FOC Unit 2 (1).pdf

Unit II: Hardware and Software Computer Peripherals: Cables, Buses, Device drivers, installation of devices: keyboard, mouse, scanner, printer, web-camera, speakers and many more; plug-and-play devices; expansion slots……..System software, Program Language Translators, application software, Programmi...

Unit II: Hardware and Software Computer Peripherals: Cables, Buses, Device drivers, installation of devices: keyboard, mouse, scanner, printer, web-camera, speakers and many more; plug-and-play devices; expansion slots……..System software, Program Language Translators, application software, Programming Language Paradigms: Imperative, Object-Oriented and Logic languages, Basics of Popular Operating Systems (Windows and Linux); The User Interface, Using Mouse and Organizing Desktop components, Running an Application, File, Folders and Directory management features, Using Help; Creating Short cuts, Configuring Operating System: Windows and Ubuntu, BIOS, System Utilities and Antivirus software. Computer Peripherals A peripheral or peripheral device is "an ancillary device used to put information into and get information out of the computer". Three categories of peripheral devices exist based on their relationship with the computer: 1. an input device sends data or instructions to the computer, such as a mouse, keyboard, graphics tablet, image scanner, barcode reader, game controller, light pen, light gun, microphone, digital camera, webcam, dance pad, and read-only memory); 2. an output device provides output from the computer, such as a computer monitor, projector, printer, headphones and computer speaker. 3. an input/output device performs both input and output functions, such as a computer data storage device (including a disk drive, USB flash drive, memory card and tape drive). Many modern electronic devices, such as internet capable digital watches, smartphones, and tablet computers, have interfaces that allow them to be used as computer peripheral devices. A computer peripheral is any external device that provides input and output for the computer. For example, a keyboard and mouse are input peripherals, while a monitor and printer are output peripherals. Computer peripherals, or peripheral devices, are sometimes called "I/O devices" because they provide input and output for the computer. Some peripherals, such as external hard drives, provide both input and output for the computer. Cabels Computer cables are overwhelming. There are so many standards, acronyms, and terms to know. There are number of cables are available in used for computer. USB (Universal Serial Bus) The USB connection is the most ubiquitous of all computer connector types in the world. Nearly every computer peripheral device—keyboards, mice, headsets, flash drives, wireless adapters, and such—can be connected to a computer through a USB port. USB keeps evolving, which means there are multiple USB versions: USB 1.0 can transmit data at speeds up to 1.5 MB/s. USB 2.0 can transmit data at speeds up to 60 MB/s and is compatible with older versions of USB. USB 3.0 can transmit data at speeds up to 625 MB/s. It is compatible with previous versions of USB. USB 3.1 can transmit data at speeds up to 1.25 GB/s. It is compatible with previous versions of USB. At the time of this article, USB 3.1 is the most common type found in the market. USB 3.2 can transmit data at speeds up to 2.5 GB/s, but only when using a USB-C connection. It is compatible with previous versions of USB. USB 4.x is a future specification that will transmit data at speeds up to 5 GB/s, but only when using a USB-C connection. It will release in mid-2019 and will be compatible with USB 3.2 and USB 2.0. There are also several “shapes” for USB connections:  Type A supports USB 1.0, USB 2.0, USB 3.0, USB 3.1. Type B supports USB 1.0, USB 2.0, USB 3.0, USB 3.1. Type C (i.e. USB-C) supports USB 3.1, USB 3.2, USB 4.x. Mini supports USB 2.0. Micro supports USB 2.0. HDMI (High Definition multimedia interface) High-definition broadcasts are now the standard for high-quality video. Unlike VGA and DVI, which only transmit video signals, HDMI sends both video and audio signals together. These signals are digital; thus, HDMI is only compatible with newer devices. (Learn more about video cable types!) HDMI connections come in five types: Type A is the most popular. This connector can be identified by its 19 pins on the male head. Type A is compatible with single-link DVI-D connections. Type B is larger than Type A, coming in at 29 pins on the male head. Type B is compatible with dual-link DVI-D connections. You won’t see this type often, if ever. Type C (Mini) is a 19-pin connector that’s most often used with portable devices, like camcorders and digital cameras. Type D (Micro) also has 19 pins and looks similar to a Micro-USB cable. It’s mostly used for mobile devices, including smartphones and tablets. Type E is much larger with a locking mechanism. It’s mainly used in automotive applications. Display Port Like HDMI, DisplayPort is a media interface that transmits both video and audio signals together and was designed to replace VGA and DVI. These days, DisplayPort is mainly used to connect devices (e.g. a computer) to monitors, so you’ll only see it among other monitor cable types. There are multiple versions of DisplayPort, but all DisplayPort cables are compatible with all DisplayPort devices. The speed will be limited by the lowest version of DisplayPort supported between the device and cable. Look for these DisplayPort cable certifications: RBR (Reduced Bit Rate): Up to 810 MB/s. HBR (High Bit Rate): Up to 1,350 MB/s. HBR2 (High Bit Rate 2): Up to 2,700 MB/s. HBR3 (High Bit Rate 3): Up to 4,050 MB/s. DisplayPort is compatible with HDMI and USB using adapters. There is also Mini DisplayPort, which was mainly used in older Apple devices released before 2011. Thunderbolt Thunderbolt cables are designed to connect external devices to a computer. They’re mainly used in Apple devices released 2011 and later. For more on cables, adapters, and ports for Apple devices, check out our helpful guide. Thunderbolt 1 and Thunderbolt 2 cables use the same connector as Mini DisplayPort, and all Thunderbolt 1 and Thunderbolt 2 connections are compatible with Mini DisplayPort connections. Thunderbolt 3 cables use the same connector as USB-C, and all Thunderbolt 3 connections are compatible with USB-C connections. Thunderbolt 3 is also compatible with Thunderbolt 1 and Thunderbolt 2 using adapters. VGA (Video Graphics Array) Created way back in the 1980s, the VGA connection cable is one of the oldest computer monitor cable types. It’s an analog video signal cable, so it has faded out of popularity due to world’s shift toward digital video signals. Still, if you look on any video card or display apparatus, there is a good chance you’ll see a VGA port. VGA connections can be identified by 15 pins arranged in 3 rows with 5 on each row. Each row corresponds to the 3 different color channels used in display: red, green, and blue. DVI (Digital Visual Interface) The DVI connection succeeded VGA in the 2000s as video technology moved from analog to digital. Digital displays, like LCD, proved to be higher quality and eventually became the market standard for video devices (at the time). DVI connections come in three types: DVI-A can transmit analog signals, allowing it to be backwards compatible with VGA (useful for CRT monitors and older LCD monitors). DVI-D can transmit newer digital signals. DVI-I is capable of both analog and digital. In certain cases, you may need a VGA-to-DVI or DVI-to-VGA converter cable. DVI has largely fallen out of use, having been replaced by more modern monitor cord types like HDMI, DisplayPort, and Thunderbolt. IDE (Integrated Driver Electronics) IDE cables were used to connect storage devices to a motherboard. If you’ve ever opened up a an old hard drive then you likely know what an IDE connector looks like: it’s the wide cable that looks like a ribbon with more than 2 plugs. The connectors on an IDE cable have 40 pins; the smaller 2.5-inch drive variety uses a form-factor version of the IDE that has 44 pins. SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment) Newer hard drives mainly prefer SATA ports over IDE ports. In fact, SATA was designed to succeed IDE, and it has. Compared to IDE, SATA provides higher data transfer speeds. Your motherboard needs to be compatible with SATA these days; fortunately, most of them are. A standard SATA cable can be identified by two connectors, each having 7 pins and an empty notch. It looks like an L-shape. E-sata (External Sata) eSATA technology is an extension of, or improvement on, the SATA cable—it makes SATA technology available in an external form. In reality, eSATA isn’t much different than SATA, but it allows connections to devices like external hard drives and external optical drives. However, eSATA has fallen out of popularity due to advancements in USB speeds. Ethernet Ethernet cables are used to set up local area networks. In most cases, they’re used to connect routers to modems and computers, though you can also connect two devices directly by using a cross-over Ethernet cable. If you’ve ever tried to install or fix a home Wi-Fi router, you’ve likely dealt with an Ethernet computer cable. It looks unique so it’s easy to distinguish from different types of cables. Nowadays, Ethernet cables come in several varieties: 10BASE-T Ethernet is the oldest and most basic type and supports data speeds up to 1.25 MB/s. 100BASE-TX Ethernet (i.e. Fast Ethernet) is also an older variety of Ethernet that supports data speeds up to 12.5 MB/s. 1000BASE-T Ethernet (i.e. Gigabit Ethernet) is the most common type of Ethernet used in homes as of this writing. It supports data speeds up to 125 MB/s. 10GBASE-T Ethernet (i.e. 10 Gigabit Ethernet) uses Cat6 wiring (as opposed to Cat5 or Cat5e in previous versions) to support data speeds up to 1.25 GB/s. Computer Power Cord (Kettle Plug) Connect one end to: AC power socket Connect other end to: power supply unit (see image below), computer monitor 3.5mm Audio Cable Also known as phone connector (since 3.5mm jacks are often found on mobile phones too Connect one end to: computer speakers, 3.5mm headphones, 3.5mm microphone Connect other end to: audio ports on computer (see image below use Green socket) Green audio port: computer speakers or headphones Pink audio port: microphone Blue audio port: MP3 player, CD player, DVD player, turntable, electric guitar etc (line-in port to play and record sounds from the above devices) PS/2 Cable Connect one end to: PS/2 keyboard, PS/2 mouse Connect other end to: PS/2 ports on computer (see image below) Purple PS/2 port: keyboard Green PS/2 port: mouse Buses When referring to a computer, the bus also known as the address bus, data bus, or local bus, is a data connection between two or more devices connected to the computer. For example, a bus enables a computer processor to communicate with the memory or a video card to with the memory. You can think of it as a public transportation or school bus. In computer architecture, a bus is a communication system that transfers data between components inside a computer, or between computers. This expression covers all related hardware components (wire, optical fiber, etc.) and software, including communication protocols. Early computer buses were parallel electrical wires with multiple hardware connections, but the term is now used for any physical arrangement that provides the same logical function as a parallel electrical bus. Modern computer buses can use both parallel and bit serial connections, and can be wired in either a multi- drop (electrical parallel) or daisy chain topology, or connected by switched hubs, as in the case of USB. A bus was originally an electrical parallel structure with conductors connected with identical or similar CPU pins, such as a 32-bit bus with 32 wires and 32 pins. The earliest buses, often termed electrical power buses or bus bars, were wire collections that connected peripheral devices and memory, with one bus designated for peripheral devices and another bus for memory. Each bus included separate instructions and distinct protocols and timing. Parallel bus standards include advanced technology attachment (ATA) or small computer system interface (SCSI) for printer or hard drive devices. Serial bus standards include universal serial bus (USB), FireWire or serial ATA with a daisy-chain topology or hub design for devices, keyboards or modem devices. Computer bus types are as follows: 1. System Bus: A parallel bus that simultaneously transfers data in 8-, 16-, or 32-bit channels and is the primary pathway between the CPU and memory. 2. Internal Bus: Connects a local device, like internal CPU memory. 3. External Bus: Connects peripheral devices to the motherboard, such as scanners or disk drives. 4. Expansion Bus: Allows expansion boards to access the CPU and RAM. 5. Front side Bus: Main computer bus that determines data transfer rate speed and is the primary data transfer path between the CPU, RAM and other motherboard devices. 6. Backside Bus: Transfers secondary cache (L2 cache) data at faster speeds, allowing more efficient CPU operations. Device drivers In computing, a device driver is a computer program that operates or controls a particular type of device that is attached to a computer. A driver provides a software interface to hardware devices, enabling operating systems and other computer programs to access hardware functions without needing to know precise details about the hardware being used. A driver communicates with the device through the computer bus or communications subsystem to which the hardware connects. When a calling program invokes a routine in the driver, the driver issues commands to the device. Once the device sends data back to the driver, the driver may invoke routines in the original calling program. Drivers are hardware dependent and operating-system-specific. They usually provide the interrupt handling required for any necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interface. Hardware that uses a device driver to connect to a computer includes printers, displays, CD-ROM readers, network or sound cards, computer mice or hard disks. Device drivers will instruct a computer on how to communicate with each input/output (I/O) device through translating the operating system's I/O instructions to a software language the hardware device understands. Applications Because of the diversity of modern hardware and operating systems, drivers operate in many different environments. Drivers may interface with: 1. Printers 3. Network cards 2. Video adapters 4. Sound cards 5. Local buses of various sorts—in particular, for bus mastering on modern systems 6. Low-bandwidth I/O buses of various sorts (for pointing devices such as mice, keyboards, USB, etc.)  7. Computer storage devices such as hard disk, CD-ROM, and floppy disk buses (ATA, SATA, SCSI) 8. Implementing support for different file systems 9. Image scanners 10. Digital cameras Common levels of abstraction for device drivers include: For hardware: o Interfacing directly o Writing to or reading from a device control register o Using some higher-level interface (e.g. Video BIOS) o Using another lower-level device driver (e.g. file system drivers using disk drivers) o Simulating work with hardware, while doing something entirely different For software: o Allowing the operating system direct access to hardware resources o Implementing only primitives o Implementing an interface for non-driver software (e.g. TWAIN) o Implementing a language, sometimes quite high-level (e.g. PostScript) So choosing and installing the correct device drivers for given hardware is often a key component of computer system configuration. Installation of devices scanner, printer, web-camera, speakers and many more Installation of Keyboard Today, almost all wired keyboards use USB as the interface to the computer. Older computers may use PS/2 as an interface to the computer. If your keyboard is wireless, it can be communicating over Bluetooth, RF (radio frequency), or IR (infrared). Below are the steps on how to connect each of these types of computer keyboards. 1. Connecting a USB keyboard: Connect the USB keyboard to the USB ports on the back or front of your computer. If you are using a USB hub, it can also be connected to the hub. However, we recommend a direct connection to the back of the computer if possible. If you have a laptop computer, an external keyboard can also be connected to one of the USB ports. If no USB ports are available, a USB hub would be needed. After the keyboard has been connected, it should automatically be detected and installed. If the keyboard has any special features, you need to install the keyboard software and drivers. 2. Wireless keyboard All wireless keyboards have a receiver that is plugged into the computer (usually by USB connection), and the keyboard connects to that receiver wirelessly. Connect this receiver either into the back or front of your computer. Once connected, make sure your wireless keyboard has batteries or is charged and turned on. After the keyboard has been connected, it should be automatically detected and installed. If the keyboard has any special features, you need to install the keyboard software and drivers. 3. Connecting a PS/2 keyboard Connect the keyboard to the PS/2 port on the back of the computer. When looking at the back of the computer, you'll notice two PS/2 ports next to each other. Verify you're connecting the keyboard to the purple connection, as shown in the picture below. If your PS/2 ports are not color coded, the keyboard will be the connection closest to the left edge of the computer (when looking at it from the back). If the connections are vertical and not horizontal like in the picture below, the keyboard connection may be either port, depending on the case and motherboard. Look for a small keyboard symbol next to the port to identify which one is for the keyboard. Installation of Mouse Today, almost all wired and wireless mice use USB as the interface to the computer. However, older computers may utilize PS/2 or serial ports. If your mouse is wireless, it can be communicating over Bluetooth, RF (radio frequency), or IR(infrared). To proceed, select your connection type from the list below and follow the instructions. 1. Connecting a wireless USB mouse A cordless mouse has a small receiver that communicates with the mouse. The receiver connects to the computer via a USB port. Look for a USB port in the back or on the side of your computer and plug in the receiver. Once the wireless receiver is connected to the computer, Windows should automatically find and install the appropriate drivers as long as you're connected to the Internet. Make sure there are batteries in the mouse or that it is charged. Next, verify that the mouse is turn on. Many wireless devices have an on and off switch on the bottom of them. 2. Connecting a wired USB mouse Connect the USB cable coming from the mouse to one of the USB ports (shown right) on the back or side of your computer. If you are using a USB port hub, connect the mouse cable to that. After the mouse is connected, the computer should automatically install the drivers and provide basic functionality. If the mouse you want to change how any special buttons work, additional software may need to be installed. If the mouse is not functioning, see our mouse troubleshooting section. 3. Connecting a Bluetooth mouse A Bluetooth mouse connects to a computer wirelessly using a Bluetooth signal. The computer must have Bluetooth built in or have a Bluetooth adapter connected to it. To connect a Bluetooth mouse to your computer, follow the steps below. Open the Bluetooth utility on your computer and make sure Bluetooth is turned on. The Bluetooth utility, if enabled, can usually be found in the notification area, with an icon that looks like the Bluetooth symbol. Turn on the mouse if it has an On/Off switch. Check the Bluetooth utility to see if it detects the Bluetooth mouse. When the Bluetooth utility finds the Bluetooth mouse, select the mouse in the Bluetooth device list and click the Pair button. If successful, the mouse will be connected to the computer. 4. Connecting a PS/2 mouse Connect the cable coming from the mouse to the green-colored PS/2 port (shown right) on the back of the computer. If your PS/2 ports are not color coded, the mouse port will be the one furthest away from the left edge of the computer case (when viewed from the back). After the mouse is connected, the computer should automatically install the drivers and provide basic functionality. If the mouse you want to change how any special buttons work, additional software may need to be installed. If the mouse is not functioning, see our mouse troubleshooting section. 5. Connecting a serial mouse Connect the mouse to the serial port on the back of the computer. If you have more than one serial port on the computer, we recommend connecting the mouse to the first port. Once connected, depending on your computer setup, you may need to configure the mouse COM ports in CMOS setup. Today, most computers no longer have serial ports. Most serial mice are specialized, so to use one, you need to install the software included with the mouse, or from the mouse manufacturer's website. Installation of Scanner Before you can scan documents into your computer with a scanner, you need to install the scanner driver so that your scanner and computer can communicate. Start by connecting the scanner to your computer’s USB port (see your scanner manual for information about how it connects to your computer). 1. Turn the scanner on. If you’re not using a Plug and Play device or Windows doesn’t have the driver for that device, you see the Found New Hardware message. 2. Click the Found New Hardware message, click Yes, This Time Only, and then click next again. You only need to do this step if you don’t permit Windows 7 to automatically connect to Windows Update. Otherwise, you don’t see the Found New Hardware Wizard. 3. If you have a CD for the scanner, insert it in your CD drive and click next. Windows 7 searches for your scanner driver software and installs it. 4. Choose Start→Control Panel and type scanners in the Search box. Windows returns a set of links.  5. Click the View Scanners and Cameras link. 6. Click the Add Device button and then click next. The Scanner and Camera Installation Wizard window appears. When you click next, the next screen of the wizard appears. 7. Click a Manufacturer in the list on the left and then click a model in the list on the right. Now it’s just a matter of following the wizard directions based on the model of scanner you choose and whether you have a manufacturer’s disc (a CD- or DVD-ROM). If you don’t have a disc, Windows can help you download software from the Internet. 8. When you reach the end of the wizard, click Finish. The installation is complete. Installation of Printer Connecting the printer to the computer Connect the printer to the computer either using a USB cable, parallel port cable, or SCSI cable and then connect the power plug to a power outlet. Today, most all home computer printers are using a USB cable similar to the example picture. Setup printer and install software. Every printer should come with the software used to install a printer in Windows or your operating system. 1. After everything is plugged in, turn the computer on. 2. Insert the CD that came with the printer. If the CD does not automatically start, open My Computer, double-click on the CD drive, and then click the Setup or Install file. If you have downloaded the drivers, run the downloaded setup file. 3. Follow the installation wizard and once completed, your software is installed. 4. Test the printer to make sure it is working. Installing a printer only using the drivers If you only want the printer to be installed and none of the extra software programs, you can only install the printer driver by following the steps below. 1. With the printer connected and powered on, open the Control Panel. 2. In the Control Panel, double-click the Printers or Printers and Faxicon. 3. In the Printers window, click the Add a printer icon. 4. After completing the above steps, you should see the Windows Printer Wizard. Click Next to start the wizard. 5. Next, you have the choice of installing a Local or Network printer. If the printer is connected to your computer, choose Local printer attached to this computer and click Next. 6. When prompted for the location of the printer drivers, browse to the directory of your drivers or point it to the printer CD. Testing the printer 1. Open the Control Panel. 2. Double-click the Devices and Printers, Printers, or Printers and Fax icon. 3. Right-click on the Printer you want to test and click Properties. If you do not see your printer, your printer is not installed. 4. In the Printers Properties window, click the Print Test Page button. 5. If the printer can print a test page, your printer is installed and set up properly. However, if you cannot print in other programs, the program you are attempting to print from has issues. Installation of Web camera 1. Attach the webcam to your computer. Plug the webcam's USB cable into one of the rectangular USB ports on the side or back of your computer. a. USB plugs can only be inserted one way. If the plug won't fit into the port, rotate the plug 180 degrees and try again. b. If you're on a Mac, you'll most likely need to buy a USB to USB-C adapter in order to fit a normal webcam. c. Make sure that you plug the webcam directly into your computer, not a USB hub. USB hubs are often too underpowered to operate a webcam.  2. Insert the webcam's CD. Place the CD that came with the webcam in your computer's CD tray, making sure that the logo is face-up in the process. Since most modern Macs don't come with CD drives, you will have to have a separate CD drive attached via USB cable if you're using a Mac. a. If the webcam didn't come with a CD, skip this step. b. You can usually find a copy of the webcam's software in the "Support" section of the webcam company's website. 3. Wait for the webcam's setup page to open. Your webcam's setup page should open automatically. If your webcam didn't include a CD, plugging the webcam into your computer will most likely start the setup process. 4. Follow any on-screen instructions. Your webcam's individual instructions will vary, but most setup processes will involve clicking through a series of preference windows before clicking an Install button. a. Pay attention to the windows' information here. You'll most likely need to select certain preferences that will help the webcam work later. 5. Wait for your webcam to finish installing. Once the webcam has finished installing, its program should open, at which point you can begin setting up the webcam. Setting up the Webcam 1. Open the webcam's program. If the webcam's program didn't automatically open upon completion of installation, you'll need to look up the program and open it manually. a. The webcam's program will usually have the webcam company's name in it, so try searching for the company (e.g., "youcam") in Start (Windows) or Spotlight (Mac). 2. Mount the webcam. Many webcams have a clip on the base that allows the webcam to latch onto the top of a computer monitor. If your webcam doesn't have such a clip, look for a flat, elevated space in which to place the webcam. 3. Adjust the webcam as needed. In the middle of your webcam program's window, you should see real- time footage from your webcam. Using the footage as a reference, adjust your webcam to point at your face from your preferred angle. 4. Test the webcam's sound. While speaking into the webcam, look for spikes in activity next to the "Audio" (or similarly titled) section in the webcam's window. If you don't see any activity here, your webcam's microphone isn't working and might need to be enabled from the webcam's or computer's settings. a. Check your webcam's manual to see specific instructions on how to address lack of audio input. 5. Change your webcam's settings if necessary. Most webcam programs will have a Settings section (or a gear-shaped icon) somewhere in the window. You can click on this section to view and change settings like contrast, low-light response, and so on. a. The settings location and options will vary from webcam to webcam. Consult your webcam's manual if you can't find the settings section. Installation of Speaker Follow these step-by-step instructions to attach speakers to your computer Step 1: Ensure that the computer is turned off. Step 2: Plug the speakers into the power socket. Step 3: Locate the 3.5mm jack connected to the cable at the back of the speakers. You’ll use this plug to attach them to your computer tower. Step 4: On the back of the computer tower are a number of small, round, coloured-coded sockets. The one to plug your speakers into is usually green. It may also be marked with a headphones symbol or be labelled ‘Audio out’. Push the jack into this socket firmly to get a good connection. But don’t continue pushing if you meet any resistance – the socket is attached to the sound card on the computer’s mother board, and if you push too hard, you could damage it. Step 5: In some speaker set-ups, there’s an additional ‘subwoofer’, a larger third speaker that provides bass sounds. Before plugging this in, find out if your sound card can support multiple speakers. If it does, follow the color coding on the back of the tower as you connect the jacks – plug the green jack into the green socket, the black jack into the black socket and so on. Step 6: Turn on your computer and speakers and adjust the volume control. Your computer is probably set to play a small tune when it’s turned on. If you now hear it, you’ll know that the speakers are on and working. But don’t worry if you don’t hear it. Step 7: The computer should recognize the addition of speakers to your system and will respond accordingly. Possibly it will say ‘New driver detected’ and run through a short set-up process. You’ll need to click ‘Yes’ to allow it to make the appropriate changes. Step 8: To test that your speakers are working, play something you know has a soundtrack. Pop a CD or DVD in the DVD drive or watch a clip on YouTube. You may also notice that sounds now occur when simple functions are carried out – for example, a noise when you click a button or open a window or when an email arrives. Plug and Play Devices In computing, a plug and play (PnP) device or computer bus is one with a specification that facilitates the discovery of a hardware component in a system without the need for physical device configuration or user intervention in resolving resource conflicts. The term "plug and play" has since been expanded to a wide variety of applications to which the same lack of user setup applies. Expansion devices are controlled and exchange data with the host system through defined memory or I/O space port addresses, direct memory access channels, interrupt request lines and other mechanisms, which must be uniquely associated with a particular device to operate. Some computers provided unique combinations of these resources to each slot of a motherboard or backplane. Other designs provided all resources to all slots, and each peripheral device had its own address decoding for the registers or memory blocks it needed to communicate with the host system. Since fixed assignments made expansion of a system difficult, devices used several manual methods for assigning addresses and other resources, such as hard-wired jumpers, pins that could be connected with wire or removable straps, or switches that could be set for particular addresses. As microprocessors made mass-market computers affordable, software configuration of I/O devices was advantageous to allow installation by non-specialist users. Early systems for software configuration of devices included the MSX standard, NuBus, Amiga Autoconfig, and IBM Microchannel. Initially all expansion cards for the IBM PC required physical selection of I/O configuration on the board with jumper straps or DIP switches, but increasingly ISA bus devices were arranged for software configuration. By 1995, Microsoft Windows included a comprehensive method of enumerating hardware at boot time and allocating resources, which was called the "Plug and Play" standard. Expansion Slots An expansion slot is a socket on the motherboard that is used to insert an expansion card (or circuit board), which provides additional features to a computer such as video, sound, advanced graphics, Ethernet or memory. The expansion card has an edge connector that fits precisely into the expansion slot as well as a row of contacts that is designed to establish an electrical connection between the motherboard and the electronics on the card, which are mostly integrated circuits. Depending on the form factor of the case and motherboard, a computer system generally can have anywhere from one to seven expansion slots. With a backplane system, up to 19 expansion cards can be installed. Expansion cards can provide various functions including: 1. Sound 5. TV and radio tuning 2. Modems 6. Video processing 3. Network 4. Interface adapters  7. Host adapting such as redundant array of 10. Advanced multirate codec independent disks or small computer system 11. Basic input/output system (BIOS) interface 12. Expansion read-only memory (ROM) 8. Solid-state drive 13. Security devices 9. Power-on self-test 14. RAM memory Older expansion cards also included memory expansion cards, clock/calendar cards, hard disk cards, compatibility cards for hardware emulation, and disk controller cards. The Altair 8800 was the first slot-type expansion card bus added to a microcomputer. It was developed in 1974-1975 by IBM Corp. System software The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the computer manufacturers. These software products comprise of programs written in low-level languages, which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the interface between the hardware and the end users. Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers, etc. Operating system The operating system is the central part of the computer system, or you can say that it is the lifeline of the computer. We will install the OS on a computer so that it can function smoothly. Suppose all the devices like keyboard, mouse, CPU, monitor are connected and now you think as we switch on the power supply, the computer will start working. No, this is not possible until we install the operating system on it. It is necessary to install as it performs the following functions: It will allocate resources to each task. It will keep all hardware parts of the system in a ready state so that it can follow the instructions given by the user. It enables the user to access and use application software. It schedules the multiple tasks by priority. It controls the improper use of the computer. It sets the coordination between the different devices. It prevents the error during the use of the software. It enables the computer to access network. It manages different computer resources such as software, hardware etc.. It controls the input and output devices of the computer. It detects installs and troubleshoots devices. Example: The earlier OS was MS-DOS which make use of Command Line Interface(CLI). After then, windows was developed by Microsoft which make use of Graphical User Interface(GUI). So, they keep on evolving. Programming Language Translators (Compiler/Interpreter/Assembler) Programming Language Translators are those who convert the high-level language and middle-level language into machine language as machine understands only its language. The high-level language is the language through which the user interacts with the computer. Java, C, C++, PHP, Python all are the examples of high- level language. Machine language is the code which is understood by the processor only. The average human being cannot be able to understand it. Some famous translators are Compiler, Interpreter and assembler. They are designed by the manufacturers of the computer. Translators can completely translate the code into machine code at once, or they can do it line by line. Device Drivers Driver software is a type of system software so that we can use our devices smoothly without any troubleshooting problem. This type of software enables the components to perform their tasks as directed by the OS. Example of device which require driver’s printer, plotter, scanner etc. If the device is new for the operating system like the printer, then we have to install the drivers so that it get familiar with the OS. We can install them from the websites of the manufacturers or some other alternative source like from the internet. Firmware Software It is the operational software which is already embedded in flash, ROM, EPROM, EEPROM memory chips so that the OS can identify them quickly. The task of the firmware is to directly manage and control all the activities of any single hardware. Traditionally, firmware was installed on the non-volatile chips. We can upgrade them by changing with the new programmed chips. However, nowadays, firmware was installed on the flash chips. So, now we can upgrade them without swapping the chips. There are two types of chips: BIOS (Basic Input/ Output System) chip and UEFI (Unified Extended Firmware Interface) chip. The manufacturer installs the firmware on the motherboard, and it can be accessed through these two types of chips. It is the configuration interface. When the computer is powered on and is going through POST (Power on Self Test), then it is first loaded. The main difference between the firmware and the driver is that firmware will reside within the devices whereas the drivers will install in the operating system. Utility Software Utility software is a kind of system software which acts as an interface between system software and application software. These are those programs which are specifically designed for some particular purpose like maintenance of the computer or diagnose any error in the computer. Generally, these are third-party tools which come along with the operating system. The features of the utility software are as follows: To protect us against external threats, the inclusion of a firewall is there. Example: windows firewall It can scan hardware diagnostic services like performance monitor, hard disk sentinel. It can also compress files so that the disk space can be optimised. E.g., WinRAR, WinZip. Utility can do disk partition services like Windows Disk Management. Utility can help us in recovering in our lost data. E.g., iCare Data Recovery Utility can back up our data to increase the security of our systems. Utility can do defragmentation of a disk so that the scattered file can be organized on the drive. E.g., Disk Defragmenter. Utility can perform antivirus and security software so that the security of the files and the applications can be maintained. E.g., AVG, Microsoft Security Essentials etc. Program Language Translators Programming Language Translators are those who convert the high-level language and middle-level language into machine language as machine understands only its language. The high-level language is the language through which the user interacts with the computer. Java, C, C++, PHP, Python all are the examples of high- level language. Machine language is the code which is understood by the processor only. The average human being cannot be able to understand it. Some famous translators are Compiler, Interpreter and assembler. They are designed by the manufacturers of the computer. Translators can completely translate the code into machine code at once, or they can do it line by line. Application software Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the category of Application software. Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad for writing and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package. Examples of Application software are the following. 1. Payroll Software 6. Microsoft Office Suite Software 2. Student Record Software 7. Microsoft Word 3. Inventory Management Software 8. Microsoft Excel 4. Income Tax Software 9. Microsoft PowerPoint 5. Railways Reservation Software 10. Types of system software Programming Language Paradigms: Imperative, Object-Oriented and Logic languages A programming paradigm is a style, or “way,” of programming. Programming paradigms are a way to classify programming languages based on their features. Languages can be classified into multiple paradigms. Paradigm can also be termed as method to solve some problem or do some task. Programming paradigm is an approach to solve problem using some programming language or also we can say it is a method to solve a problem using tools and techniques that are available to us following some approach. There are lots for programming language that are known but all of them need to follow some strategy when they are implemented and this methodology/strategy is paradigms. Apart from varieties of programming language there are lots of paradigms to fulfill each and every demand. Some paradigms are concerned mainly with implications for the execution model of the language, such as allowing side effects, or whether the sequence of operations is defined by the execution model. Other paradigms are concerned mainly with the way that code is organized, such as grouping a code into units along with the state that is modified by the code. Yet others are concerned mainly with the style of syntax and grammar. Some Common Paradigms You should know these: 1. Imperative: Programming with an explicit sequence of commands that update state. 2. Declarative: Programming by specifying the result you want, not how to get it. 3. Structured: Programming with clean, goto-free, nested control structures. 4. Procedural: Imperative programming with procedure calls. 5. Functional (Applicative): Programming with function calls that avoid any global state. 6. Function-Level (Combinator): Programming with no variables at all. 7. Object-Oriented: Programming by defining objects that send messages to each other. Objects have their own internal (encapsulated) state and public interfaces. Object orientation can be: 8. Class-based: Objects get state and behavior based on membership in a class. 9. Prototype-based: Objects get behavior from a prototype object. 10. Event-Driven: Programming with emitters and listeners of asynchronous actions. 11. Flow-Driven: Programming processes communicating with each other over predefined channels. 12. Logic (Rule-based): Programming by specifying a set of facts and rules. An engine infers the answers to questions. 13. Constraint: Programming by specifying a set of constraints. An engine finds the values that meet the constraints. 14. Aspect-Oriented: Programming cross-cutting concerns applied transparently. 15. Reflective: Programming by manipulating the program elements themselves.  16. Array: Programming with powerful array operators that usually make loops unnecessary. Some important Paradigm is. Imperative programming paradigm It is one of the oldest programming paradigms. It features close relation relation to machine architecture. It is based on Von Neumann architecture. It works by changing the program state through assignment statements. It performs step by step task by changing state. The main focus is on how to achieve the goal. The paradigm consists of several statements and after execution of all the result is stored. Advantage: 1. Very simple to implement 2. It contains loops, variables etc. Disadvantage: 1. Complex problem cannot be solved 3. Parallel programming is not possible 2. Less efficient and less productive Imperative programming is divided into three broad categories: Procedural, OOP and parallel processing. These paradigms are as follows: Procedural programming paradigm: This paradigm emphasizes on procedure in terms of under lying machine model. There is no difference in between procedural and imperative approach. It has the ability to reuse the code and it was boon at that time when it was in use because of its reusability. Object oriented programming: The program is written as a collection of classes and object which are meant for communication. The smallest and basic entity is object and all kind of computation is performed on the objects only. More emphasis is on data rather procedure. It can handle almost all kind of real life problems which are today in scenario. Advantages: 1. Data security 3. Code reusability 2. Inheritance 4. Flexible and 5. abstraction is also present Parallel processing approach: Parallel processing is the processing of program instructions by dividing them among multiple processors. A parallel processing system possesses many numbers of processor with the objective of running a program in less time by dividing them. This approach seems to be like divide and conquer. Examples are NESL (one of the oldest one) and C/C++ also supports because of some library function. Declarative programming paradigm: It is divided as Logic, Functional, and Database. In computer science the declarative programming is a style of building programs that expresses logic of computation without talking about its control flow. It often considers programs as theories of some logic. It may simplify writing parallel programs. The focus is on what needs to be done rather how it should be done basically emphasizing on what code is actually doing. It just declares the result we want rather how it has be produced. This is the only difference between imperative (how to do) and declarative (what to do) programming paradigms. Getting into deeper we would see logic, functional and database. Logic programming paradigms: It can be termed as abstract model of computation. It would solve logical problems like puzzles, series etc. In logic programming we have a knowledge base which we know before and along with the question and knowledge base which is given to machine, it produces result. In normal programming languages, such concept of knowledge base is not available but while using the concept of artificial intelligence, machine learning we have some models like Perception model which is using the same mechanism. In logical programming the main emphasize is on knowledge base and the problem. The execution of the program is very much like proof of mathematical statement, e.g., Prolog Functional programming paradigms: The functional programming paradigms have its roots in mathematics and it is language independent. The key principal of these paradigms is the execution of series of mathematical functions. The central model for the abstraction is the function which is meant for some specific computation and not the data structure. Data are loosely coupled to functions. The function hides their implementation. Function can be replaced with their values without changing the meaning of the program. Some of the languages like Perl, JavaScript mostly uses this paradigm. Database/Data driven programming approach: This programming methodology is based on data and its movement. Program statements are defined by data rather than hard-coding a series of steps. A database program is the heart of a business information system and provides file creation, data entry, update, query and reporting functions. There are several programming languages that are developed mostly for database application. For example SQL. It is applied to streams of structured data, for filtering, transforming, aggregating (such as computing statistics), or calling other programs. So it has its own wide application. Basics of Popular Operating Systems (Windows and Linux) Windows Microsoft Windows is a group of several graphical operating system families, all of which are developed, marketed and sold by Microsoft. Each family caters to a certain sector of the computing industry. Active Microsoft Windows families include Windows NT and Windows IoT; these may encompass subfamilies, e.g. Windows Server or Windows Embedded Compact (Windows CE). Defunct Microsoft Windows families include Windows 9x, Windows Mobile and Windows Phone. Windows is a series of operating systems developed by Microsoft. Each version of Windows includes a graphical user interface, with a desktop that allows users to view files and folders in windows. For the past two decades, Windows has been the most widely used operating system for personal computers PCs. Microsoft Windows is designed for both home computing and professional purposes. Past versions of Windows home editions include Windows 3.0 (1990), Windows 3.1 (1992), Windows 95 (1995), Windows 98 (1998), Windows Me (2000), Windows XP (2001), and Windows Vista (2006). The current version, Windows 7, was released in 2009. The first business-oriented version of Windows, called Windows NT 3.1, was in 1993. This was followed by Windows 3.5, 4.0, and Windows 2000. When Microsoft released Windows XP in 2001, the company simply created different editions of the operating system for personal and business purposes. Windows Vista and Windows 7 have followed the same release strategy. Windows is designed to run on standard x86 hardware, such as Intel and AMD processors. Therefore, it can be installed on multiple brands of hardware, such as Dell, HP, and Sony computers, as well as home-built PCs. Windows 7 also includes several touchscreen features, that allow the operating system to run on certain tablets and computers with touchscreen displays. Best Features of Windows Operating System 1. Speed: Even aside from incompatibilities and other issues that many people had with Vista, one of the most straightforward was speed – it just felt too sluggish compared to XP, even on pumped up hardware. You can also expect faster boot times. And the boot sequence is now not only prettier than it was with Vista, but it’s speedier too. 2. Compatibility: 3. Lower Hardware Requirements: 4. Search and Organization 5. Safety and Security: 6. Interface and Desktop 7. Taskbar/Start menu Some other features of Windows oprating system are  1. Control panel 6. Internet browser 11. Setting 2. Desktop 7. Microsoft pain 12. System 3. Device manager 8. Notepad information 4. Event viewer 9. Task menu 13. Task manager 5. File explorer 10. Registry editor 14. Search box Advantages and Disadvantages of Microsoft Windows 1. The biggest advantage of Windows is that it provides ready-made solutions that can be implemented by just about anyone who’s ever used a computer. 2. Microsoft Office is also 100% compatible with any file or document produced in the office space in America. In fact, MS Office isn’t compatible with other software and systems, so much as other software and systems strive to be compatible with Office! 3. Finally, software services are in large supply when it comes to Windows. From Microsoft’s official services, to Maryland software support, to Microsoft certification training for individuals, there is no lack of software support for Windows. 4. Of course, Windows detractors will tell you that there is more need for software services when it comes to Windows. And while this worldwide operating system is far from trash, it is often not as stable as its Mac or Linux counterparts. 5. The only other major disadvantage of using Windows in the workplace is that over 95% of all viruses and malicious software are written for the Windows OS. This means you have to double-down all security measures if you’re using Microsoft software across the board. Linux operating System Linux is an operating system or a kernel. It is distributed under an open source license. Its functionality list is quite like UNIX. The Linux open source operating system, or Linux OS, is a freely distributable, cross- platform operating system based on Unix that can be installed on PCs, laptops, netbooks, mobile and tablet devices, video game consoles, servers, supercomputers and more. The Linux OS is frequently packaged as a Linux distribution for both desktop and server use, and includes the Linux kernel (the core of the operating system) as well as supporting tools and libraries. Popular Linux OS distributions include Debian, Ubuntu, Fedora, Red Hat and openSUSE. Components of Linux System Linux Operating System has primarily three components 1. Kernel − Kernel is the core part of Linux. It is responsible for all major activities of this operating system. It consists of various modules and it interacts directly with the underlying hardware. Kernel provides the required abstraction to hide low level hardware details to system or application programs. 2. System Library − System libraries are special functions or programs using which application programs or system utilities accesses Kernel's features. These libraries implement most of the functionalities of the operating system and do not requires kernel module's code access rights. 3. System Utility − System Utility programs are responsible to do specialized, individual level tasks. Basic Features Following are some of the important features of Linux Operating System. 1. Portable − Portability means software can works on different types of hardware in same way. Linux kernel and application programs supports their installation on any kind of hardware platform. 2. Open Source − Linux source code is freely available and it is community based development project. Multiple teams work in collaboration to enhance the capability of Linux operating system and it is continuously evolving. 3. Multi-User − Linux is a multiuser system means multiple users can access system resources like memory/ ram/ application programs at same time.  4. Multiprogramming − Linux is a multiprogramming system means multiple applications can run at same time. 5. Hierarchical File System − Linux provides a standard file structure in which system files/ user files are arranged. 6. Shell − Linux provides a special interpreter program which can be used to execute commands of the operating system. It can be used to do various types of operations, call application programs. etc. 7. Security − Linux provides user security using authentication features like password protection/ controlled access to specific files/ encryption of data. Architecture: The architecture of a Linux System consists of the following layers − 4. Hardware layer − Hardware consists of all peripheral devices (RAM/ HDD/ CPU etc.). 5. Kernel − It is the core component of Operating System, interacts directly with hardware, provides low level services to upper layer components. 6. Shell − an interface to kernel, hiding complexity of kernel's functions from users. The shell takes commands from the user and executes kernel's functions. 7. Utilities − Utility programs that provide the user most of the functionalities of an operating systems. The benefits of using Linux Linux now enjoys popularity at its prime, and it's famous among programmers as well as regular computer users around the world. Its main benefits are - 1. It offers a free operating system. You do not have to shell hundreds of dollars to get the OS like Windows! 2. Being open-source, anyone with programming knowledge can modify it. 3. The Linux operating systems now offer millions of programs/applications to choose from, most of them free! 4. Once you have Linux installed you no longer need an antivirus! Linux is a highly secure system. More so, there is a global development community constantly looking at ways to enhance its security. With each upgrade, the OS becomes more secure and robust 5. Linux is the OS of choice for Server environments due to its stability and reliability (Mega-companies like Amazon, Facebook, and Google use Linux for their Servers). A Linux based server could run non- stop without a reboot for years on end. The User Interface As already mentioned, in addition to the hardware, a computer also needs a set of programs—an operating system—to control the devices. This page will discuss the following: 1. There are different kinds of operating systems: such as Windows, Linux and Mac OS 2. There are also different versions of these operating systems, e.g. Windows 7, 8 and 10 3. Operating systems can be used with different user interfaces (UI): text user interfaces (TUI) and graphical user interfaces (GUI) as examples 4. Graphical user interfaces have many similarities in different operating systems: such as the start menu, desktop etc. When you can recognize the typical parts of each operating system’s user interface, you will mostly be able to use Windows and Linux as well as e.g. Mac OS. THE ROLE OF OPERATING SYSTEM IN THE COMPUTER An operating system (OS) is a set of programs which ensures the interoperability of the hardware and software in your computer. The operating system enables, among other things, 1. The identification and activation of devices connected to the computer, 2. The installation and use of programs, and 3. The handling of files. USER INTERFACES A user interface (UI) refers to the part of an operating system, program, or device that allows a user to enter and receive information. A text-based user interface displays text, and its commands are usually typed on a command line using a keyboard. With a graphical user interface, the functions are carried out by clicking or moving buttons, icons and menus by means of a pointing device. The images contain the same information: a directory listing of a computer. You can often carry out the same tasks regardless of which kind of UI you are using. TEXT USER INTERFACE (TUI) Modern graphical user interfaces have evolved from text-based UIs. Some operating systems can still be used with a text-based user interface. In this case, the commands are entered as text (e.g., “cat story.txt”). GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE In most operating systems, the primary user interface is graphical, i.e. instead of typing the commands you manipulate various graphical objects (such as icons) with a pointing device. The underlying principle of different graphical user interfaces (GUIs) is largely the same, so by knowing how to use a Windows UI, you will most likely know how to use Linux or some other GUI. Most GUIs have the following basic components: 1. A start menu with program groups 2. A taskbar showing running programs 3. A desktop 4. Various icons and shortcuts. Using Mouse Using a computer mouse is one of the first steps to properly operating a computer. The mouse allows you to move the cursor and click programs. These steps will show you how to use a PC and MAC computer mouse, whether it is plugged into the computer, wireless, or connect via Bluetooth. Using a PC Computer Mouse 1. Familiarize yourself with the mouse. The front of the mouse points away from you and has two buttons on the left and right which you can click. These allow you to open programs and menus. In the middle of these two buttons is a small wheel, which allows you to scroll up and down pages. a. You can use your index finger to click the left button and the middle finger to click the right one. b. On the bottom of the mouse is a censor that allows the mouse to know where to move. c. A wireless mouse may have a compartment to insert a battery, and it may have an on and off button.  2. Place the mouse on a clean, smooth surface, preferably a mouse pad. This allows the mouse to move without interference. You may have issues with the mouse if it is not on a mouse pad, such as it not scrolling smoothly. 3. Grip the mouse lightly in your dominant hand. You don’t want to hang on to the mouse too tightly or click with a lot of force. Keep your fingers relaxed, and keep the mouse at elbow level. If your fingers become tired, take breaks from the computer. 4. Plug in the mouse with its USB connector. Your mouse will have a cable extending from it, or it will come with a small USB connector if it is wireless. USB ports are located in different areas for every computer, but in general, laptops will have USB ports on the left or right side of the keyboard; most desktops will have a USB on the front or back of the modem or either side of the monitor. a. Look for a small square port about the size of your USB connector. b. Insert the USB connector. Flip the USB connector upside down if it does not fit the first time, but never force the USB connector in. 5. Connect the mouse via Bluetooth if necessary. Plug the Bluetooth transceiver into a USB port, then press and hold the connect button on the USB transceiver for five seconds. Next, the connection wizard will pop up, so follow the instructions in the wizard to connect your device. 6. Make sure the mouse is working. Your computer should be on, and you should see a cursor on the screen you can control by moving your mouse. If the mouse isn’t working, try plugging it in to a Different USB port or plugging it in again. Also, make sure a wireless mouse is on and has batteries. 7. Practice clicking with the mouse. The left button is the primary button for right-handed users, and the right button is the primary button for left-handed users. Click the primary button once to click on something and twice in a row to “double click” on a program or menu. When clicking the non-primary button, this is called “right-clicking.” a. Single-clicking often selects an item or opens a menu. b. Double-clicking often opens items or folders. c. Right-clicking usually displays a list of things you can do with a selected item. 8. Practice scrolling and dragging items with the mouse. Move the wheel with your pointer finger to scroll up and down pages. To drag an object, place the cursor on it, then press and hold down the primary button, and move the mouse to a new location. Release the primary button once you are done. 9. Customize the mouse as needed. You can change how quickly your mouse pointer moves on the screen, change the mouse’s primary buttons if you’re left handed, and even change the pointer’s appearance. Go to the settings on your PC to do this. Organizing Desktop components The graphical desktop environment should not pose any problems for former Windows* or Macintosh* users. The main components of the desktop are the icons on the desktop and the panel at the bottom of the screen. Desktop icons represent files, directories, applications, functions, and removable media, like CDs or DVDs. The desktop has the following icons by default: 1. Trash: Contains files and folders that have been deleted. 2. My Computer: Displays information about hardware, network status, operating system, hard disks, common folders, and removable devices. 3. Network Browsing: Displays network services you can access. Some of the services might require authentication. 4. Printer The panel is a bar, typically located at the top or the bottom of the screen. It is designed to provide information about running applications or the system and easy access to some important functions or applications. If you hold your pointer over an icon, a short description is displayed. The panel typically consists of the following areas: 1. Main Menu Icon: By default, the left end of the panel has an icon that opens the main menu, similar to the start button on the MS Windows desktop. The main menu has a well-ordered structure for  accessing the main applications. It also contains menu items for major functions like logging out or searching for applications. 2. Quick Launcher: Next to the main menu icon, find the quick launcher. It holds some icons for the most important functions or applications to enable you to start them without going through the main menu. 3. Desktop Previewer: Next to the quick launcher, find the desktop previewer, which shows your different desktops. These virtual desktops enable you to organize your work. If you use many programs simultaneously, you might want to run some programs in one desktop and other program in the other desktop. To switch between desktops, click the desktop symbol in the panel. 4. Taskbar: The taskbar is located next to the desktop previewer. By default, all started applications and open windows are displayed in the taskbar, which allows you to access any application regardless of the currently active desktop. If you click a window title in the taskbar, the application is moved to the foreground. If it is already in the foreground, clicking minimizes the application. 5. System Tray: The rightmost part of the panel usually holds the system clock, the volume control, and several other helper applications. Managing the Trash Bin The trash bin is a directory for files marked for deletion. Drag icons from the file manager or the desktop to the trash bin icon by keeping the left mouse button pressed. Then release to drop them there. Alternatively, right-click an icon and select Move to Trash from the menu. Click the trash bin icon to view its contents. You can retrieve an item from the trash if desired. Files removed with Delete are not moved to the trash bin, but deleted completely. To delete the files in the trash bin completely, right-click the trash bin icon then click Empty Trash Bin. Running an Application Now that you have a computer, you probably want to run and manage software programs, from programs that manage your finances to a great animated game of bingo. By using the best methods for accessing and running programs on your computer, you save time and make your life easier. You can open, or launch, a program by using any of the following four methods: Choose Start→All Programs. Click the program name on the All Programs list that appears. You see a list of programs; just click the program on that sublist to open it. Double-click a program shortcut icon on the desktop. Click an item on the taskbar. The taskbar should display by default; if it doesn’t, press the Windows logo key (on your keyboard) to display it and then click an icon on the taskbar, just to the right of the Start button. If you used the program recently and saved a document, choose it from the list of recently used programs displayed when you first open the Start menu. Then click a document created in that program from the list that displays. When the application opens, if it’s a game, play it; if it’s a spreadsheet, enter numbers into it; if it’s your e-mail program, start deleting junk mail... you get the idea. File Folders and Directory management features File management in windows can be done through Windows explorer or My Computer. Windows Explorer displays the hierarchical list of files, folders, and storage drives (both fixed and removable) on your computer. It also lists any network drives that have been mapped to as a drive letters on your computer. Windows Explorer can be used to copy, move, rename, and search for files and folders. For example, to copy a file, you can open a folder that contains the desired file to be copied or moved and then just drag and drop the file to target folder or drive. When files or folders are deleted from hard disk, Windows places them in the Recycle Bin, from where they can be retrieved, until the Recycle Bin is made empty. Files or folders deleted from a File Management in Windows removable storage media such as network drive are permanently deleted and are not sent to the Recycle Bin. Using Windows Explorer Windows offer another utility "Windows Explorer" which helps you in working with files and folders on your computer. 1. To open Windows Explorer, 2. Click on Start, 3. Point to All Programs, 4. Point to Accessories, and then click on Windows Explorer The left pane of the Explorer window shows a hierarchy of all the drives, folders and desktop items on your computer. A drive or folder that contains other folders has a plus sign to the left of the icon. Click the plus sign to expand it and see the folders inside. Opening drives and folders Two drives nearly all computers have are a floppy drive (drive A:) and a hard drive (drive C:). If you have more than one drive, then they are named D:, E: and so on. If you have a CD drive or a DVD drive, it also is named with a letter. Opening a hard drive is easy. Just double click the icon representing the drive you want to open. Files and folders contained in the drive are now shown in the opened window. Now for opening a folder, double click its icon. 1. Coping or Moving a file or Folder using My Document 2. Click on Start, and then click on My Documents. 3. Click the file or folder to be copied. More than one file or folder can be copied at a time. 4. To select more than one consecutive files or folders, click the first file or folder, press and hold down SHIFT key, and then click the last files or folders. Opening drives and folders  1. To select non-consecutive files or folders, press and hold down CTRL key, and then click each of the files or folders to be copied. 2. Under Edit menu, select Copy. 3. Select the target drive or folder to which you want to copy the files 4. Under Edit menu, select Paste to copy the desired file or folder to the target drive. View file details 1. Click on Start, and then click on My Documents. 2. Double-click the folder that contains the files to be viewed. 3. On the View menu, click Details. 4. It will display all the details about the files such as Name, Type, size etc. Copying and moving files using Explorer 1. Click Start, point to All Programs, point to Accessories, and then click Windows Explorer. 2. Make sure the destination for the file or folder you want to move is visible. 3. Drag the file or folder from the right pane and drop it on to the destination folder in the left pane to move the file or folder there. 4. If you drag an item while pressing the right mouse button, you can move, copy, or create a shortcut to the file in its new location. 5. To copy the item instead of moving it, press and hold down CTRL while dragging. 6. If you drag an item to another disk, it is copied, not moved. To move the item, press and hold down SHIFT while dragging. 7. Dragging a program to a new location creates a shortcut to that program. To move a program, right-click and then drag the program to the new location. Copying and Moving the Files Create a new folder Folders help you to organize your files. You can create a folder either by using My Computer window or through Windows Explorer. You can create a Folder in any existing disk drive or folder or on the windows desktop. The steps for creating a folder are: 1. Click on Start, and then click on My Documents 2. Under File menu click New and select Folder. 3. A new folder is displayed with the default name, New Folder. 4. Type a name for the new folder, and then press ENTER. 5. A new folder can also be created directly on the desktop by right-clicking a blank area on the desktop, pointing to New, and then clicking Folder. Rename a file or folder 1. Click on Start, and then click on My Documents 2. Click on the file or folder you want to rename. 3. Under File menu click on Rename. 4. Type the new name, and then press ENTER key. 5. Alternately file or folder can also be renamed by right-clicking it and then clicking on Rename. Delete a file or folder 1. Click on Start, and then click on My Documents 2. Click on the file or folder you want to delete. 3. Under File menu click on Delete. 4. Files or folders can also be deleted by right-clicking the file or folder and then clicking Delete. 5. Deleted files or folders are stored in the Recycle Bin, till they are permanently removed from the Recycle Bin. 6. To retrieve a deleted file, double-click the Recycle Bin icon on the desktop. Right-click on the file to be retrieved, and then click Restore. 7. To permanently delete a file, press and hold down SHIFT key and drag it to the Recycle Bin. Using Help In computing, Help usually refers to online documentation. Many programs come with the instruction manual, or a portion of the manual, integrated into the program. If you encounter a problem or forget command while running the program, you can summon the documentation by pressing a designated Help key or entering a HELP command. In Windows, the Help key is the function key labeled F1. Using the Help System Once you summon the Help system, the program often displays a menu of Help topics. You can choose the appropriate topic for whatever problem you are currently encountering. The program will then display a help screen that contains the desired documentation. Some programs are more sophisticated, displaying different Help messages depending on where you are in the program. Such systems are said to be context sensitive. The Macintosh Help system is often referred to as Balloon Help because the help messages appear in a cartoon- like balloon. Newer Macs also have something called Interactive Help, which contains tutorials that show you how to perform different operations. Help may refer to any of the following: 1. Help is a term used to describe the process of assisting another person with a problem. 2. Help is an MS-DOS, Windows command line, and Linux command to list an overview of commands and a quick way to find help. 3. Help is an available option or menu in most software programs that allow users to search and find answers to questions they may have about that program. Most Microsoft Windows programs can access help by using the F1 function key on the keyboard. Creating Short cuts Shortcuts are a great way to quickly access programs, files, folders, and even web pages. They can be conveniently placed on your desktop or in certain directories or folders. There are a few methods used to achieve these results. To proceed, make your selection from the list below follow the steps below. Create a shortcut using Microsoft's wizard This method allows users to create shortcuts on the Windows desktop or in a folder. 1. Right-click a blank space on the Windows desktop, a folder, or in directory. 2. Move your mouse cursor over New in the drop-down menu that appears. 3. Then select Shortcut. 4. On the Create Shortcut window, click the Browse button. 5. Locate the program for which you’d like to create a shortcut (A) and then click OK (B). 6. Click the Next button. 7. Type in a name for the shortcut, then click the Finish button. Create a shortcut from a folder 1. Open the Windows File Explorer by pressing the Windows key and E at the same time. 2. Browse to the folder that contains the program for which you'd like to create a shortcut. 3. Right-click on the program and select Create Shortcut from the drop-down menu that appears. 4. Doing so creates a shortcut named "