Field Methods in Psychology Lecture PDF

FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE Definition of Research Recherche- To go seeking Basic Types of Research Methods Merriam-Webster Dictionary- “studios of !. Descriptive Research inquiry of examination”...

FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE Definition of Research Recherche- To go seeking Basic Types of Research Methods Merriam-Webster Dictionary- “studios of !. Descriptive Research inquiry of examination” -Describes a phenomenon and its Fred N. Kerlinger- “systematic, controlled, characteristics empirical and critical investigation of natural -what rather how and why phenomena” -describe the present nature of a situation and explore causes. Scientific Research Two Categories: Applied Research- solve a specific problem 2. Correlational Research Basic/ Pure Research- No instant application -studies the relationship between variables. for addressing a particular problem -uses correlational coefficients to express the strength of the relationship. Scientific Method -Pearson’s R/Pearson’s Correlation -it enables researchers to produce a body of knowledge that includes procedures for 3. Experimental Research guaranteeing the accuracy of the data. -manipulates factors believed to cause behaviour. Two Ways of Stating the Hypothesis Variable: Independent- the manipulated factor Dependent- the observed behaviour. Research Ethics -Ethics is the branch of philosophy concerned with conduct and character. It is the systematic study of the principles and methods for Scientific Theory distinguishing right from wrong and good from -set of interrelated statements, such as bad. Research ethics is a set of principles that predictions regarding particular observations or deals with moral decisions in research and experiments, helping in the explanation and assists the community of researchers in understanding of human behaviour. deciding how to conduct ethical research EXAMPLES OF MORAL PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH -Informed Consent -Confidentiality -Data Privacy -Plagiarism -Fraud  FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE Elements and Considerations in Research ETHICAL STANDARDS IN THE CONDUCT Ethics OF RESEARCH -The ethical principles for conducting research -Researchers are obligated to respect the involving human participants include several rights, safeguard dignity, and protect and factors, including privacy and confidentiality, promote the welfare of research participants risks and benefits, safety, transparency, informed consent, social value, and fairness. Therefore, any research that includes human (Code of Ethics and Professional Standard for subjects must be evaluated by an ethics review Psychology Practitioners, 2017) committee to confirm that the necessary ethical -Researchers must protect participants from standards are maintained. unnecessary harm or distress. Harm to research participant may include physical harm AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL and psychological harm. ASSOCIATION’S ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF -Research participants must not be coerced to PSYCHOLOGISTS AND CODE OF participate in a research project. CONDUCT INCLUDES FIVE (5) GENERAL -National Ethical Guidelines for Health and ASPIRATIONAL OR MORAL PRINCIPLES: Health-related Research 2017 (published by 1. Beneficence and Nonmalificence PHREB) - this guide provides suggestions for 2. Fidelity and responsibility researchers on how to manage all aspects of 3. Integrity the research process in order to protect the 4. Justice safety and well-being of research participants. 5. Respect for people’s rights and dignity Debriefing The Research Ethics Review Committee (ERC) -A structured conversation between consists of 27 members who are appointed by researchers and participants after a study or the Director-General. Its purpose is to experiment is completed. Its primary purpose is guarantee that the World Health Organization to explain the study's goals, procedures, and (WHO) only endorses research involving any potential deception used. human participants that adheres to the highest ethical standards. Social Value -Refers to the relevance of the study to an The Philippine Health Research Ethics Board existing social or health problem such that the (PHREB) is the national policy making body in results are expected to bring about a better health research ethics in the country, created understanding of related issues, or contribute under DOST Special Order No. 091 s. 2006, to the promotion of well-being of individuals, which ensures adherence to the universal their families, and communities. ethical principles for the protection and Philippine Health Research Ethics Board promotion of the dignity of health research (PHREB) participants. Commision of Higher Education (CHED) National Research Council of the Philippines (NRCP)  FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE Distributive Justice useful when we anticipate that the -refers to the perceived fairness of one’s measurement of interest may differ among the outcomes. When a reward is allocated or a various subgroups, and we aim to ensure that decision is made, people often make a all subgroups are adequately represented. judgment whether or not the outcome was fair. Cluster Sampling Informed Consent -Instead of individuals, clustered samples use -It requires researchers to provide potential subgroups of the population as the sampling participants with comprehensive information unit. The population is divided into subgroups, about the study, including its purpose, known as clusters, from which participants are procedures, potential risks and benefits, and chosen at random for the study. Clusters are their right to withdraw at any time. normally predefined Template for Informed consent were developed by the following: Non-Probability Sampling Methods World Health Organization (WHO) Ethics Review Committee (ERC) Convenience Sampling -It is the simplest sampling technique, as it involves selecting participants based on their Quantitative Research availability and willingness to participate. While it can yield useful findings, the results may be Probability Sampling Methods significantly biased since those who choose to volunteer may differ from those who do not Simple random sampling (known as volunteer bias). -Every person is chosen at random, and each member of the population has an equal chance Quota sampling of being chosen. One way for obtaining a -Market researchers frequently utilize this random sample is to assign a number to each sampling technique. Interviewers are assigned member in the population and then use a a specific number of subjects of certain types random number table to select who will be to recruit. included. Purposive Sampling Systematic Sampling -This method, often referred to as selective or -is a type of probability sampling in which subjective sampling, depends on the people are chosen from a bigger group at researcher's discretion in selecting participants. random and within a consistent, regular Researchers may unconsciously opt for a interval. This interval is calculated by dividing "representative" sample that aligns with their the total population by the number of samples objectives or deliberately target individuals with required. specific traits. Stratified Sampling Snowball Sampling -In this approach, the population is initially -This approach is frequently employed in social segmented into subgroups (or strata) that sciences when studying difficult-to-access share a common characteristic. This method is populations. Current participants are requested to recommend additional participants they are  FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE familiar with, resulting in a sample that expands Regression Analysis: Predicting progressively, similar to a snowball effect. relationships between variables Statistical Analysis -is the way data is collected, organized, interpreted, and shown in order to find patterns and trends. It uses statistical methods to make sense of data, helping people make informed decisions and test hypotheses. This analysis can describe data or make predictions about a bigger group based on a smaller sample. 2 Main Types of Statistical Analysis Descriptive Analysis - is the process of Correlation organizing and summarizing data to make it easy to understand. It uses methods to Correlational research describe and present data, often using -A correlational research design is used to statistics and visual aids. measure the relationship between two variables. It reveals how closely two variables Inferential Analysis - Inferential Analysis vary together and so how well one predicts the involves using data from a sample to make other. inferences or predictions about a larger population. This type of analysis employs When to use correlational research statistical techniques to test hypotheses and -To investigate non-causal relationships. estimate parameters, helping to generalize -To explore causal relationships between findings beyond the immediate data set variables. -To test new measurement tools. Key Methods Ways how to collect correlational data Descriptive Analysis: -Surveys -Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, -Naturalistic Observation median, mode. -Secondary Data -Measures of Dispersion: Range, variance, standard deviation. Pearson Product-Moment Correlation -Data Visualization: Histograms, bar charts, pie charts, box plots. What does this test do? The Pearson Product Moment Correlation is a statistical technique Inferential Analysis: that is so widely used in quantitative research. Hypothesis Testing: t-tests, chi-square tests, The result of correlational analysis is a number ANOVA. called a correlation coefficient. Confidence Intervals: Estimating the range within which a population parameter lies. The values of a coefficient range from -1 to +1. A positive (+) correlation suggests that as the  FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE values of one variable increase, so do the The one-way analysis of ANOVA determines values of a second variable increase. A the statistical differences between the means negative (-) correlation suggests that as the of two or more independent (unrelated) groups. values of one variable increase, the values of the second variable decrease. 0: No linear A two-way ANOVA tests the effect of two correlation independent variables on a dependent variable. t-Tests What does this test do? The t-test is used to compare the means between two groups. To determine if they are significantly different from each other or if a treatment has an effect. When to use a t-test: 1. Use a t-test to compare the means of two groups when: The data are independent. 2. The data are approximately normally distributed. 3. The variances within each group are similar Reliability (homogeneity of variance) -extent to which the research study yields consistent results, such as by retesting What type of t-test should you use? (replication). Usually, retesting is conducted with different subjects in different situations, to -Paired t-test: Use when comparing means see whether the findings generalize to other from the same group at different times or subjects and circumstances. conditions (within-subjects design). -Two-sample t-test (independent t-test): Use Validity when comparing means from two different -Validity is used to measure a research method groups (between-subjects design). or design. -One-sample t-test: Use when comparing the mean of a single group to a known standard There are two categories of validity: value. Internal External. ANOVA 2 Categories of Validity What does this test do? -ANOVA, which stands for Analysis of Internal validity - is a measure of how well the Variance, is a statistical test used to compare study is conducted. It refers to the the means among three or more groups. meaningfulness and confidence in the research results.  FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE External validity - is the degree to which the THEORITICAL SAMPLING research results are applicable or can be -A SOPHISTICATED AND STRATEGIC generalized to other situations or people. TECHNIQUE THAT CAN HELP RESEARCHERS DEVELOP MORE IN-DEPTH AND NUANCED THEORIES FROM THEIR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA. -Qualitative research studies human behaviour CONVENIENCE SAMPLING by trying to understand the meanings, motives, -PARTICIPANTS ARE SELECTED BASED ON and beliefs that underlie a person’s THEIR ACCESSIBILITY AND WILLINGNESS experiences. It is dependent on words rather TO PARTICIPATE RATHER THAN THEIR than numbers for the collected data. SUITABILITY FOR THE RESEARCH QUESTIO; OFTEN USES THIS APPROACH FIVE FEATURES: TO GENERATE VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES -STUDYING THE MEANING OF PEOPLE’S AND EXPERIENCES LIVES, UNDER REAL-WORLD CONDITION; -REPRESENTING THE VIEWS AND SNOWBALL SAMPLING PERSPECTIVES OF THE PARTICIPANTS IN -ALSO CALLED REFERRAL SAMPLING; THE A STUDY; SAMPLE SIZE GROWS AS REFERRALS ARE -COVERING THE CONTEXTUAL ADDED, CREATING A CHAIN LIKE CONDITIONS WITHIN WHICH PEOPLE LIVE; STRUCTURE. -CONTRIBUTING INSIGHTS INTO EXISTING OR EMERGING CONCEPTS THAT MAY CRITERIA FOR TRUSTWORTHINESS BY HELP TO EXPLAIN HUMAN SOCIAL LINCOLN AND GUBA: BEHAVIOR; -AND STRIVING TO USE MULTIPLE CREDIBILITY SOURCE OF EVIDENCE RATHER THAN -IT DETERMINES WHETHER THE RELAYING ON A SINGLE SOURCE ALONE RESEARCH FINDINGS ARE CORRECT AND ACCURATE Data Selection -SYNONYMOUS WITH ITERNAL VALIDITY DATA SELECTION IS THE PROCESS OF CHOOSING THE RIGHT DATA TYPE, -TRIANGULATING IS THE USE OF SOURCE, AND COLLECTION DIFFERENT SOURCES 0F INFORMATION INSTRUMENTS TO EFFECTIVELY ADDRESS OR PROCEDURE IN ESTABLISHING RESEARCH QUESTIONS PATTERNS. -MEMBER CHECKING IS USING PURPOSIVE SAMPLING INFORMANTS IN VALIDATING THE -KNOWN AS JUDGEMENTAL SAMPLING; ANALYSIS OF A RESEARCHER AND A NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUE IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TRANSFERABILITY THAT IS COMMONLY USED -IT IS THE EXTENT TO WHICH IT CAN BE APPLIED IN OTHER CONTEXTS AND STUDIES. -SYNONYMOUS WITH GENERALIZABILITY OR EXTERNAL VALIDITY.  FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE -THIS IS ONLY POSSIBLE WHEN PROVIDED DATA ANALYSIS WITH A SUSBTANTIAL INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA THEMATIC ANALYSIS DEPENDABILITY Method that involves reading through a set of -THERE MUST BE ATLEAST TWO PERSONS data to identify patterns or themes that come TO REVIEW THE CONTENTS OF THE DATA. up repeatedly such as in transcripts from focus -IT IS ALSO NECESSARY FOR group interviews. RESEARCHERS TO MONITOR THE INFLUENCE OF THEIR VALUES AND SIX-STEP PROCESS BY VIRGINIA BRAUN & BELIEFS IN THE INTERPRETATION OF THE VICTORIA CLARKE DATA CALLED BRACKETING. Step 1: Become familiar with the data Step 2: Generate initial codes CONFIRMABILITY Step 3: Search for themes -THIS HAPPENS WHEN THE QUALITATIVE Step 4: Review themes RESEARCH IS CONFIRMED BY OTHER Step 5: Define and name themes RESEARCHERS. Step 6: Write-up QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTIONS METHODS 1. INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEW 2. QUALITATIVE SURVEYS 3. FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS 4. RECORD KEEPING 5. CASE STUDIES 6. OBSERVATION NOTE THIS: DATA ANALYSIS A.TO ASK PERMISSION FROM THE NARRATIVE ANALYSIS PARTICIPANTS TO RECORD THE -Typically used in studies which have employed CONVERSATION. narrative inquiry as a qualitative research B. TO ESTABLISH RAPPORT WITH THE method. It uses the “story” as the unit of PARTICIPANTS analysis, in contrast to Thematic Analysis. C. INTERVIEW PROCESS SHOULD BE FLEXIBLE AND SENSITIVE TYPES OF NARRATIVES: D. DEBRIEFING SHOULD OCCUR POST- DISCUSSION TO MANAGE ANY NEGATIVE TOPICAL STORIES EMOTIONS. -A restricted story about one specific moment in time with a plot, characters, and setting, but doesn’t encompass the entirety of a person’s PERSONAL NARRATIVE -come from a long interview or a series of long narrative interviews that give an extended account of someone’s life  FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE ENTIRE LIFE STORY 4. Longitudinal Study -Constructed from a collection of interviews, -A longitudinal study in qualitative research observations, and documents about a person’s involves collecting data from the same life participants over an extended period to observe changes and developments. RESEARCH APPROACH POSITIVISM OBSERVATIONS, INTERVIEWS, AND SURVEYS It is an approach that seeks causal relationships among factors, with the objective OBSERVATIONS of trying to predict outcomes. Positivism is -Starting point of any scientific inquiry. based on the premise that knowledge should Exploratory and open ended, the be gained through observable and measurable researcher takes intensive field notes evidences (Qualitative Research) Systematically measuring and CONSTRUCTIVISM quantifying characteristics of a An approach that suggests people construct phenomenon (Quantitative Research) their own understanding of the world through Systematic noting and recording direct or real-world experiences and reflect behaviors. upon those experiences Less expensive. Triangulated with interviews or informal RESEARCH DESIGN conversations. 1. Retrospective Cohort Study OVERT OBSERVATION - In retrospective cohort study, the Directly observable behavior such as researcher asks the participants to report talking, walking on experiences from an earlier time in their lives COVERT OBSERVATION Cannot be directly observed such as 2. PROSPECTIVE COHORT STUDY feeling and thinking. Can still be - In a prospective cohort study, the explored through observable signs such cohort subjects are identified based on as through body language, facial exposure prior to the development of a expressions, and through scientific condition (e.g., disorder, disease) and methods such as polygraph testing. the outcome is observed. TYPES OF OBSERVATIONS 3. CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY - A cross-sectional study involves Naturalistic OBSERVATION collecting data from participants at a Research participants behaviours are single point in time to understand a observed and recorded as they behave phenomenon or experience. naturally or spontaneously in their natural environment or real-life situation. It is also possible that in the midst of observing or recording responses, the  FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE observer may interfere with with or influence the events under study. STRUCTURED OBSERVATION -The collection technique is structured in PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION a well defined and systematic manner. Is a qualitative method in which the In some situations, the researcher researcher interacts with the members needs to spend time in their informants’ of the group being studied. homes, participate in community and Kristensen Johnson and Turner (2015) family events, and be involved as have identified four conditions in participant-observer. Laboratory participant observations: observations are carried out in a controlled environment that has been complete participation set up by the researcher in an effort to -Where the observer is a full member of make the situation as similar as possible the group being studied. for all participants. participant as observer -When the researcher spends a Interviews considerable amount of time with the is an interaction between at least two group and attempts to become a full persons. An interview is generally a member of the group, but explains to the qualitative research method which group from the beginning that they are involve asking open-ended questions to conducting research. talk with participants and collect data about the research topic. observer as participant STRUCTURED interviews - When the researcher spends only a limited Requires the researcher to ask a set of amount of time with the group he or she is standardized questions in a specified observing, seeking permission from the sequence. participants to join in only with the activities that they wish to observe. UNSTRUCTURED interviews Allows greater flexibility in which the researcher asks questions that come to complete observer type mind. Does not involve himself or herself with the group being observed at all. Rapport Remains anonymous and not to be -Involves a comfortable ambiance, noticed by the participants. The mutual unfderstanding, or empathy that participants do not need to be informed makes communicatoion possible or that they are being observed. easy.  FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE -It is also important that the researcher Cognitive Attitude - how we think about is an active listener and uses a the object. language that the participants can easily understand. SURVEYS -It is important to clarify the intended Survey can be conducted by: meaning of a word or term used by the Email participants if there are uncertainties Phone during the interview. Personal interviews -Also, an interview should be conducted anywhere that two people can meet and Researchers may employ questionnaire interact privately and free from and interviews. interruptions. -Note-taking and videotape should be To increase survey responses, it is taken during an interview. it should be suggested to notify the participants in done openly, unobtrusively, and with advance. informed consent. Advantages of survey SURVEYS By encoding and analyzing answers with In survey method, the researcher asks computer program, researchers can the participants to report their behaviors, analyze data at a shorter period. attitudes, opinions, or experiences. Convenient for respondents It gathers larger data Self-reports are participants’ answers to questions about the research topic. Disadvantages of survey Time consuming Requires higher budget Survey is a prodecure for collecting Participants may respond inaccurately if information by asking a set questions. the survey includes loaded questions, and questions that represent only one Survey seeks to understand and side of an issue or lead to biased evaluate the attitude of customers responses. towards a particular product or service. Series of questions to assess attitude is usually a set of statement done in Likert Scale format. THE TRIPARTITE MODEL OF ATTITUDE Affective Attitude - how we feel about the object. Behavioral Attitude - what we do about the object. FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE