FL1_Chapter 1: English Grammar PDF

LMD MI Mathematics and Informatics (L1/S1) Foreign Language 1 Notes of Course and Workshops Boualem ALLECHE Prof...

LMD MI Mathematics and Informatics (L1/S1) Foreign Language 1 Notes of Course and Workshops Boualem ALLECHE Professor Under Construction Faculty of Science Department MI University of Médéa ii Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) Contents Contents iv 1 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar 1 1.1 Tenses in English................................. 1 1.1.1 Simple Tense................................ 1 1.1.2 Continuous (Progressive) Tense..................... 13 1.1.3 Perfect Tense................................ 16 1.1.4 Perfect Continuous (Progressive) Tense................. 20 1.1.5 Imperative Mood............................. 23 1.1.6 Conditional Mood............................. 24 1.1.7 Subjunctive Mood............................. 25 1.2 Parts of Speech in English............................ 28 1.2.1 Nouns................................... 28 1.2.2 Pronouns.................................. 29 1.2.3 Verbs.................................... 31 1.2.4 Conjunctions................................ 32 1.2.5 Interjections................................ 32 1.2.6 Prepositions................................ 33 1.2.7 Adjectives................................. 33 1.2.8 Adverbs.................................. 35 1.3 Structures of Phrases in English......................... 36 1.3.1 Using Pronouns Correctly........................ 36 1.3.2 Auxiliary verbs.............................. 39 1.3.3 Building Blocks of Phrases........................ 42 1.3.4 Active and Passive Voice......................... 46 1.3.5 Reported speech.............................. 46 2 Vocabulary, Expression and Technical Texts 49 2.1 Computing and Internet: Technical Vocabulary................ 49 Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) iv Contents 2.2 Construction of Technical Texts in English................... 49 Bibliography 51 Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) Chapter 1 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar 1.1 Tenses in English 1.1.1 Simple Tense 1.1.1.1 Present Simple The present simple tense is used when stating general facts or true statements that have no time. In other words, we use the present simple to express facts and when something happens regularly. ☛ Fact: The sun shines every day. ☛ Regularity: He goes to work every day. ☛ The verb "to be" describes the identity, qualities, or condition of a person or object. ☛ I am ☛ you are ☛ he is ☛ she is ☛ it is ☛ we are ☛ they are Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 2 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar ☛ Place "not" after the verb "to be" to create the negative form of the present tense. ☛ "is not" has the contraction "isn’t", "are not" has the contraction "aren’t", but there is no contraction for "am not". ☛ I am not ☛ you are not ☛ he is not ☛ she is not ☛ it is not ☛ we are not ☛ they are not ☛ Place the verb to be before the subject to create the question form of the present tense. ☛ am I ☛ are you ☛ is he ☛ is she ☛ is it ☛ are we ☛ are they ☛ The verb "to have" describes the fact of possessing, owning, or holding. ☛ Use the following to form the present tense of the verb "to have". ☛ I have ☛ you have ☛ he has ☛ she has ☛ it has ☛ we have ☛ they have ☛ Place "do not" or "does not" before the verb "to have" to create a negative sentence. ☛ It is important to note that "have" is always used in the negative form and never "has". ☛ The negative form of the present tense of the verb "to have" can also be expressed with the contraction "don’t" or "doesn’t". ☛ I do not have ☛ you do not have Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.1 Tenses in English 3 ☛ he does not have ☛ she does not have ☛ it does not have ☛ we do not have ☛ they do not have ☛ Place "do" or "does" before the subject to create questions with the verb "to have". ☛ As with the negative form, "have" is used for all persons and never "has". ☛ do I have ☛ do you have ☛ does he have ☛ does she have ☛ does it have ☛ do we have ☛ do they have ☛ Add "s" (or "es" in some special cases) to the verb for he, she, and it. ☛ I need ☛ you need ☛ he needs ☛ she needs ☛ it needs ☛ we need ☛ they need ☛ Add "es" to the verb for he, she, and it according to the following rules: 1. The verb ends with "z, s (ss), x, ch, or sh": ☛ I wash the car ☛ you wash the car ☛ he washes the car ☛ she washes the car ☛ it washes the car ☛ we wash the car ☛ they wash the car 2. The verb ends with "o": ☛ I go to school ☛ You go to school Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 4 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar ☛ He goes to school ☛ She goes to school ☛ It goes to school ☛ We go to school ☛ They go to school 3. The verb ends with "y" preceded by a consonant : change the "y" to i before adding "es": ☛ I try very hard ☛ You try very hard ☛ He tries very hard ☛ She tries very hard ☛ It tries very hard ☛ We try very hard ☛ They try very hard ☛ Place "do not" or "does not" before the verb to create the negative form of the present simple tense. ☛ The simple form of the verb is always used, and it is also called "infinitive". Never add "s" to "he", "she", and "it" in the negative form of the present simple tense. ☛ The negative form of the present simple tense can also be expressed with the con- traction "don’t" or "doesn’t". ☛ I do not wear ☛ you do not wear ☛ he does not wear ☛ she does not wear ☛ it does not wear ☛ we do not wear ☛ they do not wear ☛ Place "do" or "does" before the subject to create questions in the present simple tense. ☛ The simple form of the verb is used when creating questions in the present simple tense. ☛ do I dream ☛ do you work ☛ does he see ☛ does she wear ☛ does it hate Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.1 Tenses in English 5 ☛ do we want ☛ do they own ☛ As their name implies, negative interrogative sentences (sometimes called interro- negative sentences) are interrogative sentences that are made negative. ☛ In addition to asking literal questions, negative interrogative sentences are often used to imply that the speaker is expecting a certain answer or for emphatic effect. ☛ Here are some examples of phrases in the present simple tense: ☛ Don’t you have a dollar? ☛ Are you not aware of the consequences of your actions? ☛ Haven’t you seen my wallet? ☛ Such a form of phrases exists in all tenses. 1.1.1.2 Past Simple The past simple tense, also called Preterit is used to describe an action that happened in the recent past. In other words, we use the past simple to talk about finished actions in the past. ☛ I bought a new schoolbag last week. ☛ I passed my Baccalaureate in June. ☛ The past simple tense of the verb "to be" is created by using "was" or "were" in place of "am", "is", and "are". ☛ I was ☛ you were ☛ he was ☛ she was ☛ it was ☛ we were ☛ they were ☛ Place "not" after the past tense form of the verb "to be" to create a negative sentence. ☛ The negative form of the past simple tense of the verb "to be" can also be expressed with the contraction "wasn’t" or "weren’t". ☛ I was not ☛ you were not ☛ he was not Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 6 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar ☛ she was not ☛ it was not ☛ we were not ☛ they were not ☛ Place "was" or "were" before the subject to form questions in the past tense of the verb "to be". ☛ was I ☛ were you ☛ was he ☛ was she ☛ was it ☛ were we ☛ were they ☛ Follow these rules to create the past simple tense with regular verbs. They have the same form for all persons. ☛ There are some rules for the pronunciation of the past simple ending: ed can be pronounced "t", "d" or "id". 1. Add ed to the simple form of the verb. For example, to visit: ☛ I visited ☛ you visited ☛ he visited ☛ she visited ☛ it visited ☛ we visited ☛ they visited 2. Add only d to the simple form of the verb if the verb end in e. For example, to believe: ☛ I believed ☛ You believed ☛ He believed ☛ She believed ☛ It believed ☛ We believed ☛ They believed 3. Delete y and add ied to the simple form of the verb if the verb ends in y preceded Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.1 Tenses in English 7 by a consonant. For example, to cry: ☛ I cried ☛ You cried ☛ He cried ☛ She cried ☛ It cried ☛ We cried ☛ They cried ☛ Some verbs do not use the ed ending to express the past tense. These are irregular verbs. ☛ They have the same form for all persons in the past tense, and they must be memo- rized. ☛ Here is the list of irregular verbs. Simple form Past Simple Past participle awake awoke awoken be was/were been beat beat beaten become became become begin began begun bend bent bent bet bet bet bite bit bitten bleed bled bled blow blew blown break broke broken bring brought brought broadcast broadcast broadcast build built built burn burned/burnt burned/burnt burst burst burst buy bought bought cast cast cast catch caught caught choose chose chosen come came come cost cost cost creep crept crept cut cut cut Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 8 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar Simple form Past Simple Past participle deal dealt dealt dig dug dug dive dived/dove dived/dove do did done draw drew drawn dream dreamed/dreamt dreamed/dreamt drink drank drunk drive drove driven eat ate eaten fall fell fallen feed fed fed feel felt felt fight fought fought find found found fit fit fit flee fled fled fly flew flown forbid forbade forbidden forget forgot forgotten forgive forgave forgiven freeze froze frozen get got got/gotten give gave given go went gone grind ground ground grow grew grown hang hung hung have had had hear heard heard hide hid hidden hit hit hit hold held held hurt hurt hurt keep kept kept kneel knelt knelt knit knitted/knit knitted/knit know knew known lay (place, put down) laid laid lead led led Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.1 Tenses in English 9 Simple form Past Simple Past participle leave left left lend lent lent let let let lie (to lie down) lay lain light lit lit lose lost lost make made made mean meant meant meet met met mistake mistook mistaken pay paid paid prove proved proved/proven put put put quit quit quit read read read ride rode ridden ring rang rung rise rose risen run ran run say said said see saw seen seek sought sought sell sold sold send sent sent set set set sew sewed sewed/sewn shake shook shaken shave shaved shaved/shaven shear sheared sheared/shorn shed shed shed shine shined/shone shined/shone shoot shot shot show showed shown shrink shrank shrunk shut shut shut sing sang sung sink sank sunk sit sat sat Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 10 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar Simple form Past Simple Past participle sleep slept slept slide slid slid speak spoke spoken spend spent spent spill spilled/spilt spilled/spilt spin spun spun spit spit/spat spit/spat split split split spread spread spread spring sprang sprung stand stood stood steal stole stolen stick stuck stuck sting stung stung strike struck struck swear swore sworn sweep swept swept swell swelled swelled/swollen swim swam swum swing swung swung take took taken teach taught taught tear tore torn tell told told think thought thought throw threw thrown understand understood understood upset upset upset wake woke woken wear wore worn weep wept wept win won won write wrote written ☛ Place did not after the subject and use the simple form of the verb to create the negative form of the past simple tense for regular and irregular verbs. ☛ The negative form of the past simple tense can also be expressed with the contrac- tion didn’t. Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.1 Tenses in English 11 ☛ I did not break ☛ you did not answer ☛ he did not believe ☛ she did not pass ☛ it did not jump ☛ we did not sell ☛ they did not touch ☛ Place did before the subject to create questions in the simple past tense. ☛ The simple form of the verb is always used when creating questions in the simple past tense with regular and irregular verbs. ☛ did I eat ☛ did you eat ☛ did he eat ☛ did she eat ☛ did it eat ☛ did we eat ☛ did they eat 1.1.1.3 Future Simple The future simple tense is used to describe actions or states that begin and end in the future. These events have not happened yet, but will happen sometime in the future. ☛ I will meet her at the mall. ☛ The monkeys will eat any bananas that their handlers give them. ☛ Use "will" to create the future simple tense for all persons. The simple form of the verb always follows "will". ☛ The future simple tense can also be expressed with the contraction "’ll". ☛ I will ☛ you will ☛ he will ☛ she will ☛ it will ☛ we will ☛ they will Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 12 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar ☛ Place "not" after "will" to create the negative form of the future simple tense. The simple form of the verb always follows "will not". ☛ The negative form of the future simple tense with "will" can be expressed with the contraction "won’t". ☛ I will not ☛ you will not ☛ he will not ☛ she will not ☛ it will not ☛ we will not ☛ they will not ☛ Place "will" before the subject to create questions in the future simple tense. ☛ The simple form of the verb is always used when forming questions with "will". ☛ will I ☛ will you ☛ will he ☛ will she ☛ will it ☛ will we ☛ will they ☛ The future simple tense can also be expressed by using "be going to". ☛ Use the correct form of the verb "to be" for each person. ☛ The simple form of the verb always follows "be going to". ☛ I am going to ☛ you are going to ☛ he is going to ☛ she is going to ☛ it is going to ☛ we are going to ☛ they are going to ☛ Place "not" after the verb "to be" to create the negative form of the future simple tense with "be going to". The simple form of the verb always follows the negative form of "be going to". ☛ The negative form of the future simple tense with "be going to" can also be ex- pressed with the contraction "isn’t" or "aren’t". There is no contraction for "am not". Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.1 Tenses in English 13 ☛ I am not going to ☛ you are not going to ☛ he is not going to ☛ she is not going to ☛ it is not going to ☛ we are not going to ☛ they are not going to ☛ Place the verb "to be" before the subject to create questions in the future simple tense of "be going to". ☛ The simple form of the verb is always used when forming questions with "be going to". ☛ am I going to ☛ are you going to ☛ is he going to ☛ is she going to ☛ is it going to ☛ are we going to ☛ are they going to 1.1.2 Continuous (Progressive) Tense 1.1.2.1 Present Continuous ☛ The present continuous is used to describe an activity that is presently in progress. ☛ I am studying. ☛ You are concentring. ☛ It is formed using the verb "to be" and by adding "ing" to the simple form of the verb. ☛ I am drinking ☛ you are drinking ☛ he is drinking ☛ she is drinking ☛ it is drinking ☛ we are drinking ☛ they are drinking Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 14 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar ☛ Place "not" after the verb "to be" to create the negative form of the present continu- ous tense. ☛ The negative form of the present continuous tense can also be expressed with the contraction "isn’t" or "aren’t". There is no contraction for "am not". ☛ I am not following ☛ you are not following ☛ he is not following ☛ she is not following ☛ it is not following ☛ we are not following ☛ they are not following ☛ Place the verb "to be" before the subject to create questions in the present continu- ous tense. ☛ am I watching ☛ are you watching ☛ is he watching ☛ is she watching ☛ is it watching ☛ are we watching ☛ are they watching 1.1.2.2 Past Continuous ☛ The past continuous is used to describe an activity that happened and continued for a period of time in the past. ☛ I was studying. ☛ You were concentring. ☛ It is formed using the past tense of the verb "to be" and by adding "ing" to the simple form of the verb. ☛ I was using ☛ you were using ☛ he was using ☛ she was using ☛ it was using ☛ we were using Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.1 Tenses in English 15 ☛ they were using ☛ Place "not" after the past tense form of the verb to be to create the negative form of the past continuous tense. ☛ The negative form of the past continuous tense can also be expressed with the con- traction "wasn’t" or "weren’t". ☛ I was not moving ☛ you were not moving ☛ he was not moving ☛ she was not moving ☛ it was not moving ☛ we were not moving ☛ they were not moving ☛ Place the past tense form of the verb "to be" before the subject to create questions in the past continuous tense. ☛ was I swimming ☛ were you swimming ☛ was he swimming ☛ was she swimming ☛ was it swimming ☛ were we swimming ☛ were they swimming 1.1.2.3 Future Continuous ☛ The future continuous is used to describe an action happening over a period of time in the future. ☛ I will be studying. ☛ You will be concentring. ☛ It is formed using "will be" and by adding "ing" to the simple form of the verb. ☛ I will be drinking ☛ you will be drinking ☛ he will be drinking ☛ she will be drinking ☛ it will be drinking Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 16 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar ☛ we will be drinking ☛ they will be drinking ☛ Place "not" between "will" "be" to create the negative form of the present continuous tense. ☛ I will not be trying ☛ you will not be trying ☛ he will not be trying ☛ she will not be trying ☛ it will not be trying ☛ we will not be trying ☛ they will not be trying ☛ Place "will" before the subject to create questions in the present continuous tense. ☛ will I be watching ☛ will you be watching ☛ will he be watching ☛ will she be watching ☛ will it be watching ☛ will we be watching ☛ will they be watching Remark: these verbs are not normally used in Continuous Tenses!!!! like love hate want need prefer know realize suppose mean understand believe remember belong contain consist depend seem 1.1.3 Perfect Tense 1.1.3.1 Present Perfect ☛ The present perfect tense is used when the time of a past activity is not important or is not known in the sentence. ☛ She has slept for two ten hours. ☛ You have studied since you were child. ☛ Use "has" or "have" and the "past participle" of the verb with both regular and irregular verbs to form the present perfect tense. ☛ Contractions can also be used with the pronouns to create the present perfect tense. ☛ The past participle of all regular verbs is the same as the past simple tense form. Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.1 Tenses in English 17 ☛ I have worked ☛ you have worked ☛ he has worked ☛ she has worked ☛ it has worked ☛ we have worked ☛ they have worked ☛ Place "not" after "has" or "have" to create the negative form of the present perfect tense. ☛ Use the past participle of the verb in the negative form. ☛ The negative form of the present perfect tense can also be expressed with the con- traction "hasn’t" or "haven’t". ☛ I have not seen ☛ you have not seen ☛ he has not seen ☛ she has not seen ☛ it has not seen ☛ we have not seen ☛ they have not seen ☛ Place "has" or "have" before the subject to create questions with the present perfect tense. ☛ The past participle of the verb is used when forming questions with the present perfect tense. ☛ have I begun ☛ have you begun ☛ has he begun ☛ has she begun ☛ has it begun ☛ have we begun ☛ have they begun 1.1.3.2 Past Perfect ☛ The past perfect tense is used to describe a past action that occurred before another past action. For example, one past action occurred at 8:00 p.m., and the previous past action occurred at 7:00 p.m. Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 18 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar ☛ She had slept until I arrived. ☛ You had studied before the exam. ☛ Use "had" for all persons and the past participle of the verb to create the past perfect tense. ☛ The contraction "’d" is often used with the pronouns when using the past perfect tense. ☛ I had heard ☛ you had heard ☛ he had heard ☛ she had heard ☛ it had heard ☛ we had heard ☛ they had heard ☛ Place "not" after "had" to create the negative form of the past perfect tense. ☛ The past participle of the verb is always used in the negative form. ☛ The negative form of the past perfect tense can also be expressed with the contrac- tion "hadn’t". ☛ I had not run ☛ you had not run ☛ he had not run ☛ she had not run ☛ it had not run ☛ we had not run ☛ they had not run ☛ Place "had" before the subject to create the question form of the past perfect tense. ☛ The past participle of the verb is used when forming questions in the past perfect tense. ☛ had I worked ☛ had you worked ☛ had he worked ☛ had she worked ☛ had it worked ☛ had we worked ☛ had they worked Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.1 Tenses in English 19 1.1.3.3 Future Perfect ☛ The future perfect tense is used to describe an action that will happen in the future before another action happens. ☛ He will have finished before I arrive. ☛ You will have revised before the exam. ☛ Place "will" after the subject and use "have" for all persons to create the future perfect tense. ☛ The past participle of the verb is used for both regular and irregular verbs. ☛ I will have built ☛ you will have built ☛ he will have built ☛ she will have built ☛ it will have built ☛ we will have built ☛ they will have built ☛ The future perfect negative form is used to describe an action that will not happen in the future before another action happens. ☛ Place "not" after "will" and use "have" for all persons. The past participle of the verb is used for both regular and irregular verbs. ☛ The contraction "won’t" can be used in place of "will not" when using the future perfect negative form. ☛ I will not have left ☛ you will not have left ☛ he will not have left ☛ she will not have left ☛ it will not have left ☛ we will not have left ☛ they will not have left ☛ Place "will" before the subject to create questions with the future perfect tense. ☛ The past participle of the verb is used when forming questions with the future per- fect. tense. ☛ will I have had ☛ will you have had Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 20 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar ☛ will he have had ☛ will she have had ☛ will it have had ☛ will we have had ☛ will they have had 1.1.4 Perfect Continuous (Progressive) Tense 1.1.4.1 Present Perfect Continuous ☛ The present perfect continuous tense is used to talk about something that started in the past and is continuing at the present time. ☛ I have been working since the morning. ☛ You have been studying for hours. ☛ Use "has been" or "have been" and add "ing" to the simple form of the verb to form the present perfect continuous tense. ☛ I have been swimming ☛ you have been swimming ☛ he has been swimming ☛ she has been swimming ☛ it has been swimming ☛ we have been swimming ☛ they have been swimming ☛ Place "not" between "has" or "have" and "been" to create the negative form of the present perfect continuous tense. ☛ The negative form of the present perfect tense can also be expressed with the con- traction "hasn’t" or "haven’t". ☛ I have not been sleeping ☛ you have not been sleeping ☛ he has not been sleeping ☛ she has not been sleeping ☛ it has not been sleeping ☛ we have not been sleeping ☛ they have not been sleeping ☛ Place "has" or "have" before the subject to create questions with the present perfect Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.1 Tenses in English 21 continuous tense. ☛ have I been drinking ☛ have you been drinking ☛ has he been drinking ☛ has she been drinking ☛ has it been drinking ☛ have we been drinking ☛ have they been drinking 1.1.4.2 Past Perfect Continuous ☛ The past perfect continuous tense is used to talk about actions or events which started before a particular time in the past and were still in progress up to that time in the past:. For example, one past action occurred at 8:00 p.m., and the previous past action occurred at 7:00 p.m. and was still in progress. ☛ She had been sleeping until I arrived. ☛ You had been studying before the exam. ☛ Use "had been" for all persons and add "ing" to the simple form of the verb to create the past perfect tense. ☛ The contraction "’d" is often used with the pronouns when using the past perfect tense. ☛ I had been working ☛ you had been working ☛ he had been working ☛ she had been working ☛ it had been working ☛ we had been working ☛ they had been working ☛ Place "not" between "had" and "been" to create the negative form of the past perfect continuous tense. ☛ The negative form of the past perfect tense can also be expressed with the contrac- tion "hadn’t". ☛ I had not been running ☛ you had not been running ☛ he had not been running Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 22 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar ☛ she had not been running ☛ it had not been running ☛ we had not been running ☛ they had not been running ☛ Place "had" before the subject to create the question form of the past perfect tense. ☛ had I been working ☛ had you been working ☛ had he been working ☛ had she been working ☛ had it been working ☛ had we been working ☛ had they been working 1.1.4.3 Future Perfect continuous ☛ The future perfect continuous tense is used to describe an action that will happen in the future before another action happens and we want to emphasize the length or duration. ☛ I will have been studying English for three years by the end of this course. ☛ In June, she will have been living in Médéa for a year. ☛ Place "will have been" after the subject for all persons add "ing" to the simple form of the verb to create the future perfect continuous tense. ☛ I will have been living ☛ you will have been living ☛ he will have been living ☛ she will have been living ☛ it will have been living ☛ we will have been living ☛ they will have been living ☛ Place "not" after "will". ☛ The contraction "won’t" can be used in place of "will not" when using the future perfect continuous negative form. ☛ I will not have been staying ☛ you will not have been staying Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.1 Tenses in English 23 ☛ he will not have been staying ☛ she will not have been staying ☛ it will not have been staying ☛ we will not have been staying ☛ they will not have been staying ☛ Place "will" before the subject to create questions with the future perfect continuous tense. ☛ will I have been holding ☛ will you have been holding ☛ will he have been holding ☛ will she have been holding ☛ will it have been holding ☛ will we have been holding ☛ will they have been holding 1.1.5 Imperative Mood ☛ The Imperative Mood is a verb form used to express a command or to give advice or instructions. In other words, an imperative sentence gives an order. ☛ Please sit down. ☛ Tell me the truth. ☛ Speak up! ☛ Come back! ☛ Use the base form of a verb to give commands or make direct requests. ☛ Stand, everyone! ☛ Tidy your bedroom immediately! ☛ Choose a partner! ☛ Eat plenty of vegetables. ☛ Find some nice round pebbles. ☛ Come back soon! ☛ Take a sandwich. ☛ Come and look at this, Tom! ☛ Imperatives are a very direct way of telling people to do something. Using "Do" or "Please" before an imperative is more polite. ☛ Do sit down. Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 24 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar ☛ Do check these figures again. ☛ Please help yourselves to some food. ☛ Please don’t change anything on my computer. ☛ You can also use the helping verb would to sound polite. ☛ Please would you clear the table? ☛ Would you please talk quietly? ☛ In the special case of "We", start the phrase by "Let’s". ☛ It’s raining. Let’s go inside. ☛ Let’s go home before it gets dark. 1.1.6 Conditional Mood ☛ The Conditional Mood is also called Conditional Tense. ☛ Conditional moods speculate about what could happen, what might have happened, and what we wish would happen. ☛ Most sentences using the conditional mood contain the word "if". ☛ There are four main ways of constructing conditional sentences. ☛ The zero Conditional is used for when the time being referred to is now or always and the situation is real and possible. It is often used to refer to general truths. ☛ It follows the following structure. "If" clause "Main" clause If + Present Simple Present Simple If this thing happens that thing happens ☛ If you heat ice, it melts. ☛ If it rains, the grass gets wet. ☛ If you don’t brush your teeth, you get cavities. ☛ The type 1 conditional is used to refer to the present or future where the situation is real. It refers to a possible condition and its probable result. ☛ It follows the following structure. "If" clause "Main" clause If + Present Simple Future Simple (Will) If this thing happens that thing will happen ☛ If you don’t hurry, you will miss the train. ☛ If you rest, you will feel better. Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.1 Tenses in English 25 ☛ If you set your mind to a goal, you’ll eventually achieve it. ☛ The type 2 conditional is used to refer to a time that is now or any time, and a sit- uation that is unreal. It is used to refer to a hypothetical condition and its probable result. ☛ It follows the following structure. "If" clause "Main" clause If + Past Simple Would + Past Participle OR Would + Be + Simple Form + ing If this thing happened that thing would happen OR that thing would be happening (but I’m not sure this thing will happen) ☛ If it rained, you would get wet. ☛ If I spoke Italian, I would be working in Italy. ☛ If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travelled to the moon. ☛ The type 3 conditional is used to refer to a time that is in the past, and a situation that is contrary to reality. It is used to refer to an unreal past condition and its probable past result. ☛ It follows the following structure. "If" clause "Main" clause If + Past Perfect Would + Have + Past Participle OR Would + Have Been + Simple Form + ing If this thing had happened that thing would have happened OR that thing would have been happening (but neither of those things really happened) ☛ If you had studied harder, you would have passed the exam. ☛ If it had rained, you would have gotten wet. ☛ If I had accepted that promotion, I would have been working in Milan. 1.1.7 Subjunctive Mood 1.1.7.1 The Present Subjunctive ☛ The "Present Subjunctive" is a special verb form in English used to express some- thing desired or imagined. ☛ It is typically used to refer to future actions or situations. Sentences in the present subjunctive mood have two clauses: Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 26 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar ☛ A main clause that contains either an indicative verb (e.g., "Kahn recommended") or a phrase that starts with "it is" and contains an adjective (e.g., "It is impor- tant"), ☛ A subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood (usually beginning with the conjunction "that"). ☛ Verbs in the present subjunctive do not follow subject-verb agreement. Instead, they take the infinitive form without "to" for all persons. ☛ When the subject of a subjunctive verb is a personal pronoun, it’s always a subject pronoun (e.g., "I", "he", "she", "we"): He insisted I sit down. ☛ Negative constructions using the present subjunctive are formed by adding the ad- verb "not" before the subjunctive verb. ☛ It’s vital that we not miss our flight. ☛ The artist asks that you not touch the paintings. After the following verbs Examples ask (that) The artist asks that you not touch the paintings. command (that) He commanded that something be given to her to eat. demand (that) I demand that you become part of. insist (that) I insist that she stay another night. propose (that) You propose that we begin now. recommend (that) I recommend that he come early tonight. request (that) I request that this statement be in- cluded in. suggest (that) I suggest you try the other restau- rant. Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.1 Tenses in English 27 After the following expressions Examples It is best (that) It’s better he leave before noon. It’s crucial (that) It’s crucial we find a good me- chanic. It’s desirable (that)... It’s essential (that)... It’s important (that) It’s important they meet us at the airport. It’s recommended (that)... It’s urgent (that)... It’s necessary (that)... It’s a good idea (that)... It’s a bad idea (that)... ☛ The subjunctive is only noticeable in the third person singular (he/she/it). The other forms are identical to the present simple: It’s important they meet us at the airport. ☛ The negative form of the subjunctive is formed with "not". ☛ I suggest that you not take that particular job. ☛ The boss insisted that Tony not be late for the meeting. ☛ After many of the above expressions, the structure "should + infinitive" can some- times be used instead of the subjunctive. This form is used more frequently in British English and is most common after the verbs "suggest", "recommend" and "insist". ☛ I recommend that she should see a doctor. ☛ The boss insisted that Tony should not be late for the meeting. 1.1.7.2 The Past Subjunctive ☛ The "Past Subjunctive" is typically used to refer to past or present actions or situa- tions. Sentences in the past subjunctive mood contain two clauses: ☛ A main clause in the indicative mood (often containing the verb "wish"), ☛ A subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood (usually beginning with "that", "if ", or "as if "). ☛ The past subjunctive form of the verb "be" is "were" for all persons (regardless of the subject (e.g., "I were", "he were","she were"). ☛ All other verbs in the past subjunctive form are identical to their simple past tense forms (e.g., "I won"). ☛ Karla acts as if she were famous. ☛ I wish I lived in New York. ☛ When the past subjunctive form is used in an "if " clause, the main clause usu- ally contains a modal verb (normally "would", but sometimes "should", "might", or Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 28 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar "could"): If I were a millionaire, I would set up a charitable organization. ☛ In modern English, "I/he/she/it was" is more common than "I/he/she/it were" — "were" is mainly used in formal styles and in the set phrase "if I were you". ☛ The past subjunctive always refers to unreal situations. If the situation is true, we use a real tense to express present time: ☛ He looks as if he were interested. (he gives the impression that he is interested, but he (probably) isn’t or we simply don’t know) ☛ He looks as if he is interested. (he gives the impression that he is interested, and he probably is) ☛ The subjunctive mood vs. indicative mood: While indicative mood refers to actions or situations that are possible or likely, conditional clauses in the subjunctive mood refer to situations that are impossible or unlikely (conditionl mood). ☛ If he was late for work again, he probably got in trouble. (possible scenario) ☛ If I were you, I would buy a new car. (impossible scenario. Second conditional) After the following expressions Examples In second conditional statements If I were you, I’d apply for that job (Impossible scenario) right away. After "I wish/If only..." I wish I were 10 years younger. If only he didn’t talk so much! After "I’d rather..." I’d rather he weren’t here right now. I’d rather you didn’t call so late. After "It’s time..." It’s time they were here. Where are they? It’s time you called a doctor. After clauses that start with "as if" He looks as if he were interested. or "as though" They seem as though they knew the way home. 1.2 Parts of Speech in English Parts of speech are presented here so that we’ll have a standard way to describe how words are put together to create meaning. 1.2.1 Nouns ☛ A noun is a word that names a person, place, or thing. Nouns come in these vari- eties: common nouns, proper nouns, compound nouns, and collective nouns. 1. Common nouns name any one of a class of person, place, or thing: girl, city, food. Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.2 Parts of Speech in English 29 2. Proper nouns name a specific person, place, or thing. Proper nouns are always capitalized: Barbara, New York City, Rice-a-Roni. 3. Compound nouns are two or more nouns that function as a single unit. A com- pound noun can be two individual words, words joined by a hyphen, or two words combined: ☛ Individual words: time capsule. ☛ Hyphenated words: great-uncle. ☛ Combined words: basketball. 4. Collective nouns name groups of people or things: audience, family, herd, crowd. ☛ We can create two kinds of nouns: Possessive Nouns and Plural Nouns. ☛ Possession shows ownership. Follow these rules to create possessive nouns. ☛ With singular nouns, add an "apostrophe" and an "s": dog’s bone, singer’s voice. ☛ With plural nouns ending in "s", add an "apostrophe" after the "s": dogs’ bones, singers’ voices. ☛ With plural nouns not ending in "s", add an "apostrophe" and an "s": men’s books, mice’s tails. ☛ Here are the guidelines for creating plural nouns. ☛ Add "s" to form the plural of most nouns: cats, computers. ☛ Add "es" if the noun ends in "s", "sh", "ch", or "x": wishes, boxes. ☛ If a noun ends in consonant "y", change the "y" to "i" and add "es": cities, ladies. ☛ If a noun ends in "vowel" and "y", add "s". Words ending in "quy" don’t follow this rule (as in "soliloquies"): essays, monkeys. 1.2.2 Pronouns ☛ A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun or another pronoun. ☛ Pronouns help you avoid unnecessary repetition in your writing and speech. ☛ A pronoun gets its meaning from the noun it stands for. The noun is called the antecedent: Although Seattle is damp, it is my favorite city. (Antecedent = Seattle, Pronoun = it) ☛ There are different kinds of pronouns. Most of them have antecedents, but a few do not. ☛ Personal pronouns refer to a specific person, place, object, or thing. Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 30 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar Singular Plural First person I, me, mine, my we, us, our, ours Second person you, your, yours you, your, yours Third person he, him, his, she, her, hers, it they, them, their, theirs, its ☛ Possessive pronouns show ownership. The possessive pronouns are: your, yours, his, hers, its, ours, their, theirs, whose. ☛ Is this beautiful plant yours? ☛ Yes, it’s ours. ☛ Reflexive pronouns add information to a sentence by pointing back to a noun or pronoun near the beginning of the sentence. Reflexive pronouns end in "self" or "selves". ☛ Tricia bought herself a new car. ☛ All her friends enjoyed themselves riding in the beautiful car. ☛ Intensive pronouns also end in "self" or "selves" but just add emphasis to the noun or pronoun : Tricia herself picked out the car. ☛ Demonstrative pronouns direct attention to a specific person, place, or thing. There are only four demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those. ☛ This is my favorite movie. ☛ That was a fierce rain storm. ☛ Relative pronouns begin a subordinate clause. There are five relative pronouns: that, which, who, whom, those. ☛ Jasper claimed that he could run the washing machine. ☛ Louise was the repair person who fixed the machine after Jasper washed his sneakers. ☛ Interrogative pronouns ask a question. They are: what, which, who, whom, whose. ☛ Who would like to cook dinner? ☛ Which side does the fork go on? ☛ Indefinite pronouns refer to people, places, objects, or things without pointing to a specific one. Here are the most common indefinite pronouns. Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.2 Parts of Speech in English 31 Singular Plural Singular or Plural another anyone each both few all any everyone everybody many others more most everything much several none some nobody nothing other someone anybody anything either little neither no one one somebody something 1.2.3 Verbs ☛ Verbs name an action or describe a state of being. ☛ Every sentence must have a verb. ☛ There are three basic types of verbs: action verbs, linking verbs, and helping verbs. 1.2.3.1 Action Verbs ☛ Action verbs tell what the subject does. The action can be visible (jump, kiss, laugh) or mental (think, learn, study). ☛ The cat broke Louise’s china. ☛ Louise considered buying a new china cabinet. ☛ An action verb can be transitive or intransitive. ☛ Transitive verbs need a direct or indirect object. ☛ The boss dropped the ball. ☛ The workers picked it up. ☛ Intransitive verbs do not need a direct or indirect object. ☛ Who called? ☛ The temperature fell over night. 1.2.3.2 Linking Verbs ☛ Linking verbs join the subject and the predicate. ☛ They do not show action. Instead, they help the words at the end of the sentence name or describe the subject. ☛ The most common linking verbs include: be, feel, grow, seem, smell, remain, appear, sound, stay, look, taste, turn, become. Look for forms of to be, such as am, are, is, was, were, am being, can be, have been, and so on. ☛ The manager was happy about the job change. ☛ He is a good worker. Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 32 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar ☛ Many linking verbs can also be used as action verbs. ☛ Linking: The kids looked sad. ☛ Action: I looked for the dog in the pouring rain. 1.2.3.3 Helping Verbs ☛ Helping verbs are added to another verb to make the meaning clearer. ☛ Helping verbs include any form of to be, do, does, did, have, has, had, shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must. ☛ Verb phrases are made up of one main verb and one or more helping verbs. ☛ They will run before dawn. ☛ They still have not yet found a smooth track. 1.2.4 Conjunctions ☛ Conjunctions connect words or groups of words and show how the words are re- lated. ☛ There are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions, correlative con- junctions, and subordinating conjunctions. 1. Coordinating conjunctions link similar words or word groups. There are seven coor- dinating conjunctions: for and nor but or yet so. 2. Correlative conjunctions also link similar words or word groups, but they are always used in pairs. Here are the correlative conjunctions: both... and either... or neither... nor not only... but also whether... or 3. Subordinating conjunctions link an independent clause (complete sentence) to a de- pendent clause (fragment). Here are the most often used subordinating conjunc- tions: after although as as if as long as as soon as as though because before even though if in order that since so that though till unless until when whenever where wherever 1.2.5 Interjections ☛ Interjections show strong emotion. ☛ Since interjections are not linked grammatically to other words in the sentence, they are set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma or an exclamation mark. ☛ Oh! What a shock you gave me with that gorilla suit. Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.2 Parts of Speech in English 33 ☛ Wow! That’s not a gorilla suit! 1.2.6 Prepositions ☛ Prepositions link a noun or a pronoun following it to another word in the sentence. ☛ A noun or pronoun always follows a preposition. ☛ Use this chart to help you recognize some of the most common prepositions: about above across after against along amid around as at before behind below beneath beside between beyond but by despite down during except for from in inside into like near on onto of off opposite out outside over past since through to toward under underneath until upon with ☛ A prepositional phrase is a preposition and its object. A prepositional phrase can be two or three words long. on the wing in the door ☛ Prepositional phrases also can be much longer, depending on the length of the preposition and the number of words that describe the object of the preposition. ☛ Near the violently swaying oak trees ☛ On account of his nearly depleted bank account 1.2.7 Adjectives ☛ Adjectives are used to describe nouns and pronouns. They are placed before the noun. a little dog a clean house a nice neighbor a good friend a pink flower a busy man a good recipe a blue bucket ☛ Adjectives never take "s" even if the noun is plural. brown cows big snowflakes expensive cars clean floors young girls pretty ribbons dirty shoes soft pillows ☛ Adjectives answer the questions: What kind? How much? Which one? How many? ☛ There are five kinds of adjectives: common adjectives, proper adjectives, com- pound adjectives, articles, and indefinite adjectives. 1. Common adjectives describe nouns or pronouns. strong man green plant beautiful view 2. Proper adjectives are formed from proper nouns. Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 34 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar ☛ California vegetables (from the noun "California"). ☛ Mexican food (from the noun "Mexico"). 3. Compound adjectives are made up of more than one word. ☛ far-off country ☛ teenage person 4. Articles are a special type of adjective. There are three articles: "a", "an", "the". ☛ The article "the" is called a "definite article" because it refers to a specific thing. The articles "a" and "an" are called "indefinite articles" because they refer to gen- eral things. ☛ Use "a" with consonant sounds and use "an" before vowel sounds. 5. Indefinite adjectives don’t specify the specific amount of something. all another any both each either few many more most neither other several some ☛ Follow these guidelines when you use adjectives: 1. Use an adjective to describe a noun or a pronoun. Jesse (noun) was unwilling (adj.) to leave the (adj.) circus (noun). 2. Use "vivid adjectives" to make your writing more specific and descriptive. Take a larger (adj.) slice (noun) of the luscious (adj.) cake (noun). 3. Use an adjective after a linking verb. A linking verb connects a subject with a descriptive word. The most common linking verbs are be (is, am, are, was, were, and so on), seem, appear, look, feel, smell, sound, taste, become, grow, remain, stay, turn. ☛ Chicken made this way tastes more delicious (not deliciously). ☛ "Predicate adjectives" are adjectives separated from the noun or pronoun by a linking verb. Predicate adjectives describe the subject of the sentence: ☛ The weather was cold all week. ☛ Follow these guidelines when you create a "comparative": 1. 1 syllable: old → older nice → nicer big → bigger 2. 2 syllables: easy → easier heavy → heavier ☛ We can use the comparative form in the following ways: ☛ I want a bigger TV screen. Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.2 Parts of Speech in English 35 ☛ It is cheaper to go by bike. ☛ Don’t take the bus in Lisbon. It’s faster to take a taxi. 3. 2 and more syllables: Add "more". careful → more careful (less careful) expensive → more expensive (less expensive) 4. Irregular comparatives: good → better bad → worse ☛ Follow these guidelines when you create "superlatives": 1. 1 syllable: old → older → the oldest nice → nicer → the nicest big → bigger → the biggest 2. 2 syllables: easy → easier → the easiest heavy → heavier → the heaviest ☛ We can use the superlative form in the following ways: ☛ I want the biggest TV screen. ☛ Pete is the tallest in our class. ☛ This is the greatest song in the world. 3. 2 and more syllables: Add "most". careful → more careful (less → the most careful (the careful) least careful) expensive → more expensive → the most expensive (less expensive) (the least expensive) 4. Irregular comparatives: good → better → the best bad → worse → the worst 1.2.8 Adverbs ☛ Adverbs are words that describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. ☛ Adverbs answer the questions: When? Where? How? or To what extent? ☛ Most adverbs are formed by adding "ly" to an adjective. Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 36 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar Adjective Adverb Quick quickly Careful carefully Accurate accurately ☛ Here are some of the most common non "ly" adverbs. afterward almost already also back even far fast hard here how late long low more near never next now often quick rather slow soon still then today tomorrow too when where yesterday ☛ Follow these guidelines when you use adverbs: 1. Use an adverb to describe a verb: Experiments using dynamite must be done (verb) carefully (adv.). 2. Use an adverb to describe an adjective: Sam had an unbelievably (adv.) huge (adj.) appetite for chips. 3. Use an adverb to describe another adverb: They sang so (adv.) clearly (adv.). 1.3 Structures of Phrases in English Here, we’ll present more information about constructing phrases in English. 1.3.1 Using Pronouns Correctly ☛ Only nouns and pronouns, have case. This means that they change form depending on how they are used in a sentence. ☛ English has three cases: nominative, objective, and possessive. ☛ In the nominative case, the pronoun is used as a subject. I threw the ball. ☛ In the objective case, the pronoun is used as an object. Give the ball to me. ☛ In the possessive case, the pronoun is used to show ownership. The ball is mine. ☛ Here is the three cases of personal pronouns as they appear in phrases. Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.3 Structures of Phrases in English 37 Nominative Objective Possessive (Pronoun as subject) (Pronoun as object) (Ownership) I me my, mine you you your, yours he him his she her her, hers it it its we us our, ours they them their, theirs who whom whose whoever whomever ☛ To avoid errors in personal pronoun use, you must understand how to use each case. The rules are explained below. ☛ Use the nominative case to show the subject of a verb. ☛ Father and (I, me) like to shop at flea markets. ☛ Answer: I is the subject of the sentence. Therefore, the pronoun is in the nom- inative case: "Father and I like to shop at flea markets." ☛ (Who, Whom) do you believe is the better shopper? ☛ Answer: Who is the subject of the verb is. Therefore, the sentence would read, "Who do you believe is the better shopper?" ☛ When you list two or more subjects, always put yourself last. Therefore, the sen- tence would read "Father and I," never "I and Father." ☛ Use the nominative case for a predicate nominative. A predicate nominative is a noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb and identifies or renames the subject. ☛ The salesman of the month was (I, me). ☛ Answer: Use "I", since the pronoun renames the subject, the salesman of the month. "The salesman of the month was I." ☛ Which is correct: "It is I" or "It is me"? Technically, the correct form is "It is I,". However, "It is me" (and "It is us") has become increasingly acceptable as standard usage. ☛ Use the objective case to show a direct object. A direct object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action. ☛ John’s suit no longer fits (he, him). ☛ Answer: John’s suit no longer fits him. ☛ (Who, Whom) did she finally invite to the dinner party? ☛ Answer: "She" is the subject, the person doing the action. Therefore, the sen- tence should read: "Whom did she finally invite to the dinner party?" ☛ Of course, she can invite (whoever, whomever) she wants. Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 38 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar ☛ Answer: Of course, she can invite whomever she wants. ☛ Use the objective case to show an indirect object. An indirect object tells to or for whom something is done. ☛ The bill gave (we, us) a shock. ☛ Answer: The bill gave us a shock. ☛ Use the objective case for the object of a preposition. ☛ Sit by (I, me). ☛ Answer: The pronoun is the object of the preposition "me", so the sentence reads: "Sit by me." ☛ Use the possessive case to show ownership. ☛ The child refused to admit that the sweater was (her’s, hers). ☛ Answer: Hers is the correct spelling of the possessive case, which is needed here to express ownership (belonging to her). Therefore, the sentence should read: "The child refused to admit that the sweater was hers." ☛ Use the possessive case before gerunds. A gerund is a form of a verb that acts as a noun. Gerunds always end in "ing", and they always function as nouns. ☛ (You, Your) walking in the rain didn’t cause your cold. ☛ Answer: The gerund "walking" requires the possessive pronoun "your". There- fore, the sentence should read: "Your walking in the rain didn’t cause your cold." ☛ Do you mind (my, me) borrowing your cell phone? ☛ Answer: Do you mind my borrowing your cell phone? ☛ Use some possessive pronouns alone to show ownership: This cell phone is mine, not yours. ☛ The pronouns "Who" refers to people or animals (only animals with names or spe- cial talents, like "Lassie"). She is not the actress who was originally cast in the role. ☛ The pronouns "That" and "Which" refer to things, groups, and unnamed animals. ☛ The choice between "Which" and "That" depends on whether the clause introduced by the pronoun is restrictive or nonrestrictive. Use "That" for restrictive clauses and "Which" with nonrestrictive clauses. ☛ A restrictive clause is essential to the sentence. ☛ A nonrestrictive clause adds extra meaning, is set off by commas, and can be removed from the sentence. ☛ Once, at a social gathering, Gladstone said to Disraeli, "I predict, sir, that you will die either by hanging or by some vile disease." (restrictive clause) ☛ Disraeli replied, "That all depends, sir, upon whether I embrace your principles or your mistress." (restrictive clause) ☛ Postage meters, which are easy to use, are available at the book store. (nonrestrictive clause) Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.3 Structures of Phrases in English 39 1.3.2 Auxiliary verbs ☛ Auxiliary verbs, also known as "helper verbs" or "helping verbs", are minor verbs that support the sentence’s main verb to communicate complex grammar concepts like aspects of time or modality. ☛ For example, in this sentence, "I have finished the report", the auxiliary verb "have" supports the main verb "finish". 1.3.2.1 Main auxiliary verbs ☛ The auxiliary verbs "to be", "to do" and "to have" take a supportive role in a sentence, second to the main verb. ☛ They’re used mainly to create complex grammatical tenses, like the perfect and con- tinuous tenses, which show different aspects of time, or how long an action takes place. ☛ Present simple (no auxiliary verbs): I go to the zoo. ☛ Present continuous: I am going to the zoo. ☛ Future perfect continuous: In September, I will have been going to the zoo for a year. ☛ Auxiliary verbs are also necessary for showing voice (active vs. passive voice) and are useful for adding special emphasis, such as through tag questions. ☛ You like the book, don’t you? ☛ I do like the book! ☛ They can also be used separately as action verbs. When you see one of these verbs, look for a second verb to determine if it’s being used as an action verb or an auxiliary verb. ☛ I did my homework already. [action verb] ☛ I did not want to go home. [auxiliary verb] ☛ I have a selfie with Neil deGrasse Tyson. [action verb] ☛ I have waited a long time for this. [auxiliary verb] 1.3.2.2 Modal auxiliary verbs ☛ Modal auxiliary verbs, or simply "modal verbs", change the grammatical mood of a sentence. ☛ Modal verbs are: "Can", "Could", "Dare", "May", "Might", "Must", "Should", "Will" and "Would". ☛ You can use modal verbs to express different meanings of the main verb, such as showing : Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 40 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar ☛ Possibility: It might rain, ☛ Ability: It can rain, ☛ Necessity: It must rain, or ☛ Suggestion: It should rain. ☛ Future tenses (the modal verb will is necessary): It will rain. ☛ When using modal verbs, the main verb often takes either the participle form or the infinitive form without "to". In the examples below, notice how the main verb loses its conjugation (the "s" at the end) when used with an auxiliary verb. ☛ Jorgen skates backwards. ☛ Jorgen can skate backwards. ☛ Modal auxiliary verbs do not get conjugated by person. ☛ For example, the modal verb "may" stays the same no matter what the subject is, unlike other auxiliary verbs like "have". ☛ I may delete this later. ☛ She may delete this later. ☛ I have deleted this already. ☛ She has deleted this already. ☛ The modal verbs "can" and "will" both change for the past tense: "can" becomes "could", and "will" becomes "would" (when discussing the future relative to the past). ☛ When I was a kid, I could do somersaults without getting dizzy. ☛ I didn’t know when we met that she would become my wife. ☛ In different grammatical tenses. ☛ In negative statements using the word "not". ☛ In passive voice (be): ☛ The man leads his dog. [active voice] ☛ The dog is led by the man. [passive voice] ☛ To show different grammatical moods (conditional mood). ☛ In tag questions: The park is closed tomorrow, isn’t it? ☛ Emphasis (do): She did find it. I do want to come! 1.3.2.3 How to ask questions in English ☛ Here are the most common words used to frame a question in English : Who, What, Where, Why, Which, When, Whose, Whom, How. ☛ We have seen that question can be expressed by constructing sentences in the inter- rogative form. ☛ The word "Can", "should" and "would" are other words used to ask questions in English, but they tend to require a "yes" or "no" answer, or an affirmative. Since Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.3 Structures of Phrases in English 41 these question word lead to an expected answer, they are not really questions. ☛ This means that (Who, What, Where, Why, Which, When, Whose, Whom, How) are the best words to use when framing questions which are meant to prompt dis- cussion, rather than just answers. ☛ The question word "Who" is used to find out which person is doing the particular thing in question. ☛ The answer will usually be factual and simple. ☛ Who is that knocking on my door? ☛ Who is your best friend? "You, of course." ☛ The question word "What" is appropriate when there are many possible answers to a question. ☛ Those answers will be non-human, and usually inanimate. ☛ As with "who" questions, the answer is mostly likely to be closed. ☛ What is that large object in the corner? ☛ What would you like for your birthday? "Anything from you will be special." ☛ The question with "Where" is the question that relates to place. ☛ Once more, it is a question to elicit a straightforward answer. ☛ Where are you going to? ☛ Where did you buy that amazing dress from? "From the clothes shop, stupid!" ☛ The question with "Why" is a higher level question which seeks an explanation for the answer. ☛ It is a question word to provoke an open ended response. ☛ Why does the sea rush to shore? ☛ Why does the sun shine so brightly? "Because you are in the room." ☛ The question with "Which" is, in many ways, similar to the "What" questions. ☛ However, while there are endless possible answers to a "What" question, with "which" the answers are limited. ☛ The response is likely to be factual, although judgements are often required in the response. ☛ Which is your favourite subject at college? ☛ Which ear rings look best on me? "Anything you wear looks brilliant." ☛ Whereas "Who" relates to people, and "Where" to place, "When" questions will have answers connected to time. ☛ As with most of the other questions, the answers are most likely to be factual rather than based on opinion. ☛ When do your dreams come true? Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 42 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar ☛ When is it time for dinner? "Eight o’clock, if you have finished cooking it by then." ☛ There are similarities between the question words "Who" and "Whose". ☛ However, "Whose" will always be followed by a noun. The answer will be closed. ☛ Whose voice is that I can hear? ☛ Whose shoes are they? "I think they belong to my sister." ☛ This is an old-fashioned term, not often used today. Many native English speakers are less than clear about its accurate use. ☛ In fact, the word serves the same purpose as "Who" questions, but tends to be used when it is the object of the verb. ☛ With modern English, there is no real need to use the term. ☛ Whom should I say is here? ☛ Whom do they seek? "Those whose legs are hairy." ☛ Along with "Why" this is the other question word that sometimes provokes an open ended response. ☛ It is therefore ideal to use in discussions. ☛ How can I make you smile? ☛ How do you touch a rainbow? "By finding where it begins." ☛ This may promote another comment by the original speaker, such as "And how do I do that?" ☛ However, "How" can also be used to find the answer to a straight-forward question: How do I open the door? "Try turning the handle." 1.3.3 Building Blocks of Phrases ☛ A phrase is a group of words that functions in a sentence as a single part of speech. ☛ A phrase does not have a subject or a verb, so it cannot stand alone as an indepen- dent unit - it can function only as a part of speech. ☛ As you write, you use phrases to add detail by describing. ☛ Phrases help you express yourself more clearly. 1.3.3.1 Types of Phrases 1. Prepositional Phrases: A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or a pronoun. This noun or pronoun is called the "object of the preposition". by the wall near the closet over the garage with help in the desert below sea level Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.3 Structures of Phrases in English 43 There are two types of prepositional phrases. ☛ Adjectival phrases serves as an adjective. It answers these questions: "Which one?" or "What kind?". ☛ The cost of the jeans was surprisingly high: The adjectival phrase "of the jeans" describes the noun "cost". ☛ The clown with the mask terrifies the children: The adjectival phrase "with the mask" describes the noun "clown". ☛ Adverbial phrases serves as an adverb. It answers one of these questions: "Where?" "When?" "In what manner?" "To what extent?". ☛ The Mets played at Shea Stadium: The adverbial phrase "at Shea Stadium" modifies the verb "played". ☛ The game lasted into the fourteenth inning: The adverbial phrase "into the fourteenth inning" modifies the verb "lasted". 2. Appositives and Appositive Phrases: An appositive is a noun or a pronoun that re- names another noun or pronoun. Appositives are placed directly after the nouns or pronouns they identify. Appositive phrases are nouns or pronouns with modifiers. ☛ Lisa, a friend, should have understood my fear: The appositive "a friend" renames the noun "Lisa". ☛ Tom’s new car, a PT Cruiser, ran out of gas on the highway: The appositive "a PT Cruiser" renames the noun "car". ☛ Lisa, a dear old friend, should have understood my fear: The appositive phrase "a dear old friend" renames the noun "Lisa". ☛ Tom’s new car, a cherry red convertible PT Cruiser, ran out of gas on the highway: The appositive phrase "a cherry red convertible PT Cruiser" renames the noun "car". 3. Verbal Phrases: A verbal is a verb form used as another part of speech. Verbals come in three varieties: participles, gerunds, and infinitives. Each type has a differ- ent function in a sentence: There are two types of verbal phrases. ☛ Participle phrases uses "present participles" and "past participles". ☛ The wailing cats disturbed the neighbors: The present participle "wailing" describes the noun "cats". ☛ Annoyed, the customer stalked out of the store: The past participle "annoyed" describes the noun "customer". ☛ Gerund phrases uses gerunds. Like a participle, a gerund can be part of a phrase. ☛ The slow, steady dripping annoyed him: The gerund phrase is "the slow, steady dripping". ☛ Jill’s morning schedule includes exercising for a full hour: The gerund phrase is "exercising for a full hour". 4. Infinitive Phrases: The infinitive is a form of the verb that comes after the word to and acts as a noun, adjective, or adverb. An infinitive phrase contains modifiers that together act as a single part of speech. Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 44 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar ☛ His goal, to get promoted before age 30, didn’t seem realistic:The infinitive phrase "to get promoted before age 30" modifies the noun goal. ☛ The honorees did not want to attend the banquet in the evening: The infinitive phrase is "to attend the banquet in the evening". 1.3.3.2 Phrases and Clause ☛ A "clause" is a group of words with its own subject and verb. ☛ Like phrases, clauses enrich your written and oral expression by adding details and making your meaning more exact. ☛ Clauses also allow you to combine ideas to show their relationship. This adds logic and cohesion to your speech and writing. ☛ There are two types of clauses: independent clauses (main clauses) and dependent clauses (subordinate clauses and relative clauses). ☛ "An independent clause" is a complete sentence because it has a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. ☛ "A dependent (subordinate) clause" is part of a sentence, so it cannot stand alone. ☛ "Dependent clauses" add additional information to the main clauses, but they are not necessary to complete the thought. ☛ A dependent clause often starts with a word that makes the clause unable to stand alone. These words are "subordinating conjunctions". ☛ Here a lists of the most often used subordinating conjunctions and the relationships they express. Subordinating Conjunctions Relationship unless, provided that, if, even if Condition because, as, as if Reason rather than, than, whether Choice though, although, even though, but Contrast where, wherever Location in order that, so, so that, that Result, effect while, once, when, since, as whenever, Time after, before, until, as soon ☛ "Subordinate clauses" are "dependent clauses". ☛ There are three different kinds of subordinate clauses: "adverb clauses", "adjective clauses", and "noun clauses". 1. Adverb clause: An adverb clause is a dependent clause that describes a verb, ad- jective, or other adverb. An adverb clause answers these questions: Where? Why? When?: To what extent? Under what condition? In what manner? 2. Adjective clauses : An adjective clause is a dependent clause that describes nouns Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 1.3 Structures of Phrases in English 45 and pronouns. An adjective clause answers these questions: What kind? Which one? How many? How much? Most adjective clauses start with the pronouns who, whom, why, whose, which, that, when, where. Adjective clauses that begin with one of the relative pronouns are called "relative clauses". The relative pronouns are: who, whom, whose, which, that. 3. Noun clauses: A noun clause is a dependent clause that functions as a noun. ☛ Tracey does whatever her parents ask her to do: The noun clause is "whatever her parents ask her to do". ☛ The teacher did not accept my excuse that the dog ate my homework: The noun clause is "that the dog ate my homework". 1.3.3.3 Correct and Complete Sentences ☛ To be a sentence, a group of words must ☛ Have a "subject" (noun or pronoun). ☛ Have a "predicate" (verb or verb phrase). ☛ Express a "complete thought". ☛ A sentence has two parts: a "subject" and a "predicate". The subject includes the noun or pronoun that tells what the subject is about. The predicate includes the verb that describes what the subject is doing. ☛ There are four "sentence functions" in English: "declarative", "exclamatory", "interrog- ative", and "imperative". ☛ "Declarative sentences" state an idea. They end with a period (point): Insects are rich in necessary vitamins and minerals. ☛ "Exclamatory sentences" show strong emotions. They end with an exclamation mark: I can’t believe you left the car at the station overnight! ☛ "Interrogative sentences" ask a question. They end with a question mark: Who would eat bugs? ☛ "Imperative sentences" give orders or directions, and so end with a period or an exclamation mark. Imperative sentences often omit the subject, as in a com- mand: Take this route to save 5 miles. ☛ There are four basic "types of sentences": "simple", "compound", "complex", and "compound- complex". ☛ Simple sentences: A simple sentence has one independent clause. That means it has one subject and one verb — although either or both can be compound: The snow melted quickly in the bright sunshine. ☛ Compound sentences: A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses. The independent clauses can be joined in one of two ways: ☛ With a coordinating conjunction: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so Prof. Boualem Alleche - Foreign Language 1 - LMD MI (L1/S1) 46 A reminder about Essentials of English Grammar ☛ With a semicolon (;) ☛ Complex sentences: A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. The independent clause is called the amain clause". These sentences use subordinating conjunctions to link ideas. The subordinating conjunctions include such words as: because, as, as if, unless, provided that, if, even if. ☛ Compound-complex sentences: A compound-complex sentence has at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. The dependent clause can be part of the independent clause. 1.3.4 Active and Passive Voice ☛ Action verbs also show whether the subject performs the action or receives the ac- tion. ☛ This is called a verb’s voi