Exotic Animal Practice - Module 14 Notes 2020 PDF

Exotic Animal Practice GPCert(EXP) Modular CPD Course Module 14 Zoo Animal Medicine Speaker Simon Girling 15th December 2020 Alexandra House, Swindon Note: Copyright on these notes is jointly owned between the Course Speaker and Improve International Ltd and the material must not be copied or distri...

Exotic Animal Practice GPCert(EXP) Modular CPD Course Module 14 Zoo Animal Medicine Speaker Simon Girling 15th December 2020 Alexandra House, Swindon Note: Copyright on these notes is jointly owned between the Course Speaker and Improve International Ltd and the material must not be copied or distributed without prior permission/authorisation from either party. Improve International Ltd has taken every effort to ensure that the information in these notes and in other taught material is accurate but it cannot take any responsibility for any problems arising from errors therein. ZOO HEALTH MANAGEMENT Dr Simon J Girling BVMS (Hons) DZooMed DipECZM (ZHM) CBiol FRSB EurProBiol FRCVS RCVS Fellow and Recognized Specialist in Zoo Animal and Wildlife Medicine EBVS® European Veterinary Specialist in Zoo Health Management Contents Page Zoo captive breeding programs Preventative health plans Parasite control and faecal checks Vaccination programs Health monitoring programs Contraception/Reproductive control programs 2 2 3 6 6 Emergency response plans Disease outbreak plans Escape plans 11 11 Common disease lists relevant to species Perrisodactyls Artiodactyls Elephants Carnivores Marsupials 19 20 22 23 25 Legislation Relevant to Zoos 27 Appendix 1 Societies Relevant to Zoological Medicine 33 Appendix 2 Example of quarantine rules for Balai added animal procedure 34 Appendix 3 Example of post bite Health and Safety procedure 35 Appendix 4 Pre-import carnivore health screening. 36 Appendix 5 Example contingency plan document with Notifiable disease list 37 Appendix 6 Useful textbooks 53 ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 1 Zoo captive breeding programs The Federation of Zoological Gardens in Great Britain and Ireland was founded in 1966 and is now known as the British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquaria. All conservation breeding in the federation zoos is co-ordinated by its Joint Management of Species Committee (JMSC). The federation is a charity established to develop and promote sound zoo animal practice and enforce minimum standards. All members must hold a zoo license and be nominated by two other federation members. The membership fee is based on gate income and so is ‘affordable’ by any size of zoo. The ZLA 1981 is based upon Federation guidelines. Such membership means animals are not traded for money only exceptionally gain or dispose of animals via animal traders, and exchange animals free-of-charge between zoos on the instruction of the Studbook holder. Within the EU, most zoos are a member of the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria and these run the breeding programs – an ESB for less endangered species and an EEP for highly endangered species. It is advisable for each TAG or EEP to have a veterinary advisor. For various reasons, including the dearth of zoo veterinarians in Europe, many TAGs/EEPs do not have a veterinary advisor and some vets are advisors for more than one. Terminology TAG taxonomy advisory group, usually confined to one country, aims to manage breeding programme, usual aim is to progress to Europe wide programme or EEP, can be a group of related species EEP European Endangered Species Programme, refers to a single species which is often highly endangered and heavily managed with a veterinary advisor, coordinator etc ESB European Species Studbook – often less endangered species with a captive management program which keeps tally of births deaths and movements Preventative Health Plans Parasite Control and Faecal Checks General principles Current trends for preventing anthelmintic and other drug resistance, are towards reducing the use of these drugs unless disease is noted. However, it is interesting to note that in the UK most dog charities and veterinary associations still recommend 4xyearly anthelmintic therapy for domestic dogs. It does however highlight the problem of detecting certain parasites such as ascarids which are often intermittently shed, and when eggs are shed, they are often in small numbers, yet the impact of a few ascarids can be more significant than several hundred pinworms. The key then is to adopt a sensible, rational and justifiable parasite detection and treatment regime. For a zoological collection it is recommended that all animals/groups of animals receive a 3-4x yearly faecal screen for endoparasites which at a minimum should include a wet preparation of fresh faeces for motile protozoa and a saturated salt flotation analysis for nematode eggs – this may be carried out in-house if a veterinary technician is employed, or sent to a commercial laboratory. The key is to ensure abnormal faeces are detected and collected for analysis which requires keeper/owner training to identify normal and abnormal faeces. Hoofstock However for hoofstock, particularly in endemic areas, it is also advisable 1-2x yearly to check the faeces for lungworm, which requires a Baermann test, and for liver fluke ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 2 which requires centrifugation of the supernatant after salt solution floatation. These generally should be carried out by commercial laboratories familiar with domestic hoofstock faecal analysis. There are some situations with hoofstock, at certain times of the year and in certain endemic areas where targeted anthelmintic dosing can still be justified. Examples would include the spring and autumn flush of grass, in heavily stocked paddocks with a previous history of pathogenic nematodes such as Nematodirus spp. In these cases, a 6 week post ‘turnout’ dosing and an autumn dosing 6 weeks or so after the autumn grass flush may be justifiable. Similarly for equids on paddocks that are not rested/rotated with other hoofstock, treatment for redworm may be required during the spring and summer period where previous problems have arisen. In cases such as this where anthelmintics are being used regularly, it is important to follow best practice and ensure that the same family of anthelmintic is used for the whole season. For the following season/year, changing the family of anthelmintic is then advised. Where concern over resistance is present, testing efficacy may be warranted for drugs such as the avermectin family, or looking for the beta-tubilin gene for resistance against the benzimadazole family – but these can be expensive and so are unlikely to be carried out regularly. Check also for Cervidae, Antilocapridae and Bovidae for copper or vitamin E deficiencies which may make them more prone to endoparasitism. Microbial faecal checks are usually performed prior to entrance to a collection, and should include pathogenic E. coli, Salmonella, Campylobacter and Yersinia spp. as a minimum. Once clear on entrance (3 clear faecal checks at weekly minimal intervals) to the collection the individuals do not need to be retested unless medically indicated. Carnivores For carnivores where the ascarid problem exists, faecal testing alone may not be enough due to intermittent and low number of eggs shed. In these cases, and particularly where species such as North American racoons are present which may harbour the pathogenic and potentially zoonotic Bayliascaris procyonis, regular dosing of anthelmintics may be advisable at least twice annually, rotating family groups of anthelmintics each year. Faecal bacteriology for Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter and Yersinia spp. at least once annually is advisable. Primates Faecal testing should be 3-4 x annually and should include protozoal examination for Giardia, Balantidium coli and Entamoeba histolytica which may require ELISA testing via a specialist human laboratory. This is advisable to check for significant bacteria such as Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter and Yersinia spp. as well. Birds and herptiles Faecal testing should be 3-4 x annually. Checking for Cryptosporidium spp. on entrance with a minimum of two clear tests based on stomach wash (snakes) or faeces (chelonian and lizards) during the minimum 4 month quarantine period is advisable. All reptiles should be screened for Salmonella spp. at least annuallyparticularly if used in handling classes, although treatment is not advised if Salmonella spp. bacteria are recovered due to the likelihood of resistance and a carrier state being created. Instead such reptiles should be removed from handling classes and strict hygiene measures implemented for their care. ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 3 Vaccination programs A preventative vaccination program is an important feature of any zoo health plan. The exact plan produced will obviously depend on the geographical location of the collection, its species makeup, previous disease history and individual animal history as well as the availability (or not) of suitable vaccines. Killed vaccines should always be used where possible as many live vaccines have been shown to be unsafe in exotic species. In some cases there are prohibitions on using certain vaccines (e.g. Foot and Mouth vaccines cannot currently be used in the EU and Avian influenza vaccines are not allowed to be used in Scotland although may be used under DEFRA licence in the face of an outbreak in England and Wales). Vaccines have been covered in a previous module (2) -but briefly for zoo specific animals the following should be considered: Distemper vaccines All canids, mustelids, viverrids, procyonids, ursids, hyenids and some felids (lions) appear susceptible to distemper virus-some more so (e.g. ferrets and other small mustelids) than others. Good protocol in exotic animals is to use a killed vaccine, but none exists in the UK. Canine modified live-virus vaccines such as the Nobivac range have been used with some success and safety, off licence, in ferrets in the UK. It is advised such animals remain in the vet surgery for 30-60 minutes post injection to ensure no anaphylactic reaction post administration. In Europe, a vaccine for mink, is available either on its own or combined with a vaccine for mink enteritis (parvovirus or Aleutian disease). In the USA two commercial domestic ferret live virus (canary pox vectored recombinant) distemper vaccines are also available, initial dosing at 8, 10 and 12 weeks of age followed by annual dosing. Some canids such as bush dogs react badly to such vaccines and so it is worth checking with the American Association of Zoo Vets or the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria taxon advisory groups for species specific information. Infectious canine adenovirus 1 All Canidae are susceptible including foxes which produce predominantly neurological signs. Ursidae may also be susceptible. No killed virus vaccines are available commercially, and in the UK this vaccine is combined with live modified distemper vaccines making its use in exotic canids and ursids potentially hazardous. See note above regarding unfamiliar species Panleucopaenia vaccines Exotic felids and some mustelids (e.g. otters) have been reported as susceptible to feline panleuocopaenia virus. No licenced product exists for exotic animals in the UK, but best practice for felids in zoological collections suggests using a killed vaccine such as following the same vaccination routine as described in the data sheets. In Europe a vaccine exists for mink against mink enteritis (parvovirus/Aleutian disease) – see http://www.nordvacc.lt/products/vaccines/febrivac-de/ Feline herpes and feline calicivirus vaccines Exotic felids are susceptible to feline feline herpes and feline caliciviruses. No licenced product exists for exotic animals in the UK, but best practice for felids in zoological collections suggests using a killed vaccine such as following the same vaccination routine as described in the data sheets. ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 4 Feline chlamydophila vaccines Exotic felids are susceptible to Chlamydophila felis and so should be vaccinated with commercially available killed vaccines as for domestic felids. Feline leukaemia virus vaccines Exotic felids are susceptible to feline leukaemia virus. No licenced product exists for exotic animals in the UK. In general, as exotic felids should be separated from domestic or feral cats, the advice from zoological collections is not to vaccinate as sarcoma formation post injection has been reported. If there is a perceived risk then commercially available killed domestic feline vaccines can be used, following the same vaccination routine as described in the data sheets. Leptospira vaccines Commercially available vaccines in the UK are not licensed for exotic mammals but may be used as they are killed vaccines. Most carnivores, suids and some ungulates are susceptible. It is generally advised that exotic canids be vaccinated routinely. Vaccination of further species within a collection depends on the previous history of disease and the current risk assessment. Rabies vaccines The UK is officially rabies free and as such there is no recommendation to vaccinate exotic canids or felids in zoological collections, but there is also no prohibition to do so. Ferrets may be vaccinated with rabies vaccine (licensed products in the UK Nobivac rabies® and Canigen rabies®) as part of the pets passport scheme. Initial vaccination is from 3 months of age, as a single dose with booster vaccinations once every 18 months (although care should be taken as some countries require annual revaccination). Clostridial vaccines Marsupials, penguins and ungulates are highly susceptible to clostridial toxaemia. Multi-valent clostridial vaccines are available (e.g. Heptavac®) and can be used offlicence as per the cascade and dosed as per the data sheets where a problem has been identified. Tetanus can be a problem in many cervids, ovids, caprids and elephants and so vaccination may be advisable. Parainfluenza vaccines These are often combined with Mannheimia haemolytica and or bovine respiratory syncytial virus vaccines for cattle. Where regular outbreaks, or where transport stresses are expected, vaccination may be considered but although the bacterial component is a killed vaccine, the viral components are modified live viral vaccines so caution should be exercised in exotic species where safety data is limited. Schmallenberg vaccines Commercial cattle and sheep vaccines are now available but there is little current evidence of a need to vaccinate zoo animals. The situation may however change as more data comes to light on the impact of this new disease in exotic ungulates. ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 5 Equine influenza vaccines and Equine tetanus vaccines There are no vaccines licensed for exotic equids in the UK but they should be vaccinated as per the cascade using a domestic equid licensed tetanus vaccine. Dosing should follow the manufacturer’s guidelines as for domestic equids and these details should be entered into the animal’s equine passport. Where equine herpesvirus (‘flu) may be a concern, multivalent flu/tetanus vaccines licensed for domestic equids may be used. Again the passport should be completed appropriately Erysipelas vaccines Some ratites, primates and exotic suids are susceptible to erysipelas septicaemia. In such cases killed vaccines such as Porcilis Ery vaccine, used again as per the cascade and following the datasheets for the product, can be tried. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis vaccines Pseudovac® vaccine from Utrecht University combines as a killed vaccine, all of the isolates of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis recovered from outbreaks in the EU that have been submitted to Utrecht University, Holland. As an emergency stop-gap this product is easily obtainable. It is not ‘licensed’ and again is being used under the cascade. For more tailored, strain-specific vaccine, if the bacterium can be isolated from an outbreak-a specific autogenous vaccine may be created which can be more effective. Johnes Disease vaccination In endemic areas for Johnes disease (Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis), vaccination of susceptible Artiodactyl hoofstock may be advisable. A commercial vaccine is available from veterinary wholesalers in the UK, but it is imported from Spain and as such requires vets to fill in an online Special Import Certificate to obtain it. It should be noted that this killed vaccine is likely to affect any intradermal tuberculin test carried out on animals vaccinated and result in increased false positive reactions. Human based vaccines These are many and varied and have been used widely in primates, particularly great apes and include: Hepatitis B vaccines (Engerix®) Measles vaccines Rubella vaccines Tetanus vaccines Pertussis vaccines Streptococcal meningitis vaccines The decision whether to vaccinate primates against these diseases is dependent upon the collection’s history. Previous confirmed outbreaks will obviously direct the veterinarian towards tailored vaccination regimes. Again this is clearly following the cascade and following the manufacturer’s guidelines/datasheets as for human patients. Health monitoring programs In addition to the above faecal testing programs, it is advisable to have a plan for more detailed health assessments. Opportunistic sampling of individuals at the same time as performing other procedures (e.g. hoof work in ungulates) will allow a basic ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 6 haematological and biochemistry assessment. More detailed sampling of specific individuals which have known problems or suspected problems (e.g. osteoarthritis or renal disease in geriatric animals) should also be planned for – weighing up the pros and cons of general anaesthesia or restraint versus gaining information on their health status. Tying in health checks of groups of animals to an annual event-such as ringing/banding of birds etc should also be considered. If they are to be restrained anyway it is a good opportunity to give them a physical examination and potentially to take blood samples/rectal/cloacal swabs etc. Another important time for sampling is immediately prior to transport. Veterinary health check requests should be made for animals prior to entry into a collection – an example of an exotic carnivore pre-movement health assessment is given in appendix 4. Indeed if in a Balai registered only facility, some of the pre-movement health checks are necessary prior to signing the export paperwork (e.g. intradermal comparative skin tests for M.bovis/M.avium and brucellosis serology for ungulates). In Balai approved facilities these tests may still be requested by the veterinary surgeons of the receiving institution for health reasons, but the tests are being carried out in your private capacity as a veterinary surgeon responsible for the establishment rather than in your official capacity as Official Veterinarian. Contraception/Reproductive control programs Table 1 contraceptive methods commonly used in hoofstock Method Species Dosage and comments Castration Artiodactyls Permanent and effective (watch as may be viable and Equidae sperm in vas deferens for up to 6 weeks post castration) Irreversible and will alter herd structure and if performed early may stop secondary male sexual characteristics Vasectomy Artiodactyls May be reversible Still get aggression/mating behaviours Doesn’t alter herd structure or affect secondary sexual characteristics of males GnRH Suidae, Shuts down the pituitary gonadal axis and is vaccine Tayassuidae, licensed in domestic boars to reduce boar taint. It Improvac® Equidae, is now commercially available in the UK and clearly Pfizer Animal Giraffidae its use in exotic animals is via the cascade. Health Proboscidae Its latency to effectiveness is around 6 weeks in boars and evidence suggests it is extremely useful in equids at suppressing oestrus but is relatively short lived. Its use in seasonal breeders is unknown but it should be used >6weeks prior to the start of the breeding season. The antibodies appear short lived (pigs they last only 7-8 weeks but in equids they can last a whole season after the initial course) so it is thought to be easily reversible. It has been used in bull elephants to control musth and has a duration of 5-9 months. Adverse ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 7 Zonapellucida vaccine Artiodactyls Medroxyprog esterone actetate Depoprovera® Hippos Giraffes Altrenogest Regumate® Equidae Tapiridae Rhinos reactions are associated with the injection itself where a painful swelling may occur. It is recommended in equids and elephants therefore to administer by deep intramuscular injection. It has been used to control aggression in male giraffes Porcine zona pellucida vaccines work by immunising the female against the zona pellucida of her own oocytes. These usually use a potent adjuvant (e.g. Freund’s adjuvant) which can cause a moderate to severe reaction at the injection site (e.g. in many such as tapirs it can produce a sterile abscess at the site of injection). The first injection would consist of 0.5mL PZP + 0.5mL adjuvant and the second injection should be given no less than 14 days after this. For non-seasonal breeders a booster every 7-8 months is required. For a seasonal breeder then it is 1-2 months before the breeding season. Latency to effectiveness is approximately 2-3 weeks after the final injection in year 1 therefore separation of the sexes from the initial injection until 2 weeks after the final injection is recommended. Reversibility differs between species; however the longer PZP is given the longer it takes for a female to come back to being fertile. It is therefore suggested that an individual is on PZP for no longer than 3 years if you want the female to breed. (Please visit www.sccpzp.org for more information). Currently not available in Europe 2.5mg/kg Useful where implants are not possible (eg giraffes and hippos) Only of use in females Generally lasts 6 weeks Do not use in gravid females as will extend gestation with serious consequences 0.044mg/kg orally Generally used to synchronise oestrus in domestic equids so only suppresses reproductive activity whilst the animal is on the drug so limited usefulness. Side-effects include increased uterine infection and should not be used if gravid Table 2 contraceptive methods commonly used in marsupials Method Species Dosage and comments Castration/ All Easily performed in males, ovariohysterectomy Irreversible and permanent. Will alter group structure. ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 8 GnRH agonists Suprelorin® All Deslorelin (suprelorin) works well in female marsuipals with the 9.4mg implant generally lasting 12 month minimum. The larger macropods may require 2 implants. Deslorelin does not appear to work in male marsupials Table 3 contraceptive methods commonly used in carnivores Method Species Dosage and comments Castration/ All Permanent and effective (watch as may be viable ovariohysterectomy sperm in vas deferens for up to 6 weeks post castration) Irreversible and will alter group structure and if performed early may stop secondary male sexual characteristics May be used as treatment cf Painted hunting dogs and pyometras if not mated Vasectomy All May be reversible Still get aggression/mating behaviours Doesn’t alter group structure or affect secondary sexual characteristics of males GnRH agonist All Varying degrees of success. Deslorelin Not effective in recent studies at prevent (Suprelorin®) pyometra development in female Painted hunting implants 9.4mg dogs. Do not use in gravid females as abortion will occur Initial stimulation phase so use ~2mg/kg Megestrol acetate pills /Ovarid® daily 7 days before and 8 days after has been used to suppress this initial stimulation phase Pseudopregancy, endometrial hyperplasia and pyometra may be associated with the use of GnRH agonist in female canids as a result of high progesterone levels during the stimulation phase. A more recently developed Suprelorin®/ deslorelin protocol using Ovarid®/megestrol acetate to prevent the initial stimulation phase, followed by implant removal when reversal is desired, may be a safer contraceptive option. Proligesterone Canids Generally only lasts one season but due to (Delvosterone®) and physiology of species may be sufficient mustelids Risk of pseudopregancy, endometrial hyperplasia and pyometra increases with exposure to prolonged circulating progestagens/ progesterone so generally not recommended Not used in felids due to incidence of uterine and mammary neoplasia Medroxy Canids 2.5-5mg/kg progesterone and Risk of pseudopregancy, endometrial ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 9 acetate Depo-provera® mustelids hyperplasia and pyometra increases with exposure to prolonged circulating progestagens/ progesterone so generally not recommended Not used in felids due to incidence of uterine and mammary neoplasia Table 4 contraceptive methods commonly used in primates Method Species Dosage and comments Castration/ All Guaranteed but will alter social hierarchy so ovariohysterectomy rarely used in primates Vasectomy All males Useful but may be difficult to reverse so permanent method which will not alter the social hierarchy Tubal ligation All females Useful but may be impossible to reverse so permanent method which will not alter the social hierarchy MedroxyProsimians 2.5-5mg/kg IM q45-90days Cercopithecidae progesteroneand smaller (guenons, macaques, drills, baboons) acetate primates 5mg/kg IM q40days ring tailed lemurs (Depo-provera®) 5mg/kg IM q60days other lemurs 5mg/kg IM q30days capuchins but some evidence higher doses of 20mg/kg may be required 20mg/kg in callitrichids-not recommended due to variable dosage Not 100% guaranteed contraceptive. Possible for liver side-effects Etonogesterol Great apes One implant per great ape-but some require (Implanon®/Nexplan Larger simians 2 implants to suppress swellings. Placed on®) Limited data in between biceps and triceps muscles on other primates medial aspect upper arm. Smaller simians may require halving the implant Duration variable but usually in excess of 18 months Stops menstrual cycle so may have an effect on hierarchical structure. Has been used in callitrichids at ¼ - 1/3 implant and Cebidae at 1/3 – 1 implant depending on size Deslorelin Prosimians 9.4mg implant usually lasts 12 months. 3 (Suprelorin®) and simians weeks minimum latency period before the Not great apes product produces infertility during which period oral megestrol acetate pills may be used to control breeding for 7 days prior to implant and 7 days after. In seasonal breeders to be effective the implant should be used more than 2 months prior to the start of the season otherwise it may not be ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 10 Human pills Simians and great apes effective. Not to be used during pregnancy as abortion can occur. May also reduce milk yield during lactation. Main side effect appears to be variable response in some species. Has been used in males to reduce aggressionbut therefore as it will turn off testosterone production this will alter the hierarchy. These may be used in great apes and larger simians that can be trained to accept a food item with the pill hidden within them. It is generally recommended that the progesterone only pill (POP) (sometimes referred to as the mini-pill) is used as the commonly used human combined pill contains 21 days of combined oestrogens and progesterones and 7 days of placebo pills and many non-human primates are very susceptible to the bone-marrow suppressive effects of the oestrogens and can become clinically anaemic after a few months use. In fact, it is preferred to use a desogesterol based progesterone only pill as this has a longer half-life than many other POPs and so dosing, although once daily, can be within a 12 hour window whereas the traditional POPs often need to be taken within a 3 hour window every 24 hours. There other downsides include all those side-effects typically associated with progesterone related contraceptives (increased risk of liver disease, diabetes mellitus, dystocia and mummified foetuses if used when the dam is gravid) as well as the fact that daily oral dosing is necessary which can be a challenge with primates in a group. Table 5 contraceptive methods commonly used in birds and reptiles Method Species Dosage and comments Surgical neutering Birds and Difficult and invasive procedure so not reptiles generally recommended. May be used as a preventative or surgical treatment in certain reptiles e.g. Testudo and Iguana species prone to pre-ovulatory stasis GnRH agonist Birds Deslorelin subcutaneous implants (Suprelorin®) (9.4mg) have been used in many species of birds successfully to prevent reproduction and compulsive egglaying. This has largely replaced depo injections of products such as leuprolide ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 11 Medroxyprogesterone acetate (Depo-provera®) Birds acetate (Lupron®) which are shorteracting Not currently recommended due to the side-effects on liver function etc. Emergency Response Plans Disease outbreak plans As part of the zoo licensing and Balai compliance (see below legislation) the zoological collection should have basic plans in place for Notifiable or other serious disease outbreaks within the collection. These can be of a template basis or specific disease orientated. An example of such is given in appendix 5 which includes the list of current EU Notifiable species and those exotic ungulates susceptible. Also see the following list of DEFRA approved disinfectants for disease control: http://disinfectants.defra.gov.uk/DisinfectantsExternal/Default.aspx?Module=Approval sList_SI Escape plans As part of the preventative health and health and safety programs for a zoological collection, an escape protocol should exist. A standardised process should be trained for, disseminated to relevant staff and enacted should such an escape occur. An example of the process would be: 1. Radio alert message “Priority, priority, priority” which alerts all staff to an escape and clears the airways. 2. Brief description on radio to all staff of species escaped, number and where last seen 3. Person IC within the zoo alerted as are all entrances and exit staff which are to immediately close these. 4. Members of public are moved away from area and into enclosed houses which can be shut to protect the public. 5. At the same time as the above the gun team (if have one) is alerted and activated-if no gun team then contact relevant external gun team if required (e.g. police/vet support if a category 1 animal is loose) 6. Vets/keeper under direction of vets (on-site or remotely) assemble with darting equipment/anaesthetic drugs and firearms 7. Capture team moves to area-radio contact at all times updating animal position, staff always in pairs (buddy system) 8. Attempt to herd animal into an enclosure where it can be safely contained and/or darted 9. If animal attempting to breach perimeter fence or endanger human lifedecision whether firearms are to be used (if available). 10. Dart/contain animal and replace into enclosure 11. Capture team regroup post event for immediate debrief and notification of the LA issuing zoo license of an escape 12. Post event full debrief and lessons learnt within a few days of the event. ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 12 Table 6 Anaesthetic doses for carnivore escapes Species Anaesthetic Lions 0.05mg/kg Medetomidine + 4mg/kg ketamine 2mg/kg tiletamine/zolazepam + 0.02mg/kg medetomidine Tigers 0.07mg/kg Medetomidine + 3mg/kg ketamine Weight ranges (kg) African 120150 Asiatic 90120 Sumatran 80-120 Amur 120300 Comments Medetomidine may be reversed with atipamezole 5x medetomidine dose Don’t reverse medetomidine too early (<45mins) due to ketamine reaction Medetomidine may be reversed with atipamezole 5x medetomidine dose Don’t reverse medetomidine too early (<45mins) due to ketamine reaction Other large felids Small carnivores (small felids, small canids mustelids, viverrids, procyonids) 0.07mg/kg Medetomidine + 3mg/kg ketamine (African Leopard) African Leopard 3790 0.07mg/kg medetomidine + 2.5mg/kg ketamine (Cheetah - sedation) 0.04mg/kg med + 5mg/kg ket + 0.2mg/kg butorphanol (Cheetah – anaesthesia) 0.07mg/kg medetomidine + 2.5mg/kg ketamine (Jaguar) Cheetah 35-72 0.05mg/kg medetomidine + 5mg/kg ketamine Avoid tiletamine/zolazepam and watch for ketamine overdosage Medetomidine may be reversed with atipamezole 5x medetomidine dose Don’t reverse medetomidine too early (<45mins) due to ketamine reaction Jaguar 36150 Medetomidine may be reversed with atipamezole 5x medetomidine dose Don’t reverse medetomidine too early (<45mins) due to ketamine reaction ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 13 Bears 4.4mg/kg Tiletamine/zolazepam Asiatic black 50-80 Medetomidine ketamine combinations don’t work well in Asiatic black or sun or sloth bears (light anaesthesia) 5mg/kg tiletamine/zolazepam Sun 60-100 Medetomidine may be reversed with atipamezole 5x medetomidine dose 7-9mg/kg tiletamine/zolazepam Brown 100250 Don’t reverse medetomidine too early (<45mins) due to ketamine reaction 0.03mg/kg Medetomidine + 1.6mg/kg ketamine 8mg/kg tiletamine/zolazepam Polar 250600 0.03mg/kg Medetomidine + 2.5mg/kg ketamine 6-6.6mg/kg tiletamine/zolazepam Giant panda 90140 0.04mg/kg Medetomidine + 3mg/kg ketamine Seals 6mg/kg ketamine + 0.3mg/kg diazepam Grey 170310 1mg/kg tiletamine/zolazepam 2mg/kg ketamine + 0.06mg/kg medetomidine 6mg/kg ketamine + 2mg/kg diazepam Dive response so watch for apnoea. Intubate where possible. Pups easiest to premed with diazepam or midazolam and face mask with isoflurane. Watch for over-heating on hot days Common 100-150 6mg/kg ketamine + 0.15mg/kg midazolam 0.5-1mg/kg tiletamine/zolazepam Sealions 0.03mg/kg atropine + 0.2mg/kg diazepam + Californian 45-80 Watch for dive response. Relatively ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 14 2mg/kg pethidine as premed wait 20 minutes and face mask induce with isoflurane Patagonian 100-250 1.7mg/kg tiletamine/zolazepam high mortality rate in otarids-intubate as soon as possible – trachea bifurcates in neck so beware 2.5mg/kg ketamine + 1.4mg/kg medetomidine Large canids 0.04mg/kg Medetomidine + 2mg/kg ketamine Hunting dog 30-50 0.02mg/kg medetomidine + 2mg/kg ketamine + 0.3mg/kg butorphanol Maned wolf 15-25 10mg/kg tiletamine/zolazepam Timber wolf 30-50 Medetomidine may be reversed with atipamezole 5x medetomidine dose Don’t reverse medetomidine too early (<45mins) due to ketamine reaction Eurasian wolf 25-50 Table 7 Anaesthetic doses for hoofstock escapes Species Anaesthetic Equids 0.018mg/kg Etorphine + 0.075mg/kg acepromazine + 0.16mg/kg xylazine 0.018mg/kg etorphine + 0.033m/kg detomidine Tapirs Weight Comments ranges (kg) Przewalski’s Medetomidine and 200-350 ketamine combinations on their own are very unpredictable in exotic equids Atipamezole 0.170.23mg/kg to reverse medetomidine 0.07-0.1mg/kg medetomidine + 1.82.6mg/kg ketamine 0.018mg/kg etorphine + 0.16mg/kg xylazine Zebra 250450 0.1mg/kg medetomidine + 2.2mg/kg ketamine 0.018mg/kg etorphine + 0.16mg/kg xylazine Kiang 200350 0.01mg/kg etorphine (sedation) Malayan 250-350 Naltrexone is preferred to reverse etorphine as longer half-life. Diprenorphine may be used instead but recycling a possibility Atipamezole 0.170.23mg/kg to reverse medetomodine ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 15 2.2mg/kg ketamine + 0.065-0.13mg/kg detomidine + 0.130.2mg/kg butorphanol + 7.7mg/tapir Brazilian 150-320 0.15mg/kg butorphanol + 0.05mg/kg detomidine + 0.5mg/kg ketamine (latter if required) 0.005-0.01mg/kg Etorphine + 0.1-0.16mg/kg xylazine 0.8-1.5mg etorphine/animal (adult) (sedation) Rhinos White 13003600 2-3mg etorphine + 2040mg azaperone/animal(adult) 2.45mg etorphine+15mg detomidine+15mg butorphanol/animal(adult) 2.5-3mg etorphine+ 10mg detomidine/animal(adult) Black 8002500 2.5-3mg etorphine+ 60mg azaperone/animal(adult) 2.5mg etorphine + 10mg Indian acepromazine/animal(adult) 1600-2100 Elephants 3.5-3.8mg etorphine+14mg detomidine+400mg/animal (adult) 200-600mg xylazine + 120760mg azaperone+ 1020mg acepromazine/animal (adult) (sedative) 6-20mg etorphine (male) 4-15mg etorphine (female) 200-600mg xylazine + 120760mg azaperone+ 1020mg acepromazine/animal (adult) (sedative) Cervids 8-20mg etorphone (male) 6-15mg etorphine (female) 0.1mg/kg medetomidine + 3mg/kg ketamine 0.01-0.06mg/kg etorphine + African 2000-6000 Indian 2000-5000 Naltrexone is preferred to reverse etorphine as longer half-life (usually 25-50x the etorphine dose in mg/kg). Diprenorphine may be used instead but recycling a possibility Do not place in sternal recumbency Naltrexone is preferred to reverse etorphine as longer half-life (usually 25-50x the etorphine dose in mg/kg). Diprenorphine may be used instead but recycling a possibility Hyaluronidase 300iu used to hasten drug onset via IM administration Do not place in sternal recumbency Hyaluronidase 4500iu used to hasten drug onset via IM administration LA circle with 40L breathing bag IPPV with demand valves White lipped Medetomidine and 100-200 ketamine combinations do not work well in Red 100large cervids such as ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 16 0.04-0.24mg/kg acepromazine+ 0.250.6mg/kg xylazine 200 2.9-20mg/kg tiletamine/ zolazepam Fallow 50100 Hog 60-100 Elk. Reverse medetomidine with 5x dose of atipamezole in mg/kg Musk 7-17 Muntjac 515 Giraffes 20mg haloperidol/animal as premed 30-60minutes prior + 0.05mg/kg medetomidine + 2mg/kg ketamine Pudu 5-10 550-1600 1.5-2.5mg etorphine+ 70100mg xylazine/animal (adult) 200mg clopixol+100mg xylazine/adult (sedation) 20mg haloperidol+ 40mg acepromazine/animal (adult sedation) Premed with 0.1-0.2mg/kg haloperidol PO 30-60 minutes prior to darting reduces stress and facilities anaesthesia. Antelope 0.15-0.25mg/kg Medetomidine + 5mg/kg ketamine + 0.07mg/kg butorphanol 0.07mg/kg Etorphine + 0.25mg/kg xylazine Caprids/Ovids 0.1mg/kg Medetomidine + 3mg/kg ketamine Large bovids 0.08-0.1mg/kg Medetomidine + 11.5mg/kg ketamine Greater kudu 120270 Nyala 40-80 Springbok 30-50 Padding of stall essential. Hypertension normal. Naltrexone is preferred to reverse etorphine as longer half-life (usually 25-50x the etorphine dose in mg/kg). Diprenorphine may be used instead but recycling a possibility. Reverse medetomidine with 5x dose of atipamezole in mg/kg Medetomidine/ketamine combinations often require large doses as this group of animals are very flighty and resilient. Reverse medetomidine with 5x dose of atipamezole in mg/kg Arabian Oryx 60-100 Goral 25-40 Blue sheep 35-75 Banteng 300-800 Reverse medetomidine with 5x dose of atipamezole in mg/kg Reverse medetomidine with 5x dose of atipamezole in mg/kg Naltrexone is preferred to reverse etorphine as ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 17 0.05mg/kg Etorphine + 0.2mg/kg xylazine 2.2mg/kg ketamine + 0.020.05mg/kg medetomidine 9.8-11mg etorphine + 4045mg acepromazine + 50mg xylazine/animal (adult) 0.025mg/kg etorphine + 0.1mg/kg acepromazine+ 0.11mg/kg xylazine Camelids 0.1mg/kg Xylazine + 23mg/kg ketamine + 0.050.1mg/kg butorphanol 0.06-0.08mg/kg Medetomidine + 2-4mg/kg ketamine Tiletamine/zolazepam 23mg/kg Yak 4001000 Cape Buffalo 250450 longer half-life (usually 25-50x the etorphine dose in mg/kg). Diprenorphine may be used instead but recycling a possibility. European Bison 3501000 Bactrian 300-1000 Dromedary 300-600 Starve for 36 hours if possible and withhold water 12 hours as regurgitation is common. Llama 130200 Vicuna 3550 Guanaco 60-90 Exotic suids 0.3mg/kg midazolam+ 0.3mg/kg butorphanol+ 0.12mg/kg detomidine 0.6mg/kg tiletamine/zolazepam+ 0.3mg/kg butorphanol+ 0.12mg/kg detomidine Alpaca 4585 Wart hog 45-150 Red river hog 45-115 Wild boar 80-100 Midazolam/butorphanol/ detomidine combination useful for wild boar, wart hogs, warty pigs, red river hogs Medetomidine and ketamine tend not to work well in exotic suids ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 18 Table 8 Anaesthetic doses for primate escapes Species Anaesthetic Chimpanzees 1mg/kg diazepam orally 1 hour prior to darting as premed is helpful 0.03mg/kg Medetomidine + 1.25mg/kg Tiletamine/zolazepam Orang utans 0.03mg/kg Medetomidine + 3mg/kg ketamine 0.03-0.04mg/kg medetomidine + 2mg/kg ketamine 1.25mg/kg tiletamine/ zolazepam + 0.030.04mg/kg medetomidine 0.026mg/kg medetomidine + 2.6mg/kg ketamine Gorillas Prosimians and other monkeys Weight ranges (kg) Chimpanzee 45-85 Bonobo 3050 Comments Intubation and maintenance on iso/sevoflurane is recommended for all but the shortest procedures to ensure safety for anaesthetist and animal alike 45-120 70-180 4-6mg/kg tiletamine/ zolazepam 0.05mg/kg medetomidine + 5mg/kg ketamine Ensure obese animals are maintained at a 45 degree angle Face – mask or induction chamber with isoflurane or sevoflurane Common Disease Lists Relevant to Zoo Species For Notifiable disease list see Appendix 5. Reptile, small mammal, primate and bird species have been omitted to avoid course duplication Table 9 Perissodactyls Disease Species reported Actinobacillus equuli Equidae Ascarids Aspergillosis Dental disease Equidae Tapiridae Rhinos Rhinos (Black) Rhinos Tapiridae Equidae Clinical signs Sleepy foal disease similar to Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus Parascaris equorum reported pathogenic wild equids and zebra foals in particular Usually respiratory and underlying immunosuppression Gingivitis and tarter common rhinosdental fracture in males (tusks) possibility Lumpy jaw (osteomyelitis) tapirs ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 19 Equine degenerative myeloencephalopathy Equidae Equine herpesvirus1 and 4 Equidae, Rhinos Equine herpesvirus 9 Equidae, Rhinos Rhinos Haemolytic anaemia Idiopathic haemorrhagic vasculopathy Rhinos Intestinal impactions and volvulus Leptospirosis Tapiridae Equidae Rhinos Listeriosis Equidae Rhinos Tapiridae All Mycobacteriosis Necrobacillosis (Fusobacterium necrophorum) Pododermatitis All Salmonellosis All Tetanus Equidae Ulcerative dermatitis Rhinos Tapiridae Yersiniosis All Rhinos Idiopathic, diffuse degenerative disease of spinal cord and brain. Hypometria and ataxia-vitamin E may reverse early signs. May be asymptomatic in Equidae. May cause respiratory signs or abortion. May cause death of rhinos as jumps species Febrile pneumonia and/or abortion if clinical signs seen. Generally asymptomatic in zebra. May cause death of rhinos as jumps species Black rhinos predominantly-aetiology not clear-vitA and E deficiency, leptospirosis, autoimmune all postulated Black rhinos-exudative peripheral vasculopathy. Viral or Streptococcus spp. infection postulated but unknown aetiology Common where kept on sand-based substrates Renal disease and haemolytic anaemia reported especially Black rhinos. Also abortion Uncommon-soil contaminant of conserved forage. Neurological signs (seizures, circling) Notifiable Rhinos and tapirs – commonly reported both M. bovis and M. tuberculosis Depends on site of infection Swollen jaw, lameness, sudden death Under-running soles, cracked and hang nails, bruising and infected feet common rhinos-particularly males and Indian/Javan and in hind feet Gastroenteritis, limb gangrene, sudden death Ascending paralysis. Advise vaccinate equine vaccines to prevent. Rhinos and tapirs-superficial necrotic dermatopathy. Unknown aetiology-self resolving in tapirs (dorsal body distribution), recurrence common. Suspected association with vitE and A deficiencies black rhinos Chronic disease with granulomatous enteritis and poor thrift. Acute disease with enteritis and sudden death ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 20 Table 10 Artiodactyls Disease Arcanobacterium pyogenes Species reported All Bluetongue virus 8 All Bovine viral diarrhoea Bovidae, Cervidae, Tragulidae, Antilocapridae All Brucellosis (B. abortus, B. melitensis) Capture myopathy All Caseous lymphadenitis (Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis, C. pyogenes) Cervine herpesvirus 1 and 2 Chronic wasting disease (TSE/prion disease) Clostridiosis Camelidae, Ovidae, Capridae Contagious echthyma Capridae, Ovidae Copper deficiency Cervidae, Bovidae Erysipelas Suidae, Tayassuidae Foot rot All Heavy metal poisoning All Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis Bovidae, Antilocapridae Cervidae Cervidae All Clinical signs Common organism in aspiration pneumonia-particularly post anaesthesia-focal lung abscesses Notifiable European and Asiatic species more seriously affected-respiratory signs. African species generally subclinical Many asymptomatic. May cause stunting, diarrhoea and poor thrift Notifiable. Uncommon. Can cause abortion, multiple joint swelling (Cervidae) Particularly Bovidae, Cervidae, Antilocapridae. Acidosis, potassium and myoglobin release from muscles, cardiac arrhythmias, renal damage and acute muscle rupture. Avoid chasing or capture in hot weather/prolonged time. Lymph node abscessation and discharge, particularly around the head/neck Conjunctivitis, corneal opacity, nasal discharge Notifable Weight loss and hindlimb ataxia Varying from sudden death to gangrene Muzzle crusts and pox lesions, facial oedema Swayback, achromotrichia, infertility increased risk of PGE Septicaemia, collapse, diamond skin lesions Particularly Capridae and Ovidae, less in Bovidae and Cervidae. Usual suspects including Bacteriodes nodosus and Fusobacterium necrophorum. Use of foot dip sponge mats and good foot care/dry stands advised. Rare. Clinical anaemia and kidney failure Upper respiratory tract disease, common secondary bacterial ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 21 Infectious keratoconjunctivitis Infectious pustular vulvovaginitis (bovine herpesvirus 1) Johnes disease (Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis) Capridae, Bovidae, Ovidae Bovidae, Antilocapridae Leptospirosis All Listeriosis All Liver fluke (Fasciola hepaticum, Dicrocoelium dendriticum Lumpy jaw (Actinomyces bovis occasionally Fusobacterium necrophorum) Lungworm All Malignant catarrhal fever (gammaherpesvirus) All Meningeal worm (Paraelaphostrongylus tenuis) Cervids Mycobacteriosis All Parainfluenza 3 virus Bovidae, All infections Keratoconjunctivitis Reproductive tract infections, infertility Wasting condition-some acute, some chronic-not all will show diarrhoea (caprids, cervids often do not; bovids generally do). Vaccination with Gudair® vaccine is generally considered protective but may cross react with coparative intradermal skin test for mycobacteriosis Abortion, renal disease, subclinical infection Uncommon-soil contaminant of conserved forage. Neurological signs (seizures, circling) Lethargy, anorexia and weight loss. Ascites (less common) All Jaw swelling, salivation and inappetance All Dictyocaulus spp. (Bovidae, Antilocapridae, Cervidae, Capridae, Ovidae) and Metastrongylus spp. (suids) Often asymptomatic in Ovidae and Capridae but sudden death common in Bovidae and Cervidae. Occasionally mucopurulent oculonasal discharge White tailed deer (N American species). Rarely clinical but can occasionally result in posterior paresis or paralysis Notifiable M. bovis and M. tuberculosis under Balai EU 92/65 Relatively uncommon in the UK but certain collections have issues Comparative intradermal skin test still used predominantly. Gamma interferon only used when directed by APHA Primarily respiratory disease Pneumonia-often combined other ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 22 Antilocapridae bacterial pathogens increases severity of disease Young animals, high stocking density, copper deficiencies exacerbate. Nematodirus spp. associated spring autumn warm wet weather sudden deaths. Otherwise diarrhoea, hypoproteinaemia, stunting, bottle jaw, anaemia etc. Pneumonia and sudden death Parasitic Gastro Enteritis (Haemonchus, Ostertagia, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus spp.) All Pasteurellosis (Mannheimia haemolitica; Pasteurella multiocida) Proliferative ileitis (Lawsonia intracellulare) Rotaviruses All Transmissable gastroenteritis (coronavirus) Trichuris spp. Suidae, tayassuidae White muscle disease (vit E deficiency) Antilocapridae, Camelidae Suidae/Tayassuidae Table 11 Elephants Disease Dental disease Suidae, Tayassuidae All All Species reported All Elephant Endotheliotrophic Herpesvirus (EEHV) All Foot disease All Mycobacteriosis (M. bovis, M. tuberculosis) All Skin wounds All Malabsorption/maldigestion syndrome Neonatal diarrhoea, dehydration and occasional death Vomiting, diarrhoea weight loss, high mortality and morbidity in young animals Weight loss, stunting, diarrhoea, anaemia and hypoproteinaemia (bottle jaw) Neonates-collapse and muscle stretching Adults - infertility Clinical signs Pulp infections of tusks-removal problematic Young elephants. World-wide-many species of herpesvirus identified. Common cause mortality. Anaemia, hypovolaemia, fever, pustules in mouth, eyes, feet etc. Famciclovir used limited success. Under-running soles, cracked and hang nails, bruising and infected feet common Notifiable Subclinical, respiratory signs, renal disease, abortion. Trunk washes most effective diagnostic test Slow healing, pachyderms, sinus tract formation ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 23 Table 12 Carnivores Disease Bacterial pneumonia Campylobacter jejuni Canine adenovirus Species reported All Chlamydiosis Clostridium spp. All Canidae, Mustelidae, Ursidae Canidae, Urisdae, Mustelidae, Viverridae, Procyonidae, Felidae Canidae, Mustelidae Felidae All Dental disease All Equine herpesviruses Ursidae Feline calicivirus Feline coronavirus Feline herpesvirus Felidae Felidae Felidae Feline immunodeficiency virus Feline infectious peritonitis Feline leukaemia virus Felidae Feline panleucopaenia virus Helicobacteriosis Felidae, Mustelidae Felidae, Mustelidae Hyponatraemia Marine carnivores Hypovitaminosis A Marine carnivores Canine distemper virus Canine parvovirus Felidae Felidae Clinical signs Pasteurella spp., Streptococcus spp., Pseudomonas spp., Klebsiella pneumoniae and Bordetella bronchiseptica all associated primary and secondary respiratory disease Usually subclinical carriage common Hepatitis, jaundice, death From acute death, to neurological tremors, skin erythema, respiratory disease, diarrhoea. Has been reported in lions and tigers Diarrhoea. Aleutian disease may result in a chronic granulomatous disease Oculo-nasal disease Rare clinical disease but diarrhoea and peritonitis reported in number species Common in bears Felines long pulp cavities to canines Several zebra-associated herpesviruses have resulted in deaths of bears (Black and Polar) Upper respiratory disease Dry or wet FIP Upper respiratory disease, mortalities (e.g. Pallas cats) Immunosuppression, anaemia. Issues in Asiatic lions, Wildcats etc Cheetahs outbreaks. Wet and dry forms reported Immunosuppression and neoplasia, usually lymphoma Diarrhoea, wobbler syndrome, heart failure. Uncommon May be asymptomatic or may be associated with vomiting, stomach ulcers and neoplasia Common when not supplemented with NaCl in diet if kept in fresh water and fed previously frozen and defrosted saltwater fish Common when not supplemented with vitamin A in diet if fed previously frozen and defrosted salt-water fish. Increased susceptibility to infections. Reduced tear ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 24 Hypovitaminosis B1 Marine carnivores Hypovitaminosis E Marine carnivores Influenza A virus All Inflammatory bowel disease Canidae, Felidae, Mustelidae Canidae, Felidae Leptospirosis Liver disease Lungworms (Aelurostrongylus abstrusus; Otostrongylus circumlitus; Parafilaroides gymnus) Ursidae All Phocidae, Otaridae Metabolic bone disease All Mustelid coronavirus Nematodes Mustelidae All Papilloma virus Canidae, Felidae Phocine distemper virus Phocidae, Otaridae Proliferative ileitis Renal disease Mustelidae, Viverridae, Procyonidae All Renoliths/urolithiasis Mustelidae production. Common when not supplemented with thiamine in diet if fed previously frozen and defrosted salt-water fish. Neurological signs Common when not supplemented with vitamin E in diet if fed previously frozen and defrosted salt-water fish. Steatitis, increased risk of infections, reduced fertility. Cause of epizootics in Common seals with dypsnoea, conjunctivitis and weakness Malabsorption/maldigestion syndrome Relatively common but often subclinical. Abortion , hepatitis and renal disease reported Particularly common in bears with hepatic neoplasia (extrahepatic biliary adenocarcinomas) being most commonly reported. Aelurostrongylus abstrusus also known as Northern heart worm – found in many felids and mustelids producing respiratory and cardiovascular disease (red pandas particularly) Otostrongylus circumlitus; Parafilaroides gymnus cause of verminous pneumonia in seals Less common but due to vitamin D3/calcium deficiency. Bowing of long bones, rachitic rosettes, renal damage. Diseases similar to dry or wet FIP Rarely pathogenic but Bayliascaris spp. can be zoonotic Papilloma formation-often preputial. Malignant transformation to squamous cell carcinomas reported Snow leopards Major epizootics – mainly wild animals mucopurulent nasal discharge, dyspnoea, coughing subcutaneous emphysema and abortion Malabsorption/maldigestion syndrome Particularly common in Felidae, but chronic renal failure seen all carnivores as age-related syndrome. May be seen in any carnivore but ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 25 Rotavirus Salmonellosis Mustelidae All Toxoplasmosis Felidae Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy All but mainly Felidae Uterine pathology Canidae, Felidae Veno-occlusive disease Felidae Table 13 Marsupials Disease Capillariasis (Capillaria spp. infection) Chlamydiosis Species reported Macropods and possums Koalas Clostridiosis Particularly macropods Coccidiosis Macropods, wombats and oposssums Cryptococcosis (C. neoformans neoformans and C. neoformans gatti) All but predominantly Koalas Herpesvirus Macropods Lumpy jaw (many bacteria but Fusobacterium Macropods particularly common in mustelidsespecially otters. Usually calcium oxalate. Thought to be predisposition which is dietary but exact reason not fully understood Self limiting diarrhoea young animals Carry subclinical state or passage common. Occasional disease (Bush dogs, Maned wolves etc) May be asymptomatic, or may result in juvenile deaths (e.g. Pallas cats) Uncommon since TSE regulations but FSE reported in the literature in big cats. Neurological signs, incoordination through to seizures reported. Pyometras common in African Painted hunting dogs. Uterine neoplasia common in felids-particularly those given progesterone based contraceptives. Cheetahs and Snow leopards. Fibrosis of hepatic sinusoids and veins. Phytoestrogens and hypervitaminosis A suggested Clinical signs Dyspnoea, coughing and nasal discharge Reproductive tract infections, infertility, respiratory disease, urinary tract infections Sudden death, diarrhoea, collapse. Advise vaccinate using clostridial toxoid sheep and goat vaccines Haemorrhagic enteritis in macropods, wombats and opossums. Hepatic coccidiosis in Tammar wallabies Respiratory signs predominantly (pneumonia) but also depression, jaw swelling, neurological and skin lesions Different species of herpesvirus producing clinical signs varying from sudden death to dyspnoea, conjunctivitis, cloacal infections etc Swelling of the jaw bone, osteomyelitis, dental loss. Check ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 26 necrophorum implicated commonly) Metabolic bone disease All Mycobacteriosis All Neoplasia All Parasitic gastroenteritis All Pasteurellosis All Pouch infections All Retroviruses Variety of species Toxoplasmosis All marsupials particularly macropods All Yersiniosis diet as may be over abrasive and resulting in oral soft tissue damage Hip dysplasia and metabolic bone issues commonly reported in koalas. Any marsupial may suffer from metabolic bone disease Notifiable. Common in wild marsupials but rare in captivity. M. avium most commonly seen (not Notifiable) as liver and intestinal granulomatous condition with wasting (wallabies) Lymphoma/leukaemia viruses reported (e.g. Koalas). Craniofacial tumours Koalas and possums. Transmissible tumours Tasmanian devils. Rarely significantly pathogenic but Trichostrongylus spp. may cause diarrhoea and weight loss in macropods Bacterial pneumonia (possums, macropods and Koalas) Uncommon but often Pseudomonas spp. infections. Reported in macropods, possums and Koalas Infectious neoplasia, immunosuppression, anaemia, lymphoma, leukaemia Sudden death, blindness, seizures, vestibular disease. Diarrhoea and death. Less commonly granulomatous chronic form. Pseudovac® vaccine Utrecht University has been used to prevent ©Dr Simon J Girling BVMS(Hons) DZooMed DipECZM EurProBiol CBiol FRSB FRCVS Zoo Medicine 27 Legislation Relevant to Zoos Zoo Licensing Act 1981 (as amended) and Secretary of State’s Standards of Modern Zoo Practice The Zoo Licensing Act 1981 can be found at http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1981/37/contents A more workable guide to the Act can be found at https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/69595/zo o-licensing-act-guide.pdf These are effectively enshrined in the Secretary of State’s Standards for Modern Zoo Practice which are regularly updated and enforced through DEFRA and the zoo licensing process – the current standards may be found at https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/69596/sta ndards-of-zoo-practice.pdf Basically they cover everything from health and safety of staff and public alike through to enclosure design, nutrition, welfare and veterinary provision. The latter sections are Section 3 and Appendix 5 and outlines the need for suitable preventative health programs, regular monitoring of the health of a collection, maintaining records, design of any veterinary facilities including hospitals, postmortem facilities etc etc. Other sections cover the five freedoms as applied to zoos. These include allowing to express (most) behaviours-the latter clarification is clearly necessary to preserve animal welfare as carnivores cannot be allowed to hunt vertebrates-but this also means that allowing animals to breed is viewed as a potentially necessary natural behaviour-therefore care needs t