Explanations For Forgetting PDF

Explanations for Forgetting Retrieval Failure (AO1) Retrieval failure is where information is available in long-term memory but cannot be recalled because of the absence of appropriate cues. When we store a new memory, we also store information about the situation, and these are known as retrieval...

Explanations for Forgetting Retrieval Failure (AO1) Retrieval failure is where information is available in long-term memory but cannot be recalled because of the absence of appropriate cues. When we store a new memory, we also store information about the situation, and these are known as retrieval cues. When we come into the same situation again, these retrieval cues can trigger the memory of the situation. Types of cues that have been studied by psychologists include state, context and organisation: State Retrieval Cues Bodily cues inside of us, e.g. physical, emotional, mood, drunk etc. The basic idea behind state-dependent retrieval is that memory will be best when a person's physical or psychological state is similar at encoding and retrieval. For example, if someone tells you a joke on Saturday night after a few drinks, you'll be more likely to remember it when you're in a similar state. Stone cold sober on Monday morning, you'll be more likely to forget the joke. 17  Context Retrieval Cues External cues in the environment, e.g. smell, place etc. Evidence indicates that retrieval is more likely when the context at encoding matches the context at retrieval. Organisation Retrieval Cues Recall is improved if the organisation gives a structure which provides triggers, e.g., categories. According to retrieval-failure theory, forgetting occurs when information is available in LTM but is not accessible. Accessibility depends in large part on retrieval cues. Forgetting is greatest when context and state are very different at encoding and retrieval. In this situation, retrieval cues are absent, and the likely result is cue-dependent forgetting. (AO3) People tend to remember material better when there is a match between their mood at learning and at retrieval. The effects are stronger when the participants are in a positive mood than a negative mood. They are also greater when people try to remember events having personal relevance. 18 Several experiments have indicated the importance of context- based (i.e. external) cues for retrieval. An interesting experiment conducted by Baddeley indicates the importance of context setting for retrieval. Baddeley (1975) asked deep-sea divers to memorize a list of words. One group did this on the beach and the other group underwater. When they were asked to remember the words half of the beach learners remained on the beach, the rest had to recall underwater. Half of the underwater group remained there and the others had to recall on the beach. The results show that those who had recalled in the same environment (i.e. context) which that had learned recalled 40% more words than those recalling in a different environment. This suggests that the retrieval of information is improved if it occurs in the context in which it was learned. A study by Goodwin investigated the effect of alcohol on state- dependent (internal) retrieval. They found that when people encoded information when drunk, they were more likely to recall it in the same state. For example, when they hid money and alcohol when drunk, they were unlikely to find them when sober. However, when they were drunk again, they often discovered the hiding place. Other studies found similar state-dependent effects when participants were given drugs such as marijuana. The ecological validity of these experiments can be questioned, but their findings are supported by evidence from outside the laboratory. 19 Interference (AO1) Interference is an explanation for forgetting from long term memory – two sets of information become confused. Proactive Interference Proactive interference (pro=forward) is where old learning prevents recall of more recent information. When what we already know interferes with what we are currently learning – where old memories disrupt new memories. Retroactive Interference Retroactive interference (retro=backward) is where new learning prevents recall of previously learned information. In other words, later learning interferes with earlier learning - where new memories disrupt old memories. Proactive and retroactive Interference is thought to be more likely to occur where the memories are similar, for example: confusing old and new telephone numbers. Chandler (1989) stated that students who study similar subjects at the same time often experience interference. French and Spanish are similar types of material which makes interference more likely. 20 (AO3) Semantic memory is more resistant to interference than other types of memory. Postman (1960) provides evidence to support the interference theory of forgetting. A lab experiment was used, and participants were split into two groups. Both groups had to remember a list of paired words – e.g. cat - tree, jelly - moss, book - tractor. The experimental group also had to learn another list of words where the second paired word if different – e.g. cat – glass, jelly- time, book – revolver. The control group were not given the second list. All participants were asked to recall the words on the first list. The recall of the control group was more accurate than that of the experimental group. This suggests that learning items in the second list interfered with participants’ ability to recall the list. This is an example of retroactive interference. Interference theory tells us little about the cognitive processes involved in forgetting. Most research into the role of interference in forgetting has been carried out in a laboratory using lists of words, a situation which is likely to occur infrequently in everyday life (i.e. low ecological validity). As a result, it may not be possible to generalize from the findings. Baddeley states that the tasks given to participants are too close to each other and, in real life; these kinds of events are more spaced out. 21