Animal Tissues & Organ Systems PDF

Concept 32.1 Cells are organized into – Tissues (조직), groups of cells with similar appearance and common function (조직: 비슷한모양과공통기능을가진세포그룹) –Organs (기관), different types of tissues further organized into functional units – (기관: 다양한유형의조직을기능단위로더세분화하여구성) –...

Concept 32.1 Cells are organized into – Tissues (조직), groups of cells with similar appearance and common function (조직: 비슷한모양과공통기능을가진세포그룹) –Organs (기관), different types of tissues further organized into functional units – (기관: 다양한유형의조직을기능단위로더세분화하여구성) – Organ systems (기관계), groups of organs that work together (기관계: 함께 작동하는기관그룹) (포유동물의 기관계) • The specialized, complex organ systems of animals are built from a limited set of cell and tissue types (동물의특수하고복잡한장기시스템은제한된세포및 조직유형으로구성된다) • Animal tissues can be grouped into four categories – Epithelial (상피조직) – Connective (결합조직) – Muscle (근육조직) Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved –N Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved 소장내벽의 상피조직 Lumen 뇌에서의 신경조직: Neuron cells, Gila cells (Astrocytes, Oligodendrocyte, Microglia) 10 µm Apical surface Epithelial tissue Nervous tissue Basal surface Axons of neurons Epithelial tissue lining small intestine Blood vessel Glia Blood 교세포 20 µm Plasma Loose connective tissue surrounding stomach White blood cells Skeletal muscle tissue Nuclei Red blood cells Collagenous fiber Muscle cell Elastic fiber 100 µm 골격근 조직 100 µm 위를 둘러싼 성긴 결합조직 ervous (신경조직 onnective 혈액: tissue Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved Endocrine Glands and Hormones (내분비샘과 호르몬들) • Endocrine cells are often grouped in ductless organs called endocrine glands (내분비샘) (내분비세포는내분비샘이라고하는관이없는기관에모여있음) • Endocrine glands (내분비샘) and cells secrete hormones directly into the surrounding fluid, from which the hormones enter the circulatory system (내분비선과세포는호르몬을주변체액으로직접분비하고, 이호르몬은순환계로 들어감) • In contrast, exocrine glands (외분비샘) have ducts that carry enzymes or secreted substances into body cavities or onto body surfaces (반면, 외분비샘에는 효소나분비물을체강이나신체표면으로운반하는관이있다) •Pancreas: both endocrine and exocrine glands Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved Negative Feedback Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved Anterior Pituitary Pathways (뇌하수체 전엽) • Anterior pituitary hormones often form part of a hormone cascade (뇌하수체전엽 호르몬은종종호르몬연쇄작용의일부를형성함) • Anterior pituitary hormones in these cascades are called tropic hormones (이 연쇄작용을하는뇌하수체전엽호르몬을자극호르몬이라함) Regulating and Conforming (조절과 순응) • An animal that is a regulator (조절자) uses internal mechanisms to control internal change despite external fluctuation (조절자인동물은외부의변동에도불구하고 내부메커니즘을사용하여내부변화를제어한다) • An animal that is a conformer (순응자) allows its internal condition to change in accordance with external changes Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved Homeostasis (항상성) • Organisms use homeostasis (항상성) to maintain a “steady state” or internal balance regardless of external environment (유기체는항상성을사용하여외부 환경과관계없이 '정상상태' 또는내부균형을유지한다) • In humans, body temperature, blood pH, and glucose concentration are each maintained at a constant level (사람의경우체온, 혈액 pH 및포도당농도는각각 일정한수준으로유지된다) 실내온도조절) Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved Endothermy and Ectothermy (내온동물과 외온동물) • Endothermic (내온동물) animals generate heat by metabolism; birds and mammals are endotherms (내온동물은신진대사를통해열을발생시키며, 조류와 포유류는내온동물이다) • Ectothermic (외온동물) animals gain heat from external sources; ectotherms include most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and nonavian reptiles (외온동물은 외부에서열을얻는동물로, 대부분의무척추동물, 어류, 양서류, 비조류파충류가 포함된다) (a) 황제펭귄 (내온동물) (b) 플로리다붉은배거북 (외온동물) Figure 32.12 Endothermy and Ectothermy (내온동물과외온동물) Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved 복사 (radiation):증발 절대온도 O 도보다(evaporation): 더따뜻한모든 Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved Physiological Thermostats (생리적 항온조절장치) • Thermoregulation in mammals is controlled by the hypothalamus (시상하부), in which a group of nerve cells functions as a thermostat (포유류의체온조절은 시상하부에의해제어되며, 시상하부는신경세포그룹이온도조절기역할을함) Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved Excretory Processes (배설과정) • In most animals, osmoregulation and metabolic waste disposal rely on transport epithelia (수송상피) (대부분의동물에서삼투압조절과대사성폐기물처리는수송 상피에의존한다) • Many animal species produce a fluid waste by refining a filtrate (여과액) derived from body fluids (많은동물종은체액에서추출한여과액을정제하여체액폐기물을 생성함) • Key functions of most excretory systems – Filtration (여과): Filtering of body fluids (체액필터링) – Reabsorption (재흡수): Reclaiming valuable solutes (유용한용질회수) – Secretion (분비): Adding nonessential solutes and wastes from the body fluids to the filtrate (체액에서불필요한용질과노폐물을여과액에추가함) – Excretion (배설): Releasing processed filtrate containing nitrogenous wastes from the body (체내질소성노폐물이포함된처리후여과액배출) Coordination of Kidney Regulation (신장조절의 조율) • The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) also regulates kidney function (레닌-안지오텐신-알도스테론시스템(RAAS)은신장기능도조절한다) • A peptide called angiotensin II (안지오텐신 II) is a product of the R AAS • Angiotensin II raises blood pressure and decreases blood flow to capillaries in the kidney (안지오텐신 II 는혈압을높이고신장의 모세혈관으로가는혈류를감소시킴) • Drugs that block angiotensin II production are used to treat hypertension (chronic high blood pressure) (안지오텐신 II 생성을차단하는약물은 고혈압을치료하는데사용됨) Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved Chapter 33 Animal Nutrition Essential Nutrients (필수영양소) • There are four classes of essential nutrients – Essential amino acids (필수아미노산) – Essential fatty acids (필수지방산) – Vitamins (비타민) – Minerals (무기질) Figure 33.2 Roles of Essential Nutrients (필수영양소의역할) Essential Amino Acids and Fatty Acids (필수지방산과 필수아미노산) • The remaining amino acids, the essential amino acids (필수아미노산), must be obtained from food in prefabricated form (나머지아미노산인필수아미노산은 식품에서미리제조된형태로섭취해야한다) • In animals, fatty acids are converted into a variety of cellular components, such as membrane phospholipids, signaling molecules, and storage fats (동물에서 지방산은막인지질, 신호분자, 저장지방과같은다양한세포구성요소로전환됨) • Essential fatty acids (필수지방산) cannot be synthesized by animals but can be synthesized by plants (필수지방산은동물은합성할수없지만식물은합성할수 있다) Concept 33.2: Food Processing Involves Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, and Elimination (음식은 섭취, 소화, 흡수, 배설의 과정을 거친다) • Food processing can be divided into four distinct stages: – Ingestion (섭취) – Digestion (소화) – Absorption (흡수) – Elimination (배설) • Ingestion (섭취) is the act of eating or feeding (섭취: 먹거나먹이는행위) • Strategies for extracting resources from food differ widely among animals (음식에서자원을추출하는전략은동물마다크게다르다) Concept 33.2: Food Processing Involves Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, and Elimination (음식은 섭취, 소화, 흡수, 배설의 과정을 거친다) • Digestion (소화) is the process of breaking down food into molecules small enough to absorb (소화(소화)는음식물을흡수할수있을만큼작은분자로분해하는과정임) • Mechanical digestion (기계적소화), including chewing, increases the surface area of food (씹는것을포함한기계적소화는음식의표면적을증가시킴) • Chemical digestion (화학적소화) splits food into small molecules that can pass through membranes (음식물을막을통과할수있는작은분자로분해함) • In chemical digestion, the process of enzymatic hydrolysis (가수분해) splits bonds in molecules with the addition of water (화학적소화에서효소가수분해 과정은물을 첨가하여분자의 결합을분리함) • Absorption (흡수) is uptake of nutrients by body cells (흡수는신체세포가 영양분을섭취하는것을 말함) • Elimination (배설) is the passage of undigested material out of the digestive system (배설은소화되지 않은물질이소화시스템 밖으로배출되는것을 말함) The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus (구강, 인두, 식도) • Food is pushed along by peristalsis (연동운동), rhythmic contractions of muscles in the wall of the canal (음식은연동운동,벽근육의리드미컬 한수축에 의해 밀려남) • Valves called sphincters (괄약근) regulate the movement of material between compartments (괄약근이라는 밸브는구획 사이의물질이동을조절함) Digestion in the Stomach (위에서의 소화) • The stomach (위) stores food and secretes gastric juice (위액), which converts a meal to a mixture of food and digestive juice called chyme (유미즙) (위는 음식물을저장하고위액을분비하여음식물을유미즙이라는음식물과소화액의 혼합물로변환) Parietal Cells 1. 2. 3. 점액세포 벽세포 펩시노겐과 염산이 위의 내강으로 분비된다 염산은 펩시노겐을 펩신으로 바꾼다 펩신은 펩시노겐을 더 활성화시키고, 연쇄반응이 시작된다. 펩신은 단백질의 화학적 소화를 시작한다 Chemical Digestion in the Stomach (위에서의 화학적 소화) • Gastric juice (위액) has a low pH of about 2, which kills most bacteria and denatures proteins (위액은약 2 의 낮은 pH 를가지고있어대부분의 박테리아를 죽이고단백질을변성시킴) • Gastric juice is made up of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and pepsin (펩신) (위액은 염산(HCl)과 펩신으로구성됨) • Pepsin is a protease (단백질가수분해효소), or protein-digesting enzyme, that cleaves proteins into smaller peptides (펩신은단백질을더작은 펩타이드로 분해하는단백질가수분해효소 또는단백질소화효소임) • Mucus (점액) protects the stomach lining from gastric juice (점액은위액으로부터 위벽을 보호함) • Gastric ulcers, lesions in the stomach lining, are caused mainly by the bacterium Helicobacter pylori (헬리코박터 파일로리) (위벽의 병변인위궤양은 주로 헬리코박터파일로리 박테리아에의해발생함) Figure 33.9 Chemical Digestion in the Human Digestive System (사람의소화계에서화학적소화) Digestion in the Small Intestine (소장에서의 소화) • The small intestine (소장) is named for its small diameter • The first portion of the small intestine is the duodenum (십이지장) • Here, chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and intestinal wall (여기서위장의 침은 췌장, 간, 담낭 및장벽에서 나오는소화액과 섞임) • The pancreas (췌장) secretes bicarbonate, which neutralizes the acidity of chime (췌장은 중탄산염을분비하여유미액의산도를 중화함) • It also produces proteases trypsin and chymotrypsin, which are activated in the lumen of the duodenum (또한 십이지장내강에서활성화되는단백질분해효소 트립신과키모트립신을생성함) • In the small intestine, bile aids (담즙) in digestion and absorption of fats (소장에서 담즙은지방의소화와흡수를 돕움) • Bile is made in the liver (간) and stored and concentrated in the gallbladder (담낭) (담즙은 간에서만들어져 담낭에저장및농축됨) • Bile also destroys nonfunctional red blood cells (담즙은또한기능하지 않는적혈구를 파괴함) 정맥이간으로 혈액을운반함 융모상피세포 Figure 33.10 Nutrient Absorption in the Small Intestine (소장의 영양소흡수) Bile Salts 지방산 모노글리세라이드 1. 소장의 내강에서 3. 상피세포내로 담즙염은큰 확산해들어온 지방덩어리를 다음, 다시 형성 지방소체로 지방(TAG)을 4. TAG 들은 Figure 33.11 Digestion and Absorption of Fats (지방의소화와흡수) Processing in the Large Intestine 만든다 (대장에서의 처리과정) • The alimentary canal ends with the large intestine (대장) (소화관은대장으로종결) • The small intestine connects to the large intestine at a T-shaped junction; one arm is the colon (결장), which leads to the rectum. A major function of the colon is to recover water that has entered the alimentary canal (소장은 T 자형교차로에서 대장과연결되며, 한쪽 팔은 결장으로직장으로이어집니다. 대장의주요기능은 소화관으로들어온수분을회수하는것임) • The other arm is the cecum (맹장), which aids in the fermentation of ingested material (다른 쪽 팔은 맹장으로, 섭취한물질의발효를 돕는다) • The human cecum has an extension called the appendix (충수), which serves as a reservoir for symbiotic microorganisms ( • What remains are the feces (대변), the wastes of the digestive system (남은것은 소화기관의노폐물인대변임) • Feces are stored in the rectum (직장) until they can be eliminated through the anus Stomach and Intestinal Adaptations (위와 장의 적응)Cecum (맹장)Figure 33.13 The Alimentary Canals of a Carnivore (Lion) and Herbivore (Koala) (육식동물(사자)과 초식동물(코알라)의소화관비교) Mutualistic Adaptations in Humans (인간의 공생적 적응) Mutualistic Adaptations in Humans (인간의 공생적 적응) Figure 33.15 The Stomach Microbiome (위장내마이크로바이옴) Mutualistic Adaptations in Herbivores (초식동물의 공생적 적응) 반추동물인소의위에는네개의방이존재한다. (1) 소가씹은음식은먼저반추위와벌집위에들어가고이곳에서공생중인 미생물은식물에존재하는셀룰로오스를소화한다. (2) 주기적으로소는음식물은역류시켜되새김을반복하여섬유질을더 분해하여미생물작용을강화시킨다. (3) 되새김질된내용물은겹주름위를통화하며수분이제거된다. (4) 이후소의효소에의한 소화를위해주름위를통과한다. 이러한방법으로소는풀과반추위에서적정수준의수를유지하고있는미생물을이용해중요한 영양소를흡수한다. Figure 33.16 Ruminant Digestion (반추동물의소화) 1. 음식이 위에 도달하면 위벽이 늘어나면서 가스트린 (gastrin) 호르몬의 분비가 촉진된다. 가스트린은 혈액을 통해 위로 돌아온 후 위액 생산을 증가시킨다. 2. 유미즙 (Chyme) – 부분적으로 소화된 음식물의 산성 복합물 – 이 위로부터 십이지장으로 들어간다. 십이지장은 콜레키스토키닌 (CCK)과 세크레틴 (secretin)을 분비 – 췌장과 간에서 소화효소 및 담즙 분비를 촉진, 세크레틴은 췌장을 자극하여 유미즙을 중화시킬 중탄산염을 분비 3. 유미즙에 지방이 많으면, 높은 농도의 세크레틴(secretin) 과 콜레키스토키닌(CCK)가 분비되어 위에서 연동운동과 위액 분비를 억제하여 소화를 늦춘다) Regulation of Digestion (소화조절) Glucose Homeostasis (포도당 항상성) • Insulin (인슐린) and glucagon (글루카곤) together maintain glucose levels (인슐린과 글루카곤이함께포도당수치를유지함) • Insulin levels rise after a carbohydrate-rich meal, and glucose entering the liver through the hepatic portal vein is used to synthesize glycogen (탄수화물이 풍부한 식사후에는인슐린 수치가상승하고 간문맥을통해 간으로들어간 포도당은 글리코겐을합성하는 데 사용됨) • Insulin and glucagon are produced in the pancreas in beta cells and alpha cells, respectively (인슐린과 글루카곤은 췌장에서각각 베타 세포와알파세포에서 생성) Diabetes Mellitus (당뇨) • Diabetes mellitus (당뇨) is a disease caused by a deficiency of insulin or a decreased response to insulin in target tissues (당뇨병은인슐린 결핍 또는표적 조직의인슐린에대한반응감소로인해발생하는질병임) • Fat becomes the main substrate for cellular respiration (지방은세포호흡의주요 기질이됨) • Type 1 diabetes (제 1 형당뇨) is an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system destroys the pancreatic beta cells (제 1 형당뇨병은면역체계가 췌장 베타 세포를파괴하는자가면역질환임) • Type 2 diabetes (제 2 형 당뇨) is characterized by a failure of target cells to respond normally to insulin (제 2 형당뇨병은표적세포가인슐린에 정상적으로반응하지 않는것이특징임) • Heredity is a factor in type 2 diabetes (유전은제 2 형당뇨병의요인임) • Excess body weight and lack of exercise increase the risk (과체중과운동부족은 위험을증가시킴) Regulation of Appetite and Consumption (식욕과 소비의 조절) • Obesity (비만) contributes to diabetes (type 2), cancer of the colon and breast, heart attacks, and strokes (비만은당뇨병(2 형), 대장암 및유방암, 심장마비, 뇌졸중을유발함) • Ghrelin (그렐린), a hormone secreted by the stomach wall, triggers a feeling of hunger before meals (위벽에서분비되는호르몬인그렐린은식사전공복감을 유발함) • GLP-1 secreted from the stomach and intestine inhibits feeding (위와장에서 분비되는 GLP-1 은식욕을 억제함) • Insulin and PYY, a hormone secreted by the small intestine after eating, both suppress appetite (식사후소장에서분비되는호르몬인인슐린과 PYY 는모두 식욕을 억제함) • Leptin (렙틴), a hormone produced by adipose (fat) tissue, also suppresses appetite and may regulate body fat levels (지방 조직에서생성되는호르몬인 렙틴은 식욕을 억제하고체지방수치를조절할수있음) Chapter 19 Descent with Modification (변화를수반한계승) Carolus Linnaeus was the founder of taxonomy, the branch of biology that organizes species into a nested classification system of increasingly general categories (카롤루스린네는종을점점더일반적인범주의중첩된분류체계로조직하는 생물학의한분야인분류학의창시자이다.) • He also developed the binomial format for naming species (for example, Homo sapiens) (그(린네)는또한종의이름을짓는이항식형식(예: 호모사피엔스)을개발했다) • Linnaeus ascribed the resemblance among species to the pattern of creation rather than evolution (린네는종들사이의유사성을진화보다는창조의패턴에기인한다고 설명했다.) Ideas About Change over Time (시간이 지나면서 변한다는 생각들) • The study of fossils helped to lay the groundwork for Darwin’s ideas (화석연구는 다윈의아이디어의토대를마련하는데도움이되었다.) • Fossils are remains or traces of organisms from the past, usually found in sedimentary rock, which appears in layers or strata (화석은일반적으로지층에서 발견되는과거의생물의잔해또는흔적으로, 층이나지층에나타난다.) • Paleontology, the study of fossils, was largely developed by French scientist Georges Cuvier (화석에대한연구인고생물학은주로프랑스과학자조르주퀴비에에 의해발전했다.) Darwin’s Research (다윈의 연구) • As a boy and into adulthood, Charles Darwin had a consuming interest in nature • Darwin first studied medicine (unsuccessfully) and then theology at Cambridge University (다윈은케임브리지대학에서의학을공부한후 (실패했지만) 신학을공부했다.) • After graduating, he took an unpaid position as naturalist and companion to Captain Robert FitzRoy for a five-year around-the-world voyage on the Beagle The Voyage of the Beagle (비글호 항해) • During his travels on the Beagle, Darwin collected specimens of South American plants and animals (비글호를타고여행하는동안다윈은남미동식물의표본을수집했다.) • He observed that fossils resembled living species from the same region, and living species resembled other species from nearby regions (그는화석이같은지역의생물 종과닮았고, 생물종은인근지역의다른생물종과닮았다는것을관찰했다.) • Darwin was influenced by Lyell’s Principles of Geology and thought that Earth was more than 6,000 years old (다윈은라이엘의지질학원리에영향을받아지구의나이가 6,000 년이상이라고생각했다.) Darwin’s Focus on Adaptation (적응에 대한 다윈의 집중) • Natural selection (자연선택) is a process in which individuals with favorable inherited traits are more likely to survive and reproduce (자연선택은유리한유전 형질을가진개체가생존하고번식할확률이높아지는과정임.) • In June 1858, Darwin received a manuscript from Alfred Russell Wallace, who had developed a theory of natural selection similar to Darwin’s (1858 년 6 월, 다윈은 다윈과유사한자연선택이론을개발했던알프레드러셀월리스로부터원고를받았다.) • In July 1958, Lyell presented Wallace and Darwin’s work together to the Linnean Society of London (1958 년 7 월, 라이엘은런던린니학회에월리스와다윈의연구를함께 발표했다.) • Darwin quickly finished On the Origin of Species and published it the next year (다윈은 <종의기원>을빠르게완성하고다음해에출판했다.) Figure 19.7 Alfred Russel Wallace (알프레드러셀월러스) Homology (상동성) • Evolution is a process of descent with modification • Related species can have characteristics with underlying similarity that function differently (관련종은근본적으로유사하지만다르게기능하는특성을가질수있다) • Homology (상동성) is similarity resulting from common ancestry (상동성은공통 조상에서비롯된유사성이다) • Homologous structures (상동기관) are anatomical resemblances that represent variations on a structural theme present in a common ancestor (상동구조는공통 조상에게존재하는구조적주제의변형을나타내는해부학적유사성을말한다) Figure 19.16 Mammalian forelimbs: homologous ) Forming and Testing Hypotheses (가설의 설정과 검증) • In science, a hypothesis (가설) is an explanation based on observations and assumptions that leads to a testable prediction (가설은관찰과추론에근거한설명이며, 검증가능한예측을낳는다) • A scientific hypothesis must lead to predictions that can be tested with additional observations or an experiment • An experiment (실험) is a scientific test, often carried out under controlled conditions Questions That Can and Cannot Be Addressed by Science (과학에 의해 해결되지 않는 질문) • A hypothesis must be testable (검증가능성) and falsifiable (반론가능성) – For example, hypotheses involving supernatural explanations cannot be tested (초자연적현상을 포함한가설은검증할수없다) • Such explanations are outside the bounds of science Chapter 22 The Origin of Species 종의기원 Figure 22.3 Exploring Reproductive Barriers (생식적 격리탐구) 접합전장벽이짝짓기를방해하거나, 짝짓기가이루어지더라도수정을방해한다 서식지격리 시간적격리 행동적격리 기계적격리 배우자격리 Figure 22.3 Exploring Reproductive Barriers (생식적 격리탐구) 접합후장벽이접합자가생존가능하고생식가능한성체로발생하는것을방해한다 잡종생존력약화 잡종생식력약화 잡종와해 Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved Concept 22.2: Speciation Can Take Place with or Without Geographic Separation (종분화는 지리적인 격리가 있든 없든 일어날 수 있다) • Speciation can occur in two ways (종은 두 가지방식으로발생할수있다) – Allopatric speciation (이소종분화) occurs when populations are geographically isolated from each other (이소종분화는지리적으로서로 격리되어있을 때 발생합니다) – Sympatric speciation (동소종분화) occurs when populations are not geographically isolated (동조종분화는개체군이지리적으로 격리되어있지 않을 때 발생한다) Evidence of Allopatric Speciation (이소 종분화의 증거) • Reproductive barriers can develop in lab populations that are experimentally isolated and subjected to different environmental conditions (실험적으로 격리되고 다양한환경조건에노출된 실험실 집단에서생식장벽이발생할수있다) Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved – For example, isolated lab populations of fruit flies raised on different diets evolve to digest their food source more efficiently and prefer to mate with partners adapted to the same food source (예를들어, 실험실에서 격리된 초파리개체군은서로다른먹이를먹고자랐기 때문에먹이를더효율적으로 소화하고같은먹이에적응한파트너와 짝짓기를선호하도록진화한다) Sympatric (“Same Country”) Speciation (동소 “같은지역” 종분화) • Sympatric speciation (동소종분화) takes place in populations that live in the same geographic area (동소종분화는같은지리적 영역에사는개체군에서발생한다) • It occurs when gene flow is reduced through factors including (다음과같은요인으로 인해유전자 흐름이감소할 때 발생한다) – Polyploidy (배수성) – Habitat differentiation (서식지분화) Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved – Sexual selection (성적선택) Polyploidy (배수성) • Polyploidy (배수성) is the presence of extra sets of chromosomes due to accidents during cell division (배수성은세포분열 중 사고로인해여분의 염색체 세트가생김으로발생) • Polyploidy speciation occasionally occurs in animals but is much more common in plants (배수성종분화는동물에서도가끔 발생하지만식물에서 훨씬 더 흔하다) • An autopolyploid (자가배수체) is an individual with more than two chromosome sets derived from one species (자가배수체는한종에서유래한 염색체세트가 두 개이상인개체를 말한다) • The offspring of mating between tetraploids (4n) and diploids (2n) are triploids (3 n) with reduced fertility (4 배체(4n)와 2 배체(2n) 사이의 짝짓기의자손은생식력이 감소한 3 배체(3n)이다) Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved Polyploidy (배수성) • An allopolyploid (타가배수체) is a species with multiple sets of chromosomes derived from different species (타가배수체는서로다른종에서유래한여러세트의 Campbell Biology in Focus Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved Chapter 23 A Surprise in the Desert (사막의 경이) • The fossil record shows evidence of macroevolution (대진화), broad changes above the species level; for example (화석 기록은종수준이상의 광범위한변화, 즉 대진화의증거를 보여준다) – The emergence of terrestrial vertebrates (육상척추동물의출현) – The impact of mass extinctions (대멸종의 영향) – The origin of key adaptations, such as flight in birds (조류의비행과같은주요 적응의기원) Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved How Rocks and Fossils Are Dated (암석과 화석의 연대 측정방법) • The absolute ages of fossils can be determined by radiometric dating (방사성연대 측정법) (방사성연대 측정법으로화석의절대연대를 확인할수있다) • Each isotope has a known half-life (반감기), the time required for half the parent isotope to decay (각동위원소에는알려진반감기가있으며, 이는모동위원소의 절반이 Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved Fossils Frame the Geologic Record (화석은 지질학적 기록의 틀을 만든다) • The geologic record (지질학적기록) is a standard time scale dividing Earth’s history into four eons (지질학적기록은지구의 Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved Plate Tectonics (판구조론) • According to the theory of plate tectonics (판구조론), the continents are part of plates of Earth’s crust that float on hot, underlying mantle (판구조론에따르면, 대륙은 뜨거운 맨틀 위에 떠 있는지구지각 판의일부이다) • Oceanic and continental plates can separate, slide past each other, or collide (Mass Extinctions (대멸종) • Extinction can be caused by habitat destruction or unfavorable environmental change (멸종은서식지파괴나불리한환경변화로인해발생할수있다) • Global environmental change has, at times, caused the rate of extinction to increase dramatically, resulting in mass extinctions (대멸종) (지구환경변화로인해 때때로 멸종 속도가 급격히 증가하여대멸종이발생하고있다) Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved