, curious, imaginative, and willing to engage with new ideas, experiences, and unconventional thinking. People high in openness tend to be creative, open to change, and enjoy exploring new concepts and activities. Those low in openness may prefer routine and familiarity. Conscientiousness: Conscientiousness relates to an individual's degree of organization, responsibility, dependability, and goal-oriented behavior. People with high conscientiousness are often diligent, punctual, and thorough in their work, while those with low conscientiousness may be more spontaneous and less focused on planning and structure. Extraversion: Extraversion measures an individual's level of social engagement, assertiveness, and preference for interpersonal interactions. Extraverts tend to be outgoing, talkative, and energetic, seeking social interactions and enjoying group activities. Introverts, on the other hand, are more reserved and often prefer solitary or small-group settings. Agreeableness: This factor assesses an individual's level of compassion, cooperation, empathy, and general concern for the well-being of others. People with high agreeableness are typically warm, considerate, and accommodating, while those low in agreeableness may be more competitive or skeptical. Neuroticism (or Emotional Stability): Neuroticism reflects an individual's emotional stability and the tendency to experience negative emotions such as anxiety, depression, and stress. Those high in neuroticism may be prone to emotional fluctuations, while those low in neuroticism tend to be more emotionally resilient and composed. New Section 1 Page 5 physically attractive, they may assume that person also possesses positive personality traits, even without evidence. 37. Ultimate Attribution Error: This bias involves attributing the actions of an entire group to the inherent traits of that group, rather than considering situational factors or individual variation within the group. It often leads to stereotypes and prejudices. 38. Blaming the Victim: In this bias, individuals tend to attribute negative events or outcomes to the victims' personal characteristics or behaviors rather than recognizing external factors. For example, people may blame a crime victim for being in the wrong place at the wrong time rather than acknowledging the criminal's responsibility. From <https://chat.openai.com/c/4f043f1c-f6d5-4b5b-b898-4cb2916f2bd8> What personal shortcuts do we use? Selective perception- selectively perceiving or hearing a communication based on your own needs, motivations, experiences or other personal characteristics. Assumed similarity- an observer's perception of others influenced more by the observer's own characteristics that by those of the person observed. Stereotyping- when we judge someone on the basis of our perception of a group to which that person belongs.