Final Psych PDF

One Star (*) 1. Read-Recite-Review method: Study technique involving reading, reciting, and reviewing material. 2. Donders: Pioneer in measuring reaction time to infer cognitive processes. 3. Simple & choice reaction time: Time taken to respond...

One Star (*) 1. Read-Recite-Review method: Study technique involving reading, reciting, and reviewing material. 2. Donders: Pioneer in measuring reaction time to infer cognitive processes. 3. Simple & choice reaction time: Time taken to respond to a stimulus, with or without choices. 4. Wilhelm Wundt: Founder of experimental psychology and the rst psychology lab. 5. Structuralism: Analyzes the basic elements of thoughts and sensations. 6. Analytic introspection: Self-examination of conscious thoughts and feelings. 7. Functionalism: Studies how mental processes help individuals adapt to environments. 8. Operational de nition: Speci c explanation of how variables are measured or manipulated. 9. Experiment: Research method to test hypotheses by manipulating variables. 10. Correlational study: Research method examining relationships between variables without manipulation. 11. Neuropsychology: Study of brain-behavior relationships and cognitive functions. 12. Neuroimaging: Techniques to visualize brain structure and function (e.g., PET, fMRI). 13. Frontal lobe: Brain region involved in decision-making, planning, and motor control. 14. Parietal lobe: Brain region processing sensory information and spatial orientation. 15. Occipital lobe: Brain region responsible for visual processing. 16. Temporal lobe: Brain region involved in auditory processing and memory. 17. Dendrites: Branch-like structures receiving signals from other neurons. 18. Axon: Long ber transmitting signals away from the neuron's cell body. 19. Action potential: Electrical impulse traveling down the axon to transmit information. 20. Neurotransmitter: Chemical messenger transmitting signals between neurons. 21. Sympathetic nervous system: Activates body's ght-or- ight response. 22. Parasympathetic nervous system: Calms the body and conserves energy. 23. Sensory neurons: Neurons transmitting sensory information to the central nervous system. 24. Motor neurons: Neurons controlling muscle movements. 25. Hemispheres of the brain: Left and right halves of the brain, each with specialized functions. 26. Brainstem: Controls basic life functions like breathing and heart rate. fi fi fi fi fl fi 27. Thalamus: Relay station for sensory information to the cerebral cortex. 28. Cerebellum: Coordinates voluntary movements and balance. 29. Hippocampus: Involved in forming new memories. 30. Cortex: Outer layer of the brain involved in complex functions like thinking. 31. Motor cortex: Controls voluntary muscle movements. 32. Somatosensory cortex: Processes sensory input from the body. 33. Plasticity: Brain's ability to change and adapt as a result of experience. 34. Selective attention: Focusing on a speci c stimulus while ignoring others. 35. Hard problem of consciousness: Explaining how and why we have subjective experiences. 36. Sleep stages: Different phases of sleep, including REM and NREM stages. 37. Substance use disorder: Condition involving the harmful use of substances like drugs or alcohol. 38. Addiction: Compulsive need for and use of a habit-forming substance. 39. Withdrawal: Symptoms experienced when stopping or reducing intake of an addictive substance. 40. Tolerance: Needing more of a substance to achieve the same effect. 41. Hallucinogens: Drugs causing altered perceptions and sensations. 42. Identical twins: Twins from a single fertilized egg, genetically identical. 43. Fraternal twins: Twins from two different eggs, genetically similar as siblings. 44. Heritability: Proportion of variation in traits due to genetic factors. 45. Epigenetics: Study of changes in gene expression without altering DNA sequence. 46. Social scripts: Culturally modeled guides for how to act in various situations. 47. Positive psychology: Study of strengths and virtues enabling individuals and communities to thrive. 48. Gender roles: Societal expectations for behaviors and attitudes based on gender. 49. Transgender: Identifying with a gender different from the one assigned at birth. 50. Pruning: Elimination of unused neural connections during development. 51. Schemas: Mental frameworks organizing and interpreting information. 52. Object permanence: Understanding that objects continue to exist even when unseen. 53. Theory of mind: Ability to understand others' thoughts, feelings, and perspectives. 54. Attachment: Emotional bond between a child and caregiver. 55. Sensation: Process of detecting physical energy from the environment. fi 56. Sensory receptors: Specialized cells detecting sensory stimuli. 57. Bottom-up processing: Analysis starting with sensory input and building up to perception. 58. Top-down processing: Perception in uenced by expectations and prior knowledge. 59. Cones: Photoreceptors in the retina responsible for color vision. 60. Taste receptors: Cells on the tongue detecting different tastes. 61. Olfaction pathway: Neural pathway for processing smells. 62. Kinesthesia: Sense of body movement and position. 63. Vestibular sense: Sense of balance and spatial orientation. 64. Encoding: Process of transforming information into a memory trace. 65. Retrieval: Accessing stored information from memory. 66. Unconditioned Stimulus: Stimulus naturally triggering a response without prior learning. 67. Unconditioned Response: Natural response to an unconditioned stimulus. 68. Neutral Stimulus: Stimulus not triggering a response before conditioning. 69. Conditioned Stimulus: Previously neutral stimulus triggering a response after conditioning. 70. Conditioned Response: Learned response to a conditioned stimulus. 71. Acquisition: Initial stage of learning a conditioned response. 72. Extinction: Diminishing of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent. 73. Positive reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior. 74. Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior. 75. Positive punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior. 76. Negative punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior. 77. Cognitive map: Mental representation of physical space. 78. Modal Model of memory: Model describing memory as a system with sensory, short- term, and long-term stores. 79. Working memory: Active processing and manipulation of information in short-term memory. 80. Central executive: Component of working memory controlling attention and processing. 81. Afterimages: Visual images remaining after the stimulus is removed. 82. Anterograde amnesia: Inability to form new memories after a brain injury. 83. Retrograde amnesia: Inability to recall past memories before a brain injury. 84. Reconsolidation: Process of re-stabilizing a memory after it has been recalled. fl  85. Heuristic: Simple, ef cient rule or method for problem-solving. 86. Fixation: Inability to see a problem from a new perspective. 87. Morphemes: Smallest units of meaning in a language. 88. Phonemes: Smallest units of sound in a language. 89. Aphasia: Language impairment due to brain damage. 90. Imprinting: Rapid learning occurring during a critical period, forming strong attachments. 91. Homeostasis: Maintaining a stable internal environment. 92. Drive: Internal state motivating behavior to satisfy a need. 93. Yerkes-Dodson Law: Relationship between arousal and performance, optimal at moderate arousal. 94. Basal metabolic rate: Rate of energy expenditure at rest. 95. Paraphilias: Unusual sexual interests causing distress or harm. 96. SMART goal setting: Speci c, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound goals for success. 97. Feedback effects: Emotions in uenced by facial expressions and body movements. 98. Stress – de nitions: Physical and psychological responses to challenging or threatening situations. 99. Appraisal: Evaluation of a situation's signi cance for one's well-being. 100. Role ambiguity: Uncertainty about expectations and responsibilities in a role. 101. Role con ict: Tension from incompatible demands of different roles. 102. Eustress: Positive stress that motivates and enhances performance. 103. Stress response: Body's reaction to stressors, involving physiological and psychological changes. 104. Problem-focused coping: Strategies to tackle the problem causing stress. 105. Emotion-focused coping: Strategies to manage emotional responses to stress. 106. Explanatory style: Habitual way of explaining events, in uencing optimism or pessimism. 107. Foot-in-the-door phenomenon: Agreeing to a small request increases likelihood of agreeing to larger one. 108. Cognitive dissonance: Discomfort from holding con icting thoughts or beliefs. 109. Social facilitation: Improved performance on tasks in presence of others. 110. Social loa ng: Reduced effort when working in a group compared to alone. 111. Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness and restraint in group situations. 112. Group polarization: Group discussions lead to more extreme positions. fl fi fi fi fi fl fi fl fl  113. Groupthink: Desire for harmony in a group leads to poor decision-making. 114. Aggression: Behavior intended to harm or injure another person. 115. Altruism: Sel ess concern for the well-being of others. 116. Personality: Individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. 117. Psychodynamic theory of personality: Freud's theory emphasizing unconscious motives and con icts. 118. Freud’s personality structure: Id, ego, and superego components of personality. 119. Modern view of Freud’s ideas: Contemporary perspectives on Freud's theories, integrating new ndings. 120. Humanist theories of personality: Emphasize personal growth and self-actualization. 121. Modern personality theory: Traits and factors in uencing personality, such as the Five Factor Model. 122. Personality inventories: Questionnaires assessing personality traits, like MMPI and Myers-Briggs. 123. The self: Individual's awareness of their own identity and personal characteristics. 124. Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Persistent, excessive worry about various aspects of life. 125. Panic disorder: Recurrent, unexpected panic attacks and fear of future attacks. 126. Phobias: Intense, irrational fears of speci c objects or situations. 127. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Recurrent, unwanted thoughts and repetitive behaviors. 128. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Anxiety disorder following exposure to traumatic events. 129. Major Depressive Disorder: Persistent feelings of sadness and loss of interest in activities. 130. Personality disorders: Enduring patterns of behavior deviating from cultural expectations. 131. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD): Developmental disorder affecting communication and behavior. 132. Biological basis of ASD: Genetic and neurological factors contributing to autism. 133. Attention-de cit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Persistent inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. 134. Diagnosis debate of ADHD: Controversy over the criteria and prevalence of ADHD. fl fi fl fi fi fl  135. Psychodynamic therapy: Therapy focusing on unconscious processes and past experiences. 136. Humanist therapies: Emphasize personal growth and self-ful llment, like person- centered therapy. 137. Behavior therapies: Use principles of learning to change maladaptive behaviors. 138. Cognitive therapy: Focuses on changing negative thought patterns. 139. Brain stimulation therapies: Use electrical or magnetic stimulation to treat mental disorders. 140. Prevention strategies: Approaches to prevent the onset of mental health issues. Two Stars (**) 1. Psychology: Study of mind, behavior, and mental processes in humans. 2. Biopsychosocial approach: Integrates biological, psychological, and social factors in health. 3. Behaviorism: Focuses on observable behaviors and their environmental determinants. 4. Cognitive psychology: Studies mental processes like perception, memory, and problem- solving. 5. Humanistic psychology: Emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and human potential. 6. Independent variable: Variable manipulated to observe its effect on dependent variable. 7. Dependent variable: Variable measured to assess the effect of independent variable. 8. Neural network: Interconnected neurons that process and transmit information in brain. 9. Consciousness: Awareness of self and environment, including thoughts and feelings. 10. Inattentional blindness: Failure to notice unexpected objects when attention is elsewhere. 11. Change blindness: Inability to detect changes in a visual scene over time. 12. Psychoactive drug: Substance that alters mood, perception, or brain function. 13. Genes: Units of heredity that in uence traits and biological processes. 14. Twin studies: Research comparing identical and fraternal twins to understand genetics. 15. Culture: Shared beliefs, values, and practices of a group or society. 16. Individualist culture: Values independence, self-reliance, and personal achievement over group goals. fl fi  17. Collectivist culture: Emphasizes group goals 18. Need for achievement: Desire to accomplish goals and attain high standards. 19. Psychological stressors: Mental or emotional challenges causing stress. 20. Optimistic style: Tendency to expect positive outcomes and view situations favorably. 21. Social psychology: Study of how individuals in uence and are in uenced by others. 22. Fundamental Attribution Error: Overestimating personal traits and underestimating situational factors in others' behavior. 23. Conformity: Adjusting behavior or thinking to align with group standards. 24. Prejudice: Preconceived opinion not based on reason or experience. 25. Stereotype: Oversimpli ed generalization about a group of people. 26. Discrimination: Unjust treatment of different categories of people. 27. Self-esteem: One's overall sense of self-worth or personal value. 28. Abnormal psychology: Study of abnormal behavior and psychological disorders. 29. Psychological disorder: Mental health condition affecting mood, thinking, and behavior. 30. Classi cation of disorders: System for categorizing mental health conditions, like DSM-5. 31. Anxiety disorders: Mental health disorders characterized by excessive fear and anxiety. 32. Depressive disorders: Mood disorders causing persistent feelings of sadness and loss of interest. 33. Bipolar disorder: Mood disorder with alternating periods of mania and depression. 34. Antisocial personality disorder: Disregard for others' rights, often violating social norms. 35. Eating disorders: Abnormal eating habits negatively affecting health, like anorexia and bulimia. 36. Psychotherapy: Treatment of mental disorders through psychological methods. 37. Psychopharmacology: Study of drug effects on mood, behavior, and mental processes. fi fi fl fl