POS 1102 Political Theory Notes PDF

POS 1102 POLITICAL THEORY reasserts the importance of theorizing Political Theory in the growing assertion of “objectivity” - Analytical study of ideas and doctr...

POS 1102 POLITICAL THEORY reasserts the importance of theorizing Political Theory in the growing assertion of “objectivity” - Analytical study of ideas and doctrines that in the pol sci discipline. have been central to political thoughts - As the humanities end of Political Science Political Theory in Real-World Politics (Science being on the other end) - Critics of political theory highlight its - Concerned with normative questions of Politics utopianism/inapplicable [idealistic] - Two Approaches: Alienated from politics (Gunnel, 1986) ~ Traditional Political Theory - in Response: ❖ Literary Criticism of Thinkers Political theories that utilized empirical ❖ Qualitative approaches ❖ Normative Political theories that theorized on ❖ What ought current political events and phenomena ❖ Philosophical—justice, liberty, equality - Political Theories take their cue from the ~ Formal Political Theory events around them. ❖ Quantitative ❖ Empirical Western Science and Philosophy ❖ Models ❖ Predictive - 6th Century BC in Ionia (TURKEY) - IONIANS were the first to organize City-States Political Theory in Political Science and learn self-government - Treated as a “soft” genre in political science - Commercial Exploration - Distinguished from the “more scientific” ❖ Commercial/Business Value because it tradition in Political Science is a port - In response, theorists noted that the following: - Different tribes worked and lived together Science and objectivity are which allowed them to think liberally of other monopolized by these traditions kinds of people the “science” in political science - Use of reason is the primary tool to unravel shouldn’t be taken at face value the truth or for explanation Denies the rhetoric against political theory having less rigor in its approach. Pre-socratic Philosophy Explanations of nature/world Political Theory in History Milesian School - Questions: Miletus - commercial center of Ionia Applicability of theories from First three Greek thinkers: different historical periods to other ○ Thales - “water” as the basic element Universality of concepts ○ Anaximander - existence of a primal Historicity substance that is transformed into ○ The historical context by which various elements. The primal these theories were generated substance is something that is eternal. is important to their utilization ➔ “Since Earth exists, where does The “Political” it come from? ➔ ChatGPT: Anaximander, an early Greek ○ The ideological connections philosopher, proposed the existence of a attached to each of these "primal substance" or arche that underlies and gives rise to all things in the universe. theories. This substance is eternal, meaning it has no Political Theory in Philosophy beginning or end, and it is not confined to - Re-centers the discourse of grand political the familiar elements like water, air, or fire. Instead, it is something more fundamental concepts (ex. John Rawls on Justice) and indefinite, sometimes referred to as the - Re-abstraction of existing political concepts apeiron (meaning "boundless" or treated by political theory. "infinite"). According to Anaximander, this primal substance transforms into various elements and forms of matter, giving rise to everything in the physical world. Over time, these elements and forms return to the 1  apeiron. This idea was an early attempt to ❖ The rest are mere illusions that explain the origin and diversity of the natural world while maintaining that there is a are created of that primary single, underlying reality that is eternal and source1II1 constant. In essence, Anaximander's theory - “The thing that can be thought and that suggests that the universe is in constant flux, with all things emerging from and for the sake of which the thought exists eventually returning to a timeless, is the same, for you cannot find thought boundless source. without something that is, as to which it ○ Anaximenes - fundamental substance is uttered” is “air” ❖ The fact that the concept exists Focused on the exploration of nature means that something exists; Pre-Greek societies (non-scientific) the fact that the concept of God No concept of universal laws of nature that can exists means that God truly be explained through reasoning. exists Animistic in nature Empedocles - Air as a separate substance, theory of Pythagoras survival at its finest. - Mathematics as a form of deductive - Strife and love produce change reasoning (parallel to that of Heraclitus because - Upheld the Bacchic mysticism both emphasize change) dominant in the pre-Socratic ages - Just like conflict and consensus ❖ To be closer to the god, you have to be intoxicated (hubog) The Rise of Athens - Believes in the idea of transmigration ➔ Most of the great pre-socratic Greek thinkers souls came from Ionia and Italian islands Heraclitus ➔ After the two Persian wars ( 490 B.C. and - Fire as the fundamental substance. 480-479 B.C. ) - Only force will compel mankind to act ◆ 490 — King Darius for their own good. ◆ 480-79 — Led by Xerxes - Values power obtained through ◆ Anti-Persian alliances with the Ionians self-mastery, despises the passions were in need of naval force to which that distract men from their central Athens provided in exchange for ambitions. money. ❖ A man must FOCUS on his ◆ As a result, Athens became a naval goals [discipline] superpower and a wealthy nation - Everything changes as a product of that was capable of reconstructing the battle between the dry and most portion war damages—this paved the way for of the soul (fire and water) the demand for sculptures, artists, ❖ For a man to meet his historians ( including Herodotus), etc. end goal, it should be fire >>> ◆ The alliance was slowly transformed moist into an Athenian Empire. Parmenides ➔ Athens’ heydays were under the leadership - Metaphysics based on logic of Pericles until 430 B.C. ❖ Such as God ➔ Comprised of the battle between tyranny and ❖ God can be proven through democracy where aristocrats were able to logic situate themselves in the democratic - The only true thing is “The One”, governments. Sensible things are mere illusions. ➔ Its history is a battle between tyranny ❖ There is only a single primary and democracy source of everything and that ➔ Until Athens’ expansionism and growing is the truth—essentially wealth rose tension with Sparta that led to the speaking, that is God Peloponnesian war ( 431 - 404 ) which brought Athens to the ground. ➔ Anaxagoras 2  ◆ Carrying the scientific rationalistic tradition of Ionia, he first introduced ➔ Protagoras philosophy to the Athenians ◆ “Man is the measure of all things, of ◆ Mind as the cause of physical change things that are that they are, and of ◆ Everything is infinitely divisible things that are not that they are not.” ◆ Mind has power over all things that ★ We are the only ones who could have life; it is infinite and self-rules, define concepts and is mixed with nothing. The mind is ★ “Justice is this; justice is not the source of all motion. this.” —> We are the only ones ➔ Atomists who could determine what ◆ Leucippus and Democritus justice truly is. ◆ Everything is composed of atomic ◆ When men differ, there is no objective which are physically but not truth in virtue of which one is right and geometrically invisible between atoms the other wrong: there is an empty space ◆ No absolute truth. Truth is relative or ◆ Determinism - things are there are multiplicity of truths. predetermined in line with natural ◆ The disbelief in objective truth makes laws the majority, for practical purposes, the ◆ “The world may be attributed to a arbiters as to what to believe. creator but even then the Creator ★ Majority wins! Himself is unaccountable for.” END OF LECTURE ➔ Sophists ◆ Teachers who created subjects by inventing clarifications and concepts Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and who were paid for teaching them. - The concept of “Man” is an abstract ◆ Education for Leadership. Art of one (uncontextualized) Argumentation. - Man is relative across spaces and ➔ Used education to produce especially in history (time). leaders, and in doing so, they ❖ Declared with finality: used the art of argumentation to challenged; put into doubt; and derive concepts and definitions replaced by new understanding of the terms they were able to according to its contemporary conceptualize for the sake of contexts. leadership - In the context of Political theory, the ◆ Political Institutions are not the concept of man has been providing product of divine laws but of social organizing principles of whole cultures, conventions and arguments agreed systems of government, and society as upon by men for utilitarian reasons a whole. (Concept of a Social Contract) - You may be a man, but you are not ◆ Concept of “Government by consent” THE man ◆ However, they were discredited for being teachers of political The Political Man: Ancient Greek Philosophy propaganda. ◆ The shift from studies about the outer Socrates world of nature towards man and his behavior with society. - “Just as knowledge/reason can unravel ◆ Skepticism toward them was a form of the mysteries of nature, so can it lead intellectual challenge to the supposed to mankind’s moral master.” (Ebenstein, rationalism expressed in the 2000) democratic constitution of - Dialectics: Anti-dogmatic Athens—which was the product of [unconventional] method of seeking pride of Athens 3  truth. The first to practice deductive reasoning upon studying the individual Philosophically influenced by: and society. For each question - Pythagoras: - Orphic/Bacchic mysticism answer leads to another set of - Parmenides - Reality as eternal and timeless questions, a common definition of a - Heraclitus - Nothing is permanent in the concept is produced (Socratic method) sensible world (reason is supreme, not. - If moral life depends on knowledge senses) then doing the good requires knowing - Socrates - Teleological explanation of the the good and the process of knowing ethical questions good is doing good Highly influenced by Sparta. For him, Sparta is the - “The unexamined life is not worth ideal state because it is a military state. living.” — Socrates during his trial - Justice is when you pay your debt He believed that physicality is only temporary, and that [Cephalus] soul is the essence of being. ❖ You did something bad, you have to pay for it 3 PARTS OF THE SOUL ❖ The Code of Hammurabi (Eye RATIONALITY - Usage of reason for an Eye) To be able to understand certain phenomena - Doing what is in the interest of the through the use of certain methodology (ex. stronger [Thrasymachus] Deductive reasoning) ❖ Whoever has authority SPIRIT - Expression of your love for things (ex. ❖ The winner has the say Love for country, Love for freedom) - Justice is to give what is appropriate to APPETITE - fueled by desire him [Polemarchus] - Loyalty; you should protect your friends There are more dominant parts of the soul for every [Polemarchus] person. Either one is more rational, more spirited, or - The synthesis is not necessarily the more appetitive. end because it can be challenged, and create a new thesis, and a new cycle of THE JUST MAN thesis, antithesis, synthesis THE FOUR CARDINAL VIRTUES: - The universality of truth concerning 1. Wisdom justice is the fact that the concept of 2. Courage justice exists. What justice truly is 3. Moderation [applicability], is another universality of 4. Justice truth Rationality → Wisdom Spirit → Courage Appetite → Moderation All three must be in balance in order to make a just man. Balance doesn't mean equal because of the hierarchy. Rationality supersedes all the parts of the - soul. Justice, therefore, is not equality, but balance. We need to be wise to lead society. Man in Political Theory Plato’s Utopia The organization of the ideal state Plato The THREE classes of society: - A well to do aristocat who witnessed the defeat VIRTUE of Athens by Sparta to which he among other - Wisdom young aristocrats of his time attributed to - Courage Democracy. - Temperance 4 SOUL Not all monarch follow the divine right - Rational - Spirited Philosopher - Appetite The philosopher is a man who loves the “vision of truth”. The acquisition of such truth is CLASS knowledge. - Rulers Knowledge vs opinion - Soldiers Knowledge - super-sensible eternal world - Artisans (concerns with beauty); the concept is universal The Composition of the State: Opinion - the world that is presented through Wise - virtue of rationality that is needed to the senses (concerns with beautiful things); the rule. concept is subjective according to who holds Brave - virtue of the necessary spirit to protect the opinion the state Temperate - virtue of control of individual “There will be no end to the troubles of states, or of appetite in service to the state. humanity itself, till philosophers become kings in this Just - the overall state of balance of the three world, or till those we now call kings and rulers really previous virtues. and truly become philosophers, and political power // and philosophy thus come into the same hands.” - Plato Plato’s theory of Justice A just state is a stable state.11 Plato’s Allegory of The Cave: Balanced state Plato’s Theory of Ideas (World of Forms) To achieve: An object has sensible features but this - Secure the size of the state is not reality but rather an interpretation - Maintain Unity of the Commonwealth of the perfect idea or form. - Education and Nature Such reality can only be accessible to the limited law. Served as the Philosophical backbone Plato is not for democracy, but he is a republican. of the ideal ruler that is the Philosopher Plato’s ideal state is Sparta (military state) King. Plato wasn’t for democracy The philosopher king is necessary to maintain balance Programs for the Guardians (ruling class): of the state Education Economic Particular VS Universal Biological Religious OPINION → Particular sensible things seem to have within it contradictory elements and The Philosopher King therefore untrue since it is subjective/relative. - To be sought if the ideal state is to be Ex. Beautiful and ugly at the same time, just established and unjust at the same time (relative to the - The merger of intellectual capacity and viewer of action) established authority - To create the ideal state, the rationalism of the philosopher should be inculcated in the ranks KNOWLEDGE → (Universal forms) are of the rulers: non-sensible true meanings of things. This is - Either Philosophers become kings the truth of the thing that is absolute. Its logical - or kings become sufficiently inspired with a proof is the existence of the concept of a thing. genuine desire for wisdom. 5  LOGIC VS METAPHYSICS Citizens should have wisdom but in a sense that it is not absolute, however a ruler’s LOGIC → has to do with the meaning of wisdom must be absolute. general words. These words are not meaningless. Its meaning is not bound by a Eudaimonia (The Good Life) particular thing it represents but the It is the ultimate purpose and end of the universal idea it represents. Polis/State Simply living virtuously Idea comes first before the concept, it is the The constitution of a state is a universal truth. composition of associations and clans in a good life i.e., Self sufficing/self METAPHYSICS → the thing is a certain ideal sufficient that is created by god. All other things that are People and society are able to live sensible partakes the nature of a thing – sufficiently. imperfectly. Its imperfection is the cause for its Social institutions are a means of a multiplicity. Everything that partakes in the good life universe (physical things) are imperfect for - Marriages they are imperfect representations (imitations) - Kin-groups of the ideal. - Religious gatherings Characteristics of state-leaders A. Existence of the state 1. Wealth Aristotle - You are expected to participate in political affairs - Came from an upper-middle class family from 2. Free birth the colonial town of Stagira in the Macedonian B. Eudaimonia coasts. 1. Temper - Entered Athens at the age of 17 to study under - You can’t rush decision-making, Plato's Academy (20 years) until think before you act Plato's death. 2. Justice - Served as a tutor to Alexander, the son of Philip of Macedon who later invaded the Justice Persian empire. - The greatest and most commonly pursued - Closely linked with the Macedonian good. Monarchy. - Consists in what tends to promote common - Went back to Athens by 335 B.C. to establish interest. Two factors of justice: his own school "The Lyceum. 1. Things 2. To whom things are Good Man assigned—Persons who are equal Good Man (Ruler) - PRUDENT should have assigned to them equal - Virtue of excellence/goodness is single things. and absolute regardless of the - The rich few constitution. - Birth - Good Character Good Citizen (Ruled) - RIGHT OPINION - Majority - Not absolute excellence goodness: State - Excellence/goodness of the citizen is relative to the constitution as the State is a Community (Organic State) composition of their association: Contrary to the instrumentalist perception of - Knowledge of rule over free men from the state as forwarded by the Sophists. both points of view (ruler and ruled). The state is an organism with all the attributes of a living being. 6  Human relations being innate in individuals - association is necessary to fulfill certain desires. All associations are political. Man by nature is political. The state is the highest Community The state is the natural and final stage in the growth of human relations Collective Good TRUE GOVERNMENTS Origins of the state (Evolution of social A. Monarchy institutions) The most ideal kind of government Superior virtue of Monarchs give them the right to practice compulsion. Virtue of the ruler over the consent of the ruled. If a person has a preeminent virtue and political capacity, he should rule for he can "be deemed a God among men". "All should joyfully obey such a ruler, according to what seems to be the order of nature" B. Aristocracy A. Family (Material) ​ Government formed of the best men - The first form of association which absolutely is lowest in the process of the Aristotle refers to it together with that of evolution of institutions. It is established Monarchy (seeming impossibility of by nature "for the supply of men's Monarchy's condition) as the perfect state with everyday wants". the difference in the number of people to which B. The Village (Social) virtue is centered. - More complex than the family - Established to satisfy cultural wants or C. Constitutional Government (Polity)_ desire for companionship and The state that the citizens at large administer community. for the common interest. C. State (Moral) A compromise between the two principles: - Established for the sake of the "Good Freedom (of the poor) Life" (Eudamonia) and not for the sake Wealth (of the rich) of life only. To fulfill the quality that The more empirical approach of Aristotle has makes him specifically human. led to this concession. While the ideal state is that of a monarchial form of government, it is hard to implement given the circumstances of the real world. - more practical compared to aristocracy and monarchy. Stability is based on a social order that is less poor and rich, more middle class. 7  SLAVERY Other classes are mere necessary conditions to which the citizens can fully commit themselves to share something to the state. They are not part of the state but mere necessities for its existence. DESPOTIC/PERVERTED GOVERNMENTS Freedmen Slaves A. TYRANNY Lower class Perversion of Monarchy. Slavery - A means to achieve the purpose of the Rule of a non-virtuous single person who state. They belong wholly to their masters focuses his pursuit as a ruler for his personal Citizenship - the virtue of being human as part of benefits and desires. the state is an end in itself System of government ruled by a single person who is politically incapable - i.e., incapable of prudence and necessary virtues of Monarch. Ultimately, this leads to the extreme form monopoly of wealth at the cost of the majority with an enlarged poor population. B. OLIGARCHY Perversion of Aristocracy. The same problems with that of Monarchy except that perverted treatment of power and the benefits out of it are centered on a ruling rich few (oligarchs). Wealth is the element that makes oligarchy different from the aristocracy that is more concerned with the virtues and political capacity of the rulers. C. DEMOCRACY Perversion of Polity/Constitutional Government. Governed by the Poor and for the Poor only. For Aristotle, the most tolerable of all the despotic forms of governments. Characterized by: (incompatible with the stability of the existing moral and political order) (1) Popular Sovereignty (2) Individual Liberty Citizenship Citizen - "He who has the power to take part in the THE RULE OF LAW deliberative or judicial administration of the state" The supremacy of the body of laws over individual The idea of citizenship is that of an individual who is rulers. economically independent who has enough Such is necessary to allow everyone to have experience, education, and leisure to devote himself the opportunity to be rulers and be ruled which to politics. is at the core of "Justice" among equais. A citizen is not to lead the life of mere artisans for it The law trains the holders of office expressly is ignoble and inimical of virtue. A citizen is considered in its own spirit, and then sets them to decide to be a part of the state. 8  and settle those residuary issues which it The nature of humans to be naturally social, thus, naturally political cannot regulate "as justly as in them lies" Politics only happen when groups of people collectively Rule of God and Reason. decide matters that affect them Man's rule (instead of law) is of beastly A Man is a Political Animal —> Man in nature is character as perverted by appetite and high political because it is the highest form of our being. spirit. Reason should overpower the two. Politics as a process requires reason, prudence, and communication to make decisions. The Law "Reason free tom all passion" The State A neutral authority in the search for justice State is a Community (organic state) Organic State - like an organism that has parts and each has its own function Contrary to the instrumentalist perception of the state as FOUR FUNCTIONS OF POLITICS (STUDY AND forwarded by the Sophists. PRACTICE) The state is an organism with all the attributes of a The best constitution and its qualities devoid of living being (has purpose, has parts that has each functions, has reason) —> the state has a life of its own external factors. Human relations being innate in individuals - association The type of constitutions in relation to the type of is necessary to fulfill certain desires. civic body. The best constitution in relation to actual All associations are political. Man by nature is conditions. political. The state is the highest form of association created by A given constitution: disposition, origins, and man. developments. Practicable constitutions - easiest and most suitable The state is the highest Community to states generally. The state is the natural and final stage in the growth of human relations Aim: Collective Good Origins of the state (Evolution of social institutions) MODULE 4 Aristotle and the Political Animal ​ Each layer and form of association has its own merits and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) focus Socratic Philosopher —> the use of rationality in seeking the truth and knowledge 1. Family (Material) Father of Political Science The first form of association which is lowest in the Came from an upper-middle class family from the process of the evolution of institutions. It is established by colonial town of Stagira in the Macedonian coasts. nature "for the supply of men's everyday wants" Entered Athens at the age of 17 to study under Plato's Academy (20 years) until Plato's death. 2. The Village (Social) Served as a tutor to Alexander, the son of Philip of More complex than the family. Established to satisfy Macedon who later invaded the Persian empire. cultural wants or desire for companionship and Closely linked with the Macedonian Monarchy. community. Went back to Athens by 335 B.C. to establish his own school "The Lyceum" 3. State (Moral) Established for the sake of the "Good Life" Politics According to Aristotle (Eudaimonia) and not for the sake of life only. To fulfill Social Activity (Human) —> Political the quality that makes him specifically human —> REASON 9  REASONABLE STATE from REASONABLE Rule of a non-virtuous single person who focuses his INDIVIDUALS pursuit as a ruler for his personal benefits and desires. State is naturally rational System of government ruled by a single person who is What is a good life? politically incapable - i.e., incapable of prudence and ○ Not only individual wants and needs but the necessary virtues of Monarch. collective wants and needs Ultimately, this leads to the extreme form of monopoly of wealth at the cost of the majority with an enlarged poor The purpose of the state is the GOOD LIFE population. Forms of Government OLIGARCHY Aristotle studied various types of government across Perversion of Aristocracy. 100-200 city-states The same problems with that of Monarchy except that perverted treatment of power and the benefits out of it are centered on a ruling rich few (oligarchs). Wealth is the element that makes oligarchy different from the aristocracy that is more concerned with the virtues and political capacity of the rulers. DEMOCRACY Perversion of Polity/Constitutional Government. Governed by the Poor and for the Poor only. For Aristotle, the most tolerable of all the despotic forms of governments. TRUE GOVERNMENT Characterized by: (incompatible with the stability of the existing moral and political order) MONARCHY ○ Popular Sovereignty - Everyone has right to self The most ideal kind of government determine or decide upon their own Superior virtue of Monarchs give them the right to ○ Individual Liberty practice compulsion. Virtue of the ruler over the consent of the ruled. Citizenship If a person has a preeminent virtue and political capacity, Citizen - "He who has the power to take part in the he should rule for he can "be deemed a God among deliberative or judicial administration of the state" men". The idea of citizenship is that of an individual who is "All should joyfully obey such a ruler, according to what economically independent who has enough experience, seems to be the order of nature" education, and leisure to devote himself to politics. A citizen is not to lead the life of mere artisans for it is ARISTOCRACY ignoble and inimical of virtue. Government formed of the best men (child of A citizen is considered to be a part of the state, landlords, child of business woman, royal bloods, everyone else (those who lack economic independent, lawyers) absolutely education, and leisure = slaves) is NOT Aristotle refers to it together with that of Monarchy Citizenship is essentially for rulers—rulers of the (seeming impossibility of Monarchy's condition) as the different social institutions perfect state with the difference in the number of people to which virtue is centered. Slavery CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT (POLITY) Slave is necessary for a state to exist but they are not The state that the citizens at large administer for the part of the state common interest. Used as TOOLS for state to continue to exist A compromise between the two principles: Other classes are mere necessary conditions to which ○ Freedom (of the poor) —very hard to achieve the citizens can fully commit themselves to share ○ Wealth (of the rich) something to the state. They are not part of the state but The more empirical approach of Aristotle has led to this mere necessities for its existence. concession. While the ideal state is that of a monarchial ○ Freedmen Slaves form of government, it is hard to implement given the ○ Lower class circumstances of the real world. - more practical Slavery – A means to achieve the purpose of the state. compared to aristocracy and monarchy. They belong wholly to their masters Stability is based on a social order that is less poor and Citizenship – the virtue of being human as part of the rich, more middle class. state is an end in itself Citizenship can only exist because of Slavery DESPOTIC/PERVERTED GOVERNMENTS Ruling and Being Ruled TYRANNY Perversion of Monarchy. 10  A natural setup that comprises the whole of a thing or a Characteristics of State-Leaders process or a phenomena. ○ Man over animals For the Existence of the State ○ Male over female Wealth A state cannot exist without either of the two in the same Free Birth (Not Slave) way any organism will not exist without ruling and ruled elements. Eudaimonia Their roles are beneficial to each elements and to the Temper (Being able to see things in various ways) whole that it composoes Justice The soul rules the body the same way the master rules his slaves. It is beneficial to the body that it should be JUSTICE ruled by the souland the other way around. The greatest and most commonly pursued good. Different forms of rule: Consists in what tends to promote common interest. Two ○ Rule over better sort of ruled elements is a factors of Justice: better rule (ruler should be better than than ○ Things ruled) ○ To whom things are assigned—Persons who are ○ Example: Rule over men compared to rule over equal should have assigned equal things to animals. them. The rich few Types of Rules Birth Good character Master over slave Majority The rule is that of a superior element over an inferior subject THE RULE OF LAW Statesman over Citizens The rule of a citizen over his fellow citizens The supremacy of the body of laws over individual rulers. Husband over Wife Such is necessary to allow everyone to have the King over Subjects opportunity to be rulers and be ruled, which is at the core Authority is based on virtue of affection and of "Justice" among equals. seniority—equivalent to royal authority. The law trains the holders of office expressly in its own Parents over children spirit, and then sets them to decide and settle those residuary issues which it cannot regulate "as justly as in GOOD MAN them lies" Good Man (Ruler) - PRUDENCE Notes: The rule of law is a political ideal that all citizens Virtue of excellence/goodness is single and absolute and institutions within a country, state, or community are regardless of the accountable to the same laws, including lawmakers constitution. and leaders Excellence in the order of ruling POLITICAL RULE i.e., the rule of over equally free men. Rule of God and Reason. is developed and learned by the ruler both by being ruled Man's rule (instead of law) is of beastly character as and by ruling. perverted by appetite and high spirit. Reason should overpower the two. The Law ○ "Reason free from all passion" ○ A neutral authority in the search for justice Good Citizen (Ruled) - RIGHT OPINION FOUR FUNCTIONS OF POLITICS (STUDY AND PRACTICE) Not absolute excellence/goodness. The best constitution and its qualities devoid of external Excellence/goodness of the citizen is relative to the factors. constitution as the composition of their association. ○ Notes: Regardless of the type of society you Knowledge of rule over free men from both points of view have, the best constitution is the kind that (ruler and ruled) whenever or wherever you impose or implement it, IT WOULD STILL WORK EUDAIMONIA (The Good Life) The type of constitutions in relation to the type of civic It is the ultimate purpose and end of the Polis/State body. The best constitution in relation to actual The constitution of a state is a composition of conditions. associations and clans in a good life i.e., SELF ○ Notes: The kind of constitution the state is SUFFICING/SELF SUFFICIENT. trying to pursue must be able to address the Social institutions are a means to the good life: necessities and the realities of the society ○ Marriages A given constitution: disposition (nature), origins, and ○ Kin-groups developments. ○ Religious gathering Practicable constitutions - easiest and most suitable to states generally. 11  ○ "Given that we could not possibly know the Constitution nature of things, it is unlikely that we'll be able to Aristotle: It is the ultimate expression of the actors and the same for ourselves” the behavior of the actors that creates the system that is ○ Notes: This suggests that there is no fixed or functioning in itself inherent nature that defines what it means to It is everything that constitutes the organism or the body be human. Human beings are too complex and (the state) ever-changing for a singular "nature" or "an organization of offices in a state, by which the "essence" to be pinned down. method of their distribution is fixed, the sovereign ○ Conditions of human existence (Natality, authority is determined, and the nature of the end to be Mortality, Plurality, etc.) doesn't explain the pursued by the association and all its members is nature of man prescribed" ○ Natality - Before you can exist, you have to be Division of the task (ex: DOH - Health) born or conceived into this world ○ Mortality - In birth, it is predetermined that it will Laws end The spirit of the constitution ○ Plurality - Within the period of Natality and "the rules by which the magistrates should exercise their Mortality is the condition that is PLURAL in powers and should watch and check transgressors" nature. Plural - we live with other humans Human Condition = limited (requires conception that ultimately leads to an end) and plural (we live together with other human beings) Humans are "Conditioned beings" ○ We are both shaped by and are shaping our environment (conditions) at the same time —> We are influenced by our environment ○ Human beings are a "who” We are not mere subjects but we are subjecting our environment to our activity —> reshaping the existing physical, social, political environment This condition is shared amongst humans as we experience the world together that is constantly changing throughout human history. The human condition is shaped by our interactions with the world and what we produce. Everything humans touch or engage with becomes a condition of existence. Human nature is different from the human condition—Arendt argues it may be impossible to define human nature in the same way we define the nature of other things. MODULE 5 Hannah Arendt Hannah Arendt’s Vita Activa and the Human Condition The Limits of Human Understanding “Politically Active” - Engaging in anything we consider Philosophical and scientific approaches to understanding political (Ex. Election Campaigning) humans fall short in defining who we are. Vita activa refers to three fundamental human activities: Attempts to define human nature often lead to labor, work, and action. constructing ideas of the divine, reflecting the limitations These activities are essential because they correspond of our understanding. to basic conditions of human existence on earth. While humans are conditioned by their earthly existence, What makes man a social and political animal = ACTIVE they are not strictly "earth-bound" creatures, as LIFE demonstrated by modern science’s universal perspective. Human Condition —> Life The Term Vita Activa Human Conditions vs. Human Nature Active Life There is no such thing as "Essence of Man” The term vita activa is rooted in tradition and is closely tied to the history of political thought. 12  It originated from a specific historical context: the trial of Socrates and the conflict between the philosopher and the polis. Over time, the term has evolved, losing some of its original political meaning. Three Fundamental Human Activities Labor Most Primal form of activity —> part of biology and anatomy Ex: Breathing and Eating Active Life (Political Life) ○ Notes: We don’t usually think about it; we don’t Highest form of action rationalize about it Requires Freedom, Thinking (within the material human Activity that corresponds to the biological process of realm), and Speech the human body (growth, metabolism, and decay). Engaging in Political Life Natality, Growth, & Mortality ○ Engage with decisions and influence decision It produces necessities to sustain life. that would matter to society = requires a lot of The human condition related to labor is life itself. THINKING ○ Critical Thinking Work Thinking —> FREEDOM It creates an "artificial" world of objects that outlast ○ Sir Nino: “If you are not thinking, you are not human life and distinctly different from the surrounding free” natural things ○ The more you think, the more you can explore Raw material (From physical world) —> Something THINKING will ultimately lead to ACTION and the else (Artificial) manifestation of that is SPEECH Worldliness Speech - function of human that is connected to Work corresponds to the "unnaturalness" of human RATIONALITY existence, distinct from nature’s life cycles. ○ In the Greek polis, political decisions were made The human condition related to work is Worldliness. through words and persuasion, not force. ○ The capacity for speech was a key element of Action political life, and those who lived outside the Highest form of rationality and activity polis, such as slaves or barbarians, were Level of Rationality = What kind of activity you do considered to be deprived of a life where Activity that links/engages men directly with each other speech and discussion were central. for we live in the same world. Freedom is not a given condition but a condition Action is the activity that occurs directly between people, created upon man's engagement without material intermediaries. It reflects the condition of plurality—the fact that Public vs. Private Realm humans, not just "Man," live on earth. Public and Private Realm —> Platform on considering Action is the foundation of all political life. the Active Life The condition of plurality makes action necessary Notes: Your concern is not yours alone anymore and is because every human is unique, though all share the considered with the PUBLIC same humanity. The Rise of the City-State ○ The establishment of the city-state (polis) allowed individuals to live both a private life and a political life, where their participation in public affairs was distinct from their personal family life. ○ Before the rise of the polis, political life did not exist as an organized system. Human Existence: Birth, Death, and Action All three activities (labor, work, and action) are tied to the basic human conditions of birth (natality) and death The Social vs. the Political (mortality). Labor sustains life, work creates enduring things, and Aristotle’s Concept of Zoon Politikon action establishes the basis for history through political The idea of zoon politikon (political animal) was communities. translated in early texts as animal socialis (social Action, in particular, is rooted in natality (new animal), a shift that reflects the loss of the original Greek beginnings), as it reflects humans’ capacity to initiate understanding of politics. something new. The Greek concept of political life, or bios politikos, differs from social life, which Aristotle saw as something shared with animals. 13  Social - people organize themselves into particular units 338 B.C. (attributed to biological needs) Athens was defeated by Macedonia at Chaeronea (battle ○ Being in society = Man is naturally SOCIAL of Chaeronea) ushered the take over of the Macedonian Political - requires contemplation (thinking) —> Action Empire under the rule of King Philip Only two human activities are considered "political” = Catapulted the Macedonian rule in Greek, Asia Minor, Action & Speech Punjab Polis/State was a condition created by man out of Action and Speech by which it can focus on the political Alexander The Great Student of Aristotle Social Life as a Limitation Son of King Philip carried on the expansionist dream of For Greeks, social life and family life were seen as his father and set out to conquer the Persian empire. limitations, tied to biological needs rather than (334-324 B.C.) Took over the entire Persian empire distinctively human qualities. crossing the regions of Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, Political life, on the other hand, represented a higher form Babylonia, Persia, Samarcand, Bactria, and the Punjab of human existence, centered on action and speech in The conquest of Alexander is the largest in the history the public realm. of mankind Polis and the Household (Arena of the Public and Private) Household ○ Immediate Environment = Family ○ Represented the pre-political, social organizational unit ○ Born out of necessity. Human activities within it are governed by necessity. ○ Absolute rule by the patriarch (monarch) over his slaves and family members In Public Man is more concerned = ACTIVE LIFE Appearance of Reality Hellenization ○ Something that is being heard and seen Introduction of Greek institutions in the newly conquered/ (observable) by others established cities under Alexander's Macedonian empire. And the Reality of the World itself Integration of Greek culture (arts and languages) and ○ The world that is common to us is the condition scientific knowledge to the east —> Rationalist of living together but differently. The world of Tradition (product of Ionian migration to Athens) plurality. Influence of eastern mystic beliefs and superstition to the Greeks. In Private Rational Tradition and Mysticism "To live a private life means to be deprived of "objective” Hellenization - the product and the mixture of the relationship with them that comes from being related to different parts of traditions in the East and the Greek from and separated from them…” the West “The privation of privacy lies in the absence of Cosmopolitanism others” ○ Polis was no longer the end of political A private man does not appear. His actions are not organization (City-states are mere municipalities significant or consequential. It does not interest other of a huge empire) people ○ Political unity of the world (Mankind as a whole Under modern circumstances, this deprivation of not excluding non-greeks) objective relationships caused mass loneliness ○ Greek civilization, in covering a wider area, became less purely Greek ○ Notes: Has an effect on the saturation of the Greek tradition ○ Notes: Historians credit Alexander for being able to merge the East and the West together MODULE 5 Hellenistic Philosophy: Skepticism, Cynicism, through conquest Epicureanism, Stoicism Introduction of the divine-right rule where governments are ruled by divine or semi-divine (Gods), saintly Hellenistic (Notes) kings. Relating to the widespread Greek-based culture that ○ Alexander himself was proclaimed to be the developed after the conquests of Alexander the Great son of God in many cities. Either he believed The death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. traditionally in it or used it as a matter of policy to maintain marks the beginning of the Hellenistic period. control over the East. The Hellenistic Period 14  Rejection of all forms of conventions (religion, manners, dress, food, etc. providing certain standards of “good”) abandon all of them be indifferent to the goods that fortune has to bestow, and you will be emancipated from fear ○ Note: Because if you have nothing, you have no fear to losing ; You are not attached to anything One must submit to virtue (contentment; unattached to anything) therefore for him to be for his redemption since Alexander died and the Macedonian empire fell into the there are no assurance pertaining to the future of the soul hands of the families of three generals: Antigonus, Popular Cynicism Ptolemy, Seleucus ○ Less radical compared to Diogenes Cynicism ○ Ptolemies and Seleucids abandoned Greek ○ Indifference to the good things of the world; not and barbaric fusion by Alexander abstinence from it. No sense of obligatory ○ Egypt (Alexandria) under the Ptolemies attachment, primarily utilitarian. (example eating became a haven for intellectual pursuit. (Notes: food is for mere survival, nothing else) Like Ionia) Specialization in the world of learning and all Skeptics departments of society. Founded by Pyrho Detachment from public affairs in contrast to the Formalization of older doubts such as skepticism towards naturally political nature of the Greek polis the senses There can never be rational grounds for action. East's Religious and Superstitious influence "Dogmatic Doubt" - Knowledge is unattainable. Primarily of Chaldean and Babylonian source attributed ○ Note: There is always a question that is thrown to: out of the knowledge that is being generated ○ priestly records of religious history tracing (somehow socratic) BUT ULTIMATELY: YOU thousands of years of mystic stories of divinities. ARE SKEPTICAL ABOUT EVERYTHING! ○ Prediction of eclipses - resulted in the ○ Do not concern with what is good since good reception of astrology can only be attained through reason and there is ○ Belief in fate and destiny as expressed by the never a rational ground for a particular course of stars and heavenly body developed. action (Note: Your decision is never a rational Fate became a primary belief/thought which lies on the thing or a rational course of action) Predictability of the future as it is predetermined against Since knowledge is unattainable, there is no certainty the dominant belief in fortune. that can be achieved. Since there is no certainty, why Note: This is an important implication because it is the bother about the future? kind of philosophy and political thought that is emerging The concern must be about what is present at the during this time—the questions of faith, mortality, death, moment, not about the uncertain future. and how a person should act in society. Epicureanism General focus: The moral action of man in facing uncertainties Founded by Epicurus and chaos in society. “Where do we find the pursuit of common The Universe is chaotic and anarchic composed of good when we can’t find it in the state, because the state is atoms and the void. anarchic and politics is different from private life? So as an All knowledge is acquired by sense perception individual, how do I pursue a good life—the common good?” Observation leads to understanding. Classifying the World: ○ Sensible World (consist of atoms) ○ Non-Sensible World (the realm of the void—does not constitute atoms) The Gods are unconcerned about human affairs (they don’t care) ○ Note: The Gods only concerned is the realm of Cynics the void and not the atoms Example: Diogenes ○ They are not to be regarded superstitiously or Notes: In the 4th century BCE, a young Diogenes of feared. Only to be envied. Sinope was found to be counterfeiting coins. He was Death is not to be feared. There is no immortality or stripped of his citizenship, his money, all his possessions afterlife. The soul breaks down into atoms when an and sent into exile. He decided he would live individual dies. self-sufficiently, close to nature, without materialism, vanity, or conformity and only then could he be truly free. doing away with material possessions in pursuit of subjective goods; virtue and contentment How do we appreciate life? 15  the law, and every person has reason, natural law must apply to all. Thus a universal citizenship can exist. ○ Promoted equality ○ Diplomatic approach in settling disputes Cosmic Determinism ○ No such thing as chance. Everything as part of the course of nature is rigidly determined by natural laws. Human Freedom ○ Guided by reason Early Stoics Zeno (4th century B.C.) Influenced by the Cynics but was more eclectic and looked up to Socrates The aim of life was therefore pleasure and not the Materialist view of the reality and the soul (non-platonic) - metaphysical consequences. anti-metaphysics The final end is happiness which can be achieved in Cleanthes the pursuit of pleasure together Absence of Pain and The soul survived until the next conflagration Achievement of Peace of Mind. Chrysippus It can be achieved through mastery and control of only the soul of the wise survive after death. Good and desires: evil are anti-thetical ○ Refusal to be involved in family/political affairs Panaetius ○ Skepticism toward religion. Introduced platonism in Stoic Philosophy abandoning ○ Friendship (he defended it and declared it as the materialism most tolerable form of pleasure) Soul perishes with the body Voluntary creation of Society and Law Posidonius ○ Society was not a natural phenomenon Continued platonic elements ○ It is a deliberate creation at creating order The soul continues to live in the air. The good soul rises towards the heavens to witness the stars. While the Stoicism wicked soul becomes muddy and hardly to rise. Believes in the Natural order of the universe which is Marcus Aurelius also divine. Man is part of this natural order. Using Meditations - a journal of sort that details his personal reason, man is capable of understanding the laws of the feeling of weariness about his responsibilities as Roman universe. Emperor. Virtue depended on knowledge, knowledge is The gospel of Roman Stoic Ethic was that of endurance unraveled through instead of hope. There was never-ending sorrow and reason. pain which virtue needs to surpass The Stoic Life Philosophy is to live consistently with nature and follow its universal laws. Impacts of the Roman Empire Peace of mind leads to happiness and it is a result of I. Direct effect of Rome on Greek Thought internal harmony which means the suppression of II. Influence of Greece and East in Rome non-rational elements to achieve apathia or inner III. Unification of Government and Culture tranquility. IV. The Mohammedans as vehicles of Hellenism Teleological determinism - the end that is outlined is to achieve a certain purpose (Note: Your existence is always guided by a certain purpose) The natural laws are ordained by a Supreme power (God, Zeus, etc.) —> God as creator and part of the natural world (He is the soul of the world) Each of us contains a part of the divine fire (soul) = a part of god. Virtue is Will (reason) that is in agreement with nature PERFECT FREEDOM - Good and Bad in man's life is only upon himself since will, the medium of virtue resides internally within the individual, not in other men. So long as he is emancipated from mundane desires. Elements of Stoicism Stoic Cosmopolitanism - Natural law applicable to all human beings exists and can be achieved by man through reason. Since reason is necessary to understand 16 17 MODULE 6 Medieval Man St. Augustine The state is God’s physical kingdom here on Earth. Medieval Life and Thought City of God - Something that cannot be fathomed by the Roman Empire - the empire during the Medieval Period physical realm and composed of people who love and Roman Empire became Holy Roman Empire when serve God. Christianity was declared as their official religion City of Man (Earthy City) - Composed of those who love ○ Constantine declared the official religion themselves and seek dominion over others. Medieval period started after the fall of Rome Dualism between the city of god and city of man Generally dated from the downfall of Rome (476 A.D.) (Primacy of God over Man) Weak central form of government ○ Good vs. evil → general dualism ○ After the fall of Rome, the central government God’s goodness is not to be removed weakened, because what justified its existence from the fact that there is evil was attacked by Barbarians— ”Why is this One can only see the good because of supposedly Holy Roman Empire unable to the evil; One cannot say it’s evil without protect itself? Rome as the center of the knowing the good. empire's collapse?” ○ Perfection vs. imperfection → universalism ○ Barbarians - a member of a community or tribe “Is there such a thing as perfection or not belonging to one of the great civilizations imperfection?” (Greek, Roman, Christian). The fact that one can see Local government was the norm “imperfection” then, there must be ○ From Greek “polis” to “imperial” during the “perfection” Holy Roman Empire to “local” during the St. Augustine’s logic was influenced by Medieval Period Plato and utilized Plato’s logic and theory in interpreting the relationship Feudal System between State and Church (Man and A social system of Barbarian origins fundamentally God) related to the relationship between landlords and ○ Metaphysical vs. Material → Nature of Forms tenants. Similar to Plato’s World of Forms In the absence of universal public laws, social groups ○ Virtue vs. Desire → dualism of the soul had legal relations to others exchanging allegiance and While the person may be fueled by services with protection with superior social groups. innate desire, he is also capable of Vassalage virtue in controlling those desires ○ Vassals are subjects who submit to the ○ Morality vs. Immorality → concerning action authority of a lord who will provide protection Human Activity is driven by morality to the vassal in exchange for services and men. “What one can do and cannot do” Originally military in nature. Fief Two types of man ○ The land that is given by the King to the Those who live according to man in the earthly city vassals in exchange of necessary services The ○ Characteristics: Evil, Imperfection, Guided by fief therefore becomes a land of the lord to Material world, desire, and Immorality which the vassals are subjects. ○ To suffer eternal punishment—HELL ○ The NEGATIVE SIDE of the dualism Those who live according to god in the heavenly city ○ Characteristics: Lived a Good life, Perfect, Going beyond the Material Realm, Guided by Virtue and Morality ○ Pre-destined to reign eternally with god. ○ The POSITIVE SIDE of the dualism Church (God)