EXO Module 10 Sept 2020.pdf

Exotic Animal Practice GPCert(EXP) Modular CPD Course Module 10 Biology, Nutrition, Husbandry and Diseases of Unusual Mammalian Pets, Amphibians and Invertebrates Speaker Simon Girling 22nd September 2020 Alexandra House, Swindon Note: Copyright on these notes is jointly owned between the Course Sp...

Exotic Animal Practice GPCert(EXP) Modular CPD Course Module 10 Biology, Nutrition, Husbandry and Diseases of Unusual Mammalian Pets, Amphibians and Invertebrates Speaker Simon Girling 22nd September 2020 Alexandra House, Swindon Note: Copyright on these notes is jointly owned between the Course Speaker and Improve International Ltd and the material must not be copied or distributed without prior permission/authorisation from either party. Improve International Ltd has taken every effort to ensure that the information in these notes and in other taught material is accurate but it cannot take any responsibility for any problems arising from errors therein. HUSBANDRY, BIOLOGY, NUTRITION AND MEDICINE OF UNUSUAL MAMMALIAN PETS, AMPHIBIANS AND INVERTEBRATES Module 10 GPCert(ExAnP) Dr. Simon J Girling BVMS (Hons) DZooMed DipECZM CBiol FRSB EurProBiol FRCVS RCVS Recognised Specialist in Zoo & Wildlife Medicine EBVS® European Veterinary Specialist in Zoo Health Management Index Page No. 2 Raccoons and Coatis African pygmy hedgehogs 8 Kinkajous 14 Prairie dogs 18 Striped skunk 20 Meerkats 24 Mongooses 27 Virginia opossum 30 Sugar gliders 35 Wallabies 41 Amphibians 44 Invertebrates 53 Legislative changes 2016 64 References and further reading 66 © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 1 Raccoons and Coatis Raccoons and coatis are members of the Procyonidae family found within the order Carnivora. This New World family contains 15 species in 6 genera, with coatis and raccoons currently being linked together in the subfamily Procyoninae, although the taxonomy of the family is still under considerable debate. Three species of raccoon are seen: 1. Common raccoon (Procyon lotor) with numerous subspecies 2. Crab-eating raccoon (Procyon cancrivorous) 3. Tres Marias raccoon (Procyon insularis). The common raccoon (P lotor) is found from southern Canada to Panama and on islands off the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and will be the main species considered here. The males are generally heavier (around 17%) than females with seasonal variation (increases in autumn up to January then decreases). Average male common raccoon weight is 6.76kg and female is 5.94kg. Although both genders of raccoons are solitary and nocturnal in nature, female coatis are social and diurnal. Adult male coatis are solitary and although diurnal are active at dusk. Females coatis and juvenile males (<2 years of age) in the wild travel in groups of up to 30 and exhibit cooperative foraging, nursing, grooming, vigilance, and anti-predator behaviour. Four species of coatis are seen: 1. White-nosed coati (Nasua narica), 2. Brown-nosed or South American coati (Nasua nasua) 3. Wedel’s coati (Nasua wedeli) 4. Mountain or Argentinian coati (Nasuella olivacea). Coatis are found from southern Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas southward through Mexico and Central America. Average male white nosed coati weight is 5.9kg and female is 3.7kg with the averaged brown nosed coati weight of the male is 4.6kg and the female 4.1kg. Biology and Anatomy Raccoons and coatis are omnivores. The dental formula for both is I 3/3, C 1/1, Pm 4/4, M 2/2 (ie 40 teeth). The ratio of length of intestinal tract of raccoons to body length is similar to small mustelids such as ferrets and mink and so is shorter than the dog or cat. A short gut transit time (<24h) is balanced by an efficient extraction system. Smell is important and Coati rely heavily on smell and tactile sensitivity of the nose to discover their invertebrate prey. They have the long claws used to dig holes and shred dead logs in search of prey or tear up fruit. The rostral surface of their rhinarium is densely innervated by sensory receptors and their nose is highly mobile. Coatis have good colour vision that evolved for feeding on brightly coloured fruit. Their long, slender, non-prehensile tail is often held vertical whilst foraging and helps them to balance when climbing. They will make snorting noises when alarmed. Coatis tend not to be as dexterous with their for-paws as raccoons are. © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 2 A well-known coati feeding behaviour is the rapid rolling of invertebrate prey on the ground using alternating movements of the forepaws, which removes spines and encourages the insect to release any venom or sting without harming the coati. This may be elicited in coatis by chemicals such as benzoquinones which are often released by angry insects such as millipedes They will also eat small vertebrate prey which is usually bitten through the skull. Captive coatis will eat common captive invertebrate foods, such as mealworms and crickets. The feet of the raccoon each have five digits with no webbing between the digits, a feature unusual among carnivores and they have a well-developed somatic sensorimotor area of the cerebral cortex devoted to the forepaws. For this reason there is a significant density and diversity of cutaneous nerve ending organs in their forepaws. Raccoons will often ‘wash’ their food in water prior to eating it and similar to coatis, will also carry out rolling behaviour, although this is often performed in water. The rolling behaviour is believed to enable raccoons to feed on toxic amphibians irrespective of prey size, because it is sufficient to stimulate noxious and toxic secretions from the amphibian prey and so eventually reduces the amount of secretion by the prey item when it is finally eaten. In addition raccoons often bite only the edible parts of the prey such as the abdomen, viscera, or limbs. Raccoons and Coatis do not have prehensile tails unlike their cousins the Kinkajous. Reproductive Biology Some parameters are given below Parameter Gestation Weaning Litter size Birth weight Dentition Duration 63-65d (Raccoon) 70-77d (Coati) 7-16 weeks (Raccoon) 3-5 weeks (Coati) 1-7 (Av 3) (Coati) 2-5 (Raccoons) 60-75g (Raccoons) 78-140g (Coati) Raccoon – Adentate at birth; incisors and canines erupt 1month; 2.5 months start of loss of deciduous teeth Coati – Adentate at birth; incisors erupt 15d; canines at 27d; 3 months start of loss of deciduous teeth Commercial dog/cat milk replacers mixed 1:2 with water have been used to handrear raccoons and coatis, although the latter are often recommended to have a lower lactose level and so Zoologic milk replacers have been advised. © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 3 Nutrition Raccoons are omnivorous and opportunistic, consuming almost any dietary item available. They change their diet, often on a seasonal basis, to include alternative resources in the wild. For the common raccoon (P lotor) plant material composes approximately 60% of their diet including fruit, vegetables, nuts and grasses, with 40% animal matter including invertebrates predominantly. Vertebrate prey composes 5% to 10% of the diet and includes fish, amphibians, eggs, reptiles and small rodents and birds. Raccoon diets in captivity usually have a base of commercially available dog or cat food, supplemented with a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, eggs, and prey items, such as fish and invertebrates. Energy requirements for the common raccoon are BMR (basal metabolic rate) (kcal) = 0.71 (body weight in grams) 0.738 For MER levels this may be increased by a factor of 1.2 to 1.5. No difference in basal metabolism between captive males and females in either summer or winter has been observed, although as with most species, lactation increases basal energy requirements by 2- to 2.5-fold. Coati are omnivorous and in the wild arthropods, such as beetles, millipedes, spiders, snails, caterpillars and small crabs will make up approximately 44% to 60% of their diet. They also consume a wide variety of fruit (35%–55% of diet), with more than 53 species of ingested fruit described. Small vertebrate prey (caecilians, frogs, small lizards and snakes, small birds and rodents, reptile and bird eggs) contribute less than 10% of the diet, and often make up less than 1% of their natural diet. Most captive diets for coati are based around dog and cat food supplemented with fruits and vegetables, and prey items, such as insects, mice, and day-old chicks. Mazuri zoo food omnivore pellets or primate pellets have also been used. Energy requirements for coatis can be determined with the formula: BMR (basal metabolic rate) (kcal) = 0.49 (body weight in grams)0.738. MER then multiplies this by a factor of 1.2 to 1.5. For female coatis, the greatest energy demands on resources are associated with reproduction, because the litter weighs 20% to 30% of the female’s postpartum weight and over 3 to 5 weeks of nursing the litter increases to 45% to 60% of her weight. During this period the foraging decreases to less than 2 hours a day, so energy requirements increase by a factor of 2 to 2.5 to compensate. However obesity is a common problem in captive coatis as they are often not given foraging activity and over-fed. Stereotypies, such as tail chewing, have been observed in coatis that do not have suitable foraging and mental and physical stimulation opportunities in captivity. © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 4 Disease Problems of Raccoons and Coatis Nutritional Disease Because of their energy efficiency and ability to store large fat reserves, coupled with a relative lack of exercise and the availability of calorie-dense foods, obesity is the most common nutrition-related disease observed in captive raccoons, and feeding of lower-fat and –calorie food may be required As with other species, metabolic bone disease is a potential problem in coatis and raccoons associated with imbalanced diets (low calcium, improper calcium-tophosphorus ratio, inadequate dietary vitamin D, hypervitaminosis A). Respiratory disease Both species are susceptible to canine distemper virus. Epizootics regularly occur in North America and clinical signs resemble those seen in domestic dogs including: diarrhoea; upper respiratory tract disease; hard pad; erythema and may progress in raccoons to central nervous system disease more rapidly than it does in dogs which makes it an important differential in the USA for rabies virus infection. Digestive tract disease Not so much a disease, more of a zoonotic problem, the common roundworm of the raccoon (and kinkajou), Bayliascaris procyonis is renowned for causing central nervous system disease in aberrant hosts. This may result, due to its wandering migration through the aberrant hosts central nervous system, in paresis, paralysis and even death. It is rarely symptomatic in raccoons. Salmonellosis is common in wild raccoons and can be an issue in pet raccoons. Faecal contamination is the most common means of spread but due to their paw washing behaviours, paw transmission is also an issue (Bondo et al 2016). Parvovirus is also reported to cause problems in raccoons with both the feline panleucopaenia and the canine parvovirus 2 being implicated. Coatimundis have been recorded as fatally susceptible to canine parvovirus 2 (Bucafusco et al., 2019). Canine adenovirus has also been suggested as a cause of infectious hepatitis in raccoons. Iron storage disease is a recently recognized captive nutritional disease, with 10 cases of moderate to marked hepatic iron deposition noted in a retrospective pathology study of 13 coatis. The authors attributed the iron deposition to captive diets, usually dog- and cat-food based, which contain more heme iron compared with the wild diet (Clauss et al 2006). Based on these findings, diets that contain less iron, such as commercial insectivore and primate diets, may be more suitable. Islet cell pancreatic amyloidosis is a common age-related finding in captive raccoons (Hamir et al 2007). Whether this predisposes them to type 2 diabetes, as in cats, some nonhuman primates, and humans, is a subject for investigation, especially with their propensity for obesity associated with calorie-rich diets and lack of activity. © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 5 Hepatic lipid accumulation has also been noted histologically, but with no associated clinical abnormalities, but hepatic lipidosis can be a problem in obese coatis and raccoons. Neurological diseases Canine distemper virus can cause neurological disease in the raccoon. Pseudorabies (Aujesky’s disease) a herpesvirus can infect raccoons and has been reported. It is notifiable and not present in the UK at the moment. Toxoplasma gondii has been reported to result in systemic disease, encephalitis and mortalities in raccoons-often those affected by canine distemper virus. Neospora caninum can cause similar neurological signs and is relatively common in wild raccoons in north America. Sarcocystis neurona (causal agent of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis) has been reported in raccoons in the wild in north America. Raccoon polyomavirus has been reported in wild raccoons and can result in neurological tumours which may demonstrate as neurological disease depending on where they develop (Church et al 2016). Antibody tests are available. Sphingomyelin lipidosis has been reported in a wild juvenile raccoon with neurological disease in north America (Vapniarsky et al 2013). Post mortem examination revealed hepatomegaly, splenomegaly and multicentric lymphadenomegaly with diffuse hepatic pallor and pulmonary consolidation with pinpoint pale subpleural foci. Borna disease virus (BDV) has been reported in wild raccoons in Japan, although no clinical signs of disease were noted. (Hagiwara et al 2009) Ischaemic encephalopathy with neurological signs has been reported in raccoons (Hamir and Rupprecht, 1994). Other diseases A large number of serological surveys have been carried out in raccoons in the wild indicating their exposure to a wide range of pathogens from Borrelia to Brucella from Ehrlichia to Aleutian mink disease. It is however, as with many serological studies, not clear what significance if any these findings have! Thyroid adenomas and adenocarcinomas seem to be common in raccoons, as are other thyroid lesions such as hyperplasia and follicular adenomas Pancreatic adenomas and astrocytomas have also been recorded in raccoons as well as adrenal adenomas with nasal carcinomas and uterine adenocarcinomas being reported in coatis. Spontaneous cystic endometrial hyperplasia is common in both raccoons and coatis injected/implanted with synthetic progestins and therefore castration or ovariohysterectomy is recommended as the least likely method of contraception to cause disease problems in these species (Hamir, 2011; Chittick et al 2001). Some © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 6 early work has however suggested that GnRH agonists may be useful but there is little data at present. Vaccination Both species are susceptible to distemper and therefore in a distemper endemic area should be vaccinated. No killed vaccine exists in the UK and it is not recommended to use a modified live vaccine. In the USA, a canarypox vectored canine distemper and ferret vaccine is available and this would be an alternative. © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 7 African Pygmy Hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris) African pygmy hedgehogs are found from the southern Sahara through Central and East Africa. They weigh between 250 to 700 grams on average and a lifespan of 4-6 years, being considered geriatric from 3 years of age. Biology and Anatomy APHs are solitary and generally nocturnal. In the wild they will dig burrows and hide under logs, rocks, tree roots and buildings and so such hiding places and nesting materials should be supplied in captivity. African hedgehogs do not normally hibernate in their natural habitat, but they can hibernate in cool environments but is not recommended due to immunosuppression. Captive environmental temperatures are therefore recommended to be kept above 18C. They have a simple digestive tract, with no anatomical distinction between small and large intestine and no caecum. The gut transit time is short being around 12-16h. A preliminary study of chitin digestion in A atelerix confirmed that 64% to 68% of chitin (specifically, crab shell chitin) was digested, as compared with only 38% digestion of cellulose (Graffam et al 1998). Their rectal temperature varies from 95.7-98.6F (36.137.2C) and heart rates from 180-280bpm and respiratory rates from 25-50bpm. The dental formula of an APH is I3/2 C1/1 P3/2 M3/3 (ie 36 teeth in total) Reproductive Biology Some parameters are given below Parameter Gestation Weaning Litter size Birth weight Growth Sexual maturity Duration 34-37d 4-6 weeks 3-4 10-18g 1.5-6g/day 2-6months (female); 6-8 months (male) Female hedgehogs that gain more than 50 g within 3 weeks after living with a male are usually pregnant and should be isolated as males can be aggressive towards off-spring. Increased amounts of food can be offered during the 34- to 37day gestation period and throughout lactation (4–6 weeks). Young can be fed with a plastic pipette or a 1-mL syringe fitted with a blunted 16- gauge needle covered with small-bore rubber tubing to be used as a teat. As with other species, weaning to an adult diet can be accomplished by gradually mixing a softened or blended solid diet into the milk formula. Neutering is a bit of a challenge as the testes in the male are intra-abdominal therefore laparotomy is required in both sexes. Nutrition No information is available on their specific nutrient requirements. Although classified as members of the order Insectivora, hedgehogs are quite omnivorous, eating a variety of invertebrates in addition to small vertebrate prey and plants. Captive © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 8 hedgehogs tend to become obese thus, captive animals should be weighed regularly to monitor body condition. Obesity can lead to inactivity, metabolic changes, and other health issues. To combat this tendency toward obesity, because it is poorly digested, cellulose (plant matter) may be added to hedgehog diets to dilute nutrient density, thereby reducing overall dietary calories. A typical home-made diet could include a canned feline diet (20–30 g) containing approximately 60% water fed once daily during ad libitum. Treats can include supplemented meat mixtures, hard-boiled or scrambled eggs, and vegetable or meat based human baby foods. Dairy products, such as cottage cheese and milk, should be avoided, however, because of reports of lactose intolerance. Insects offered should be gut-loaded diets before feeding to hedgehogs. Insect-only diets are not recommended because of the potential for nutritional imbalances and to duplicate natural omnivorous feeding habits better. Dry foods or uncooked produce is suggested over soft dietary ingredients to maintain tooth and gum health. Fresh water should be provided ad lib in a shallow dish. Disease Problems of African Pygmy Hedgehogs In one study 35.9% of deaths was associated with neoplasia with oral squamous cell carcinomas being the most commonly seen (Pei-Chi et al 2015). Nutritional Disease Specific nutritional problems, including taurine-deficiency cardiomyopathies or retinopathies and fatty acid insufficiencies, reported in obligate carnivores have not been reported in hedgehogs. The lack of these nutritional problems, in addition to hedgehogs’ ability to utilize some dietary carbohydrates, suggests that hedgehog dietary requirements may be more similar to those of canids than of felids. Hepatic lipidosis, which may be related to obesity, a high-fat diet, or too rapid weight loss, has been reported in APHs. Therefore, weight-reduction diets containing not only decreased amounts of food but lower fat and caloric concentrations should be implemented gradually. Neoplasia Individual body system neoplasias are mentioned below but it is worth noting that APHs are highly prone to neoplasia with nearly 21% of cases in one survey (Gardhouse and Eshar 2015). The most commonly reported neoplasms are mammary gland adenocarcinoma, lymphosarcoma, and oral squamous cell carcinomas. Skin disease Caparinia tripilis and Chorioptes spp. are a common cause of pruritus and spine loss and Notoedres spp. has also been reported. In the wild Caparinia erinacei has been postulated as the causal agent. Three to five doses of Ivermectin at 0.2mg/kg every 7 days tends to be curative. Dermatophytosis has also been reported as has suspected atopy in APHs. Treatment for dermatophytosis is the same as other small mammals. Atopy is difficult to manage unless the allergen is identified. © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 9 A single case of pemphigus foliaceus has been reported with loss of spine, flaking skin, moist erythema and epidermal collarettes (Wack 2000). Skin neoplasia is again common with sarcomas, sebaceous carcinoma, lipoma, liposarcoma, squamous cell carcinomas, mast cell tumours, and mammary gland tumours (usually adenocarcinomas) all being commonly reported. Digestive tract disease Dental disease (periodontitis, gingivitis etc), as with other hedgehogs is very common, therefore some dry food is recommended. Oral neoplasia is also common in APHs, particularly squamous cell carcinomas which seem to be the commonest reported. Salmonella spp. enteritis has been reported and may be subclinical or may result in diarrhoea, weight loss, dehydration and death. Cryptosporidiosis has also been reported in juvenile APHs affecting the jejunum resulting in a fatality. Foreign bodies are also a problem in APHs and may result in obstruction, lethargy and collapse. Gas distension is a common non-specific sign of the stomach of a sick APH so this does not naturally equate with a FB. Hepatic lipidosis is very common and runs at around 50% of sick APHs and so is often a non-specific but nonetheless serious clinical development. Primary liver neoplasia, both adenomas and adenocarcinomas have been reported and one APH administered dexamethasone 2 weeks prior died of human simplex herpesvirus 1. Respiratory disease Pneumonia with the usual bacteria (Corynebacterium, Pasteurella multocida, Bordetella bronchiseptica and Mycoplasma spp. have all been reported), particularly if associated with poor environmental temperatures (<18C) may be seen. Diagnosis is based on recovery of the organism from tracheal swabs/BAL and radiographic evidence. Treatment is with antibiotics such as potentiated amoxicillin and enrofloxacin at empirical dosages. NSAIDs such as meloxicam at 0.2-0.6mg/kg may also be used along with supportive therapy. Broncho-pneumonia associated with skunk adenovirus-1 infection has been reported in an APH (Needle et al 2019). As with other body organ systems, neoplasia (usually secondary metastases but primary bronchoalveolar carcinomas have been reported) is commonly seen in the lungs. Parasitic lung disease is less commonly reported in APHs but they are susceptible to Capillaria spp. as with other lungworms (e.g. Crenosoma striatum) and may have a © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 10 dual verminous and bacterial pneumonia. Faecal screening using Baermann flotation techniques for lung worm eggs, or sampling sputum can aid diagnosis. Treatment with fenbendazole (20mg/kg orally once daily for 3 consecutive days) or ivermectin (0.2mg/kg once repeated 7 days later) have been used successfully. Cardiovascular disease Dilated cardiomyopathy has also been reported in APHs (incidence may be as high as 40% in some reports) as has congestive heart failure associated with AV valvular defects. Diagnosis has been suggested based on echocardiography of a ventricular fractional shortening less than 25% with a wall thickness minimum of 1.5mm. Individuals are usually older than 3 years. Bilateral atrial thrombus formation with thrombotic disease has also been reported as well as valvular endocardiosis with subsequent congestive heart failure. Delk et al (2014) suggested that carnitine deficiency may contribute to cardiac disease in geriatric hedgehogs. Cardiac assessment of APHs has been published (Black et al 2011). Echocardiographic parameters of normal anaesthetised APHs include fractional shortening median of 22.1% (mean 21.45+/-2.5); left ventricular free wall (diastole) median 0.16cm (mean 0.16+/-0.01cm) and left ventricular free wall (systole) median 0.23cm (mean 0.23+/-0.02cm). ECG parameters include an R wave amplitude median of 0.2mV (mean 0.22+/-0.11mV); QRS duration of median 0.03 second (mean 0.03+/-0 seconds) and a heart rate of median 220bpm (mean 200+/-48bpm). Radiographic findings came up with a number of parameters, the most useful of which appears to be a form of vertebral heart score (VHS). The long axis and perpendicular short axis of the heart were measured in right lateral. Each was then separately overlaid over the vertebrae starting at T4 and the number of vertebrae to the nearest 0.25 vertebra counted. The values for both long and short axis were then added giving a median of 8.25 (mean 8.16+/-0.48). Treatment for cardiac diseases is as for other small mammals – see ferret disease module. Haematopoietic disease Haematopoietic disease occurred in 18.5% of post-mortem lesions in one publication with lymphoma being the most commonly reported whether as a multicentric disease or GI tract associated (Done et al. 1992). Genetic predisposition and a possible retroviral origin for some cases has been suggested. Other forms of haemolymphatic neoplasia reported in African hedgehogs include myelogenous leukemia, eosinophilic leukemia, intestinal plasmacytoma, multiple myeloma, histiocytic sarcoma, and malignant neuroendocrine carcinoid tumours of the spleen (Johnson, 2020). Urinary tract disease Urolithiasis is common in APHs and although the composition has not been reported, anecdotally it has been associated with feeding cat food. Nephritis, glomerulosclerosis and tubular necrosis have all been reported histologically in APHs and renal failure is common in APHs over the age of 3 years, although cases as young as 7mths have been reported. Management of renal failure © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 11 has been attempted including the placement of a fenestrated subcutaneous cannula to facilitate long term subcutaneous fluid administration (Powers 2002). Poorly differentiated renal neoplasia has also been recorded (Harrison and Kitchell, 2017). Reproductive tract disease Prosthitis from substrate entanglement has been reported as common in APHs. There is one report of accessory sex gland disease in a male APH that resulted in urethral blockage (Koizumi and Kondo, 2019). Uterine neoplasia resulting in haemorrhage from the reproductive tract visible at the vulva, metritis and pyometra have also been reported frequently in APHs. Numerous neoplasms including adenoleiomyosarcoma, adenosarcoma, endometrial stromal cell sarcoma, endometrial polyps, adenoleiomyoma, uterine adenocarcinoma, carcinosarcoma, and uterine spindle cell tumours have been reported (Johnson, 2020). Musculoskeletal and neurological disease Osteoarthritis and spondylosis have been commonly reported in APHs and associated intervertebral disc disease is common with spondylosis. Trauma is commonly reported with fractures but osteosarcomas are regularly seen in APHs and should be considered where spontaneous fractures are found. Ataxia has been associated with chilling, however wobbly hedgehog disease/syndrome has also been reported associated with hindlimb ataxia and paresis progressing in an ascending manner to quadriparesis and muscle atrophy. Grossly the nerves are unaffected but on histopathology the spinal cord and brain are often affected with axonal swelling, degeneration of the spinal cord ventral tracts and axonal and myelin degeneration in the brain white matter. A strong genetic cause is suspected but viral and auto-immune possibilities exist. Central nervous system neoplasia reported in hedgehogs includes: soft tissue sarcoma;, histiocytic sarcoma; ganglioglioma; gemistocytic astrocytoma; oligodendroglioma; anaplastic astrocytoma; microglioma; oligoastrocytoma; meningioma and lymphoma. Ocular disease Orbital proptosis is not uncommon and surgical enucleation is often opted for due to the ocular damage caused and difficulty medicating topically. Endocrine disease Hyperadrenocorticism resulting in ‘Cushings-like’ disease has been reported in APHs. They present with alopecia, a pendulous abdomen, polydipsia/polyuria and polyphagia. Blood samples will show an elevated cortisol level. Carcinomas of the thyroid glands have also been reported such as thyroid adenocarcinoma, thyroid C-cell carcinoma, thyroid follicular adenoma and thyroid follicular carcinoma. © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 12 Other endocrine neoplasias include: parathyroid adenoma, pancreatic islet cell tumours, pituitary adenoma, pheochromocytoma, adrenal cortical carcinoma, and malignant neuroendocrine tumours. Most are subclinical or present with general signs such as lethargy, weakness and incoordination. © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 13 Kinkajous Kinkajous (Potos flavus), also known as honey bears or nightwalkers, belong to the family Procyonidae, which includes raccoons, coatis, ringtails, binturongs and olingos. Biology and Anatomy Kinkajous are nocturnal and their body temperature is higher at night when active (38C) than during the day when torpid (36C). Environmental temperatures above 33C are not well tolerated by kinkajous. Typical weights vary from 1.4-4.6kg with males being larger than females. They have two very obvious sebaceous scent glands-one on the sternum and one mid-abdominal used for scent marking. They also have mandibular smaller glands and will territory mark by rubbing face and chest. They also possess an unusually shaped os penis which ends in four short radiating, round-tipped branches. The kinkajou is an arboreal species primarily found in canopies of neo-tropical rainforests throughout Central America and northern South America. Kinkajous are one of two carnivores with a prehensile tail; the binturong (Arctictis binturong), an Asian viverrid, is the other one. The social structure is complex and not fully understood – e.g. two male siblings often live with an unrelated female and her offspring. Some females are more solitary and are only found with their young from that year; these animals seem to roam widely rather than hold territories. Kinkajou population density, which may range from 12 to 74 kinkajous per square kilometre, is related to the number of fruiting trees within a forest. The size of home range also varies with sex. Males typically occupy 30 to 40 hectares, whereas females occupy 15–18 hectares. Therefore in captivity kinkajous should be given plenty of mental stimulation in the form of foraging to occupy themselves in what will inevitably be smaller enclosures. The digestive system does not possess a caecum and has no obvious separation between small and large intestine. In the wild kinkajous have a primarily frugivorous diet and consume a wide variety of seasonally available fruits throughout the year. Although fruit, nectar, and leaves seem to comprise their main diet, insects are also important. Kinkajous have 20-cm long tongues to collect nectar and pollen, and they are the known as the only carnivore that pollinates flowers. Free-ranging kinkajous’ activity budgets correlate with fruit abundance – with females also requiring a higher calorie diet although a kinkajou needs approximately 50 kcal/day less than an equivalently sized mammal along the mouse-elephant (placental mammal) body curve because its basal metabolic rate is 30% to 34% lower. A kinkajou diet created with daily kilocalories calculated from the metabolic rate formula for typical mammals provides too much food. As a result, kinkajous tend to be at greater risk for obesity when fed food quantities that are fed to other similarly sized mammals or when allowed to feed freely. Foods need to be more nutrient dense (i.e. amount of nutrient per kilocalorie consumed) to meet presumed nutritional needs without encouraging obesity. To prevent obesity and lessen the likelihood of diabetes mellitus, pancreatitis, arthritis, and cardiovascular diseases, especially in older kinkajous, caloric intake must be limited. © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 14 Reproductive Biology Parameter Gestation Weaning Litter size Birth weight Sexual maturity Duration 112-118 days 6-7 weeks (eyes open 7-25 days and coat changes from grey with a black strip to gold at weaning) NB suggestion that should be left with mother for 4 months to avoid developing behavioural vices e.g. tail or paw sucking/chewing 1-2 (one most commonly) 130-220grams Male 14-18 months Female 20-30 months Oestrus duration is 3-6 days and they are polyoestrus and do not have an obvious breeding season. The length of the entire cycle averages 50days but can vary from 46-92 and so is widely variable. Loss of an infant results in oestrus within a few days in the mother. Nutrition Kinkajous are extremely long-lived, with life spans commonly reaching twenty to forty years. Diets should be designed for life stages. A juvenile diet that supports growth and development should be fed for the first 12 to 18 months of life; an active adult diet should be fed into their twenties and thirties (but discontinued when a female becomes reproductively senescent); a senior adult diet, with fewer calories and a shift in nutrients for reproductively senescent females and older males, should be fed after that. Given kinkajous’ extreme longevity, geriatric diets that emphasize lower fat, increased levels of glucosamine and chondroitin, high-quality protein, and complex carbohydrates should be developed. Fruit consumed by wild kinkajous has lower sugar, starch, and moisture content, higher protein and fibre content, and more concentrated minerals and vitamins than commercially available fruits. Many captive diets include honey or other foods high in simple carbohydrates (i.e., starch, sugar). The frequent occurrence of diabetes mellitus in kinkajous suggests that sugar-rich diets may contribute to the incidence of this disease. They also cause osmotic diarrhoea and bacterial overgrowth. Captive diets should not include raw meat. Free-ranging kinkajous consume plant protein via a variety of tropical fruits that they encounter over the year. There may be deficiencies of certain amino acids, fatty acids, or other nutrients in the fruit diet of free-ranging kinkajous that make consumption of relatively small amounts of animal prey necessary, but this is a small amount and not a significant portion of the diet. © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 15 A readily available basic diet is 300g of domestic dog biscuit with approximately 27% crude protein, 200g of fresh fruit and/or vegetables and 40g of dried fruit. Sweet potato has a nutrient content similar to many wild fruits and is well accepted raw or cooked. Avoids sugar rich fruits where possible (kiwis, bananas etc.). Kinkajous are arboreal and have the tendency to ignore food that drops out of their hands when eating. Obesity is as mentioned, a problem in kinkajous and therefore occasional periods (12-24 hours) of starvation with water only may be helpful to reduce weight gain. Obese kinkajous tend to lay fat not only in the abdominal cavity but over the head and shoulder area and may develop fat tails which can’t then grip onto branches. Typical parameters for a single captive adult kinkajou would be a diet containing 24% crude protein, 11% fat; 42% carbohydrate with a 1% calcium and 0.8% phosphorus levels according the EAZA guidelines which would typically look like the following: Food type Quantity Percentage Adult moist dog food 35g 21.74% Mazuri leaf-eater pellet 21g 13.04% Root veg 35g 21.74% Other veg 35g 21.74% Fruits (unripened) 35g 21.74% Total 161g 100% Diseases Problems of Kinkajous Similar disease complaints to other mustelids, procyonids and viverrids are seen ion kinkajous Nutritional disease Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism results from diets that are calcium or vitamin D3 deficient, or have a calcium:phosphorus imbalance. This condition is common in hand-reared kinkajous. Clinically signs are similar to other mammals with a reluctance to move, a plantigrade stance but also an inability to hang by their tail. Pathological fractures are common as is bowing of jaw bones and long bones (radius, ulna and tibia). Cystic fibrous osteodystrophy of the jaw has been reported in two kinkajous that were fed a large amount of fruit as juveniles (Garma-Avina and Torres-Montoya, 1998). Treatment may not be possible in advanced cases, but otherwise is similar to that in other domestic mammals with calcium, vitamin D3/ultraviolet supplementation. Diabetes mellitus is also common in kinkajous and is usually secondary to obesity and sugar-rich diets. Clinical signs are similar to those in other domestic animals including polydipsia/polyuria, weight loss, elevated liver enzymes and blood glucose with glucosuria. Ketoacidosis may be seen in advanced cases. Reducing soluble carbohydrates/sugars in the diet and feeding more frequent, but smaller, easily digestible diets are advised. Do not starve any kinkajou with diabetes. © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 16 Digestive tract diseases Pancreatitis may be diagnosed erroneously as blood amylase (and lipase) concentrations are much higher in healthy kinkajous than in other domestic animals (amylase N=4468iu/L+/-2191). Diagnosis is therefore made on exclusion of other disease and evidence of a leucocytosis plus clinically suggestive signs such as vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain and weight loss. Dental disease is also relatively common in kinkajous, particularly those fed on high sugar diets. Regular dental checks and minimising soluble carbohydrate intake is advised to prevent this. Ascarid infestation with Bayliascaris procyonis is not uncommon in kinkajous and as such they should be considered as potential carriers of this serious zoonotic parasite. Initial faecal screening before adding to a collection is advised and annual bulk faecal examination (3 days-worth of faeces as they are intermittent shedders). Bothe distemper virus feline and canine parvovirus 2 have been associated with diarrhoea in kinkajous. Toxoplasmosis has also been reported in kinkajous with clinical signs being typical of infection in other species and including: anorexia; lethargy; pyrexia; incoordination; seizures; lymphadenopathy; myocarditis; hepatitis; splenitis. Treatment may be attempted with clindamycin at 11-20mg/kg BID. Respiratory disease Kinkajous are prone to distemper virus infection and as such where available should be vaccinated with a canary-pox vectored ferret distemper vaccine or kept away from potential sources. Modified live vaccines have induced clinical disease in kinkajous (Kazacos et al 1981). Clinical disease is similar to that described in raccoons and coatis. Lungworm has been reported (Aelurostrongylosis abstrusus) with coughing, dyspnoea and hyperpnoea. Heartworm, Dirofiliaria immitis has also been recorded in this species. Diagnosis and treatment is similar to ferrets. Cardiac disease Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy has been reported in a kinkajou with dyspnoea (Eshar et al 2010). Treatment was attempted with beta blockers (atenolol 0.76mg/kg SID), frusemide (2mg/kg BID), ACE inhibitors (enalapril 0.5mg/kg BID) and a bronchodilator (aminophylline 10mg/kg BID) which produced some improvement in clinical signs and stabilisation for nearly a year. The animal however ultimately went into complete heart failure and died. © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 17 Prairie Dogs Prairie dogs are rodents of the Order Rodentia in the Sciuridae family and are burrowing mammals that inhabit the grasslands of western North America. They are gregarious and form extensive colonies. There are currently five species of prairie dogs: black-tailed (Cynomys ludovicianus), Gunnison’s (C. gunnisoni), Mexican (C. mexicanus), Utah (C. parvidens), and white-tailed (C. leucurus). The one most likely to be found as a pet is the black-tailed prairie dog. Biology and Anatomy Predominantly herbivorous they are roughly 30 cm tall, weighing approximately 700grams, although this increases in the wild in late autumn to around 900grams, and are diurnal in nature. Males are generally larger than females and tend to be more aggressive towards humans. Males tend to live on average 12 years in captivity and females 14 years, although in the wild this is significantly reduced and typically around 5 years. Common behaviour for a prairie dog is to jump and then emit a yip when an owner enters the room. This natural behaviour is usually exhibited when a predator has disappeared and so is often viewed as an ‘all-clear’ signal. Minimum recommended housing for 2-3 adult prairie dogs is 60x60x90cm with preferably two storeys to the cage. Reproductive Biology Parameter Gestation Weaning Litter size Birth weight Dentition Reproductive season Duration Av 35 days 8-10 weeks 3-4 (upto 8) 15 grams January-February for mating Seasonally monoestrus Nutrition Prairie dogs are herbivorous, predominantly in the wild consuming grasses and herbage. Occasionally they will consume insect prey such as grasshoppers and beetles. In captivity, good quality e.g. Timothy, hay may be fed along with fresh herb salads. These may be supplemented with root vegetables such as carrots, sweet potato and cereals such as whole oats. In the USA, specific prairie dog pellets are produced but these are not available in the UK. Instead rabbit pelleted foods may be fed in limited quantities, but obesity is a problem in prairie dogs and so weights should be regularly checked. Avoid feeding high fat seeds and nuts and avoid alfalfa which is also high calorie. © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 18 Diseases Problems of Prairie Dogs Nutritional disease Obesity is a common problem in prairie dogs as described above. Avoiding high calorie feedstuffs such as seeds, nuts and alfalfa can help reduced the likelihood of this condition. Systemic diseases Potentially, prairie dogs may contract and carry a variety of bacterial pathogens which have the ability to be zoonotic including Franciscella tularensis (the agent of tularaemia) and Yersinia pestis (the agent of bubonic plague). In addition, a viral condition, monkey pox, was reported in captive prairie dogs in 2003 held with captive giant Gambian pouched rats (Cricetomys gambianus) which were probably the actual source. Monkey pox is also zoonotic and listed as an Annex A disease under the Balai 92/65 regulations and OIE literature. Digestive tract diseases Odontomas are common in prairie dogs and usually presents as a swelling around the base of the upper incisors resulting in nasal obstruction. Some evidence indicates that odontomas results after trauma to one of the incisors. Other evidence indicates that poor nutrition might be the cause. Respiratory diseases Respiratory obstruction is most likely due to an odontoma of the maxilla (see above). However prairie dogs are also prone to pneumonias due to bacteria such as Pasteurella multocida and may also be infected with respiratory tract/tracheal mites Pneumocoptes penrosei. The latter respond well to Ivermectin at 0.2mg/kg. © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 19 Striped Skunk (Mephitis mephitis) Striped skunks are in the Order Carnivora, family Mephitidae and therefore not technically in the family Mustelidae although closely related. Other skunk species include the hooded skunk (Mephitis macroura), four species of spotted skunks (Spilogale spp.), four species of hog-nosed skunks (Conepatus spp.), and two species of stink badgers (Mydaus spp.). Biology and Anatomy Striped skunks are approximately the size of small domestic cats (2-4kg). Their average lifespan is 8-10 years in captivity. The basic coat colour of skunks is black and white. As a result of breeding for the fur and pet trade, other colours such as brown, grey, cream, apricot, white and albino have been produced. The typical stripe pattern in striped skunks is the white ‘‘V’’ down the back and a white bar running between the eyes from the forehead to the middle of the nose. Skunks are born with stripes on the skin before they have hair. Skunks walk on the soles of their feet, but occasionally, the heels of the hind feet are lifted off the ground when they walk or run. They have five toes on each foot and the claws on the front feet are longer than those of the back feet. Striped skunks have a dental formula of I 3/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 1/2 (total of 34 teeth). They possess no caecum and the end of the small and beginning of the large intestine is difficult to discern. Females usually have 12 mammae, but they can range from 10 to 15. The skeleton is elongate and they lack clavicles although the cranial thoracic inlet is very narrow. The male has an os penis. Rectal temperature is 36-37C, heart rate 140-190bpm. Skunks are solitary except in more northern, colder climates, where females may group together in dens for warmth. Striped skunks are crepuscular/nocturnal and may go in to a torpor during cold weather. The anal secretions of striped skunks are renowned as being particularly unpleasant and are composed of several major volatile components, including €-2-butene-1thiol, 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, S-€-2-butenyl thioacetate, S-3-methylbutanyl thioacetate, 2-methylquinoline, 2-quinolinemethanethiol, and S-2-quinolinemethyl thioacetate. To eliminate any odour should a room or person be sprayed the following techniques may be used: 1. In the house boil apple cider vinegar. After boiling begins, the vinegar can be left to simmer for approximately 20 to 30 minutes with windows closed. Windows are then opened to ventilate the building. 2. Household bleach or vinegar can be added to a wash or rinse cycle to remove the smell from clothes. 3. For removing the smell from other pets - add one-fourth cup baking soda to 1 quart of 3% hydrogen peroxide and 1 teaspoon of liquid shampoo. Mix these ingredients immediately before and apply while foaming. The oxygen released by foaming neutralizes the thiols, and the detergent removes the oily part that © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 20 holds the odour in animal’s fur. After approximately 5 minutes, rinse with tap water. Avoid getting this solution in the pet’s eyes, because it may cause corneal ulcerations. This is an oxidation reaction, so it may cause fading of fur colour. (Reese, 1993). Reproductive Biology Parameter Gestation Weaning Litter size Birth weight Reproductive season Sexual maturity Duration 59-77 days (can be a short period of delayed implantation) 6-8 weeks 5-7 (average) 32-35grams February-March Monoestrus (usually) 1 year Nutrition Striped skunks are opportunistic omnivores and will consume readily live insect prey, small mammals, birds, amphibians, fruits, vegetables, seeds and nuts. They should not therefore be fed solely meat-based diets such as ferret or cat food. Skunks are prone to obesity and so careful control of their diet should be made. They will consume vegetables and may be fed small amounts of fruit. Disease Problems of Skunks In North America vaccination against distemper, canine adenovirus, feline panleucopaenia, rabies and Leptospira sp. is recommended using a killed or recombinant (canary pox vectored) vaccine (Johnson-Delaney, 2014). Systemic diseases Terrestrial rabies is a large concern in wild striped skunks. In captivity, striped skunks may be vaccinated against rabies using commercially available ferret rabies vaccines. Tularemia has also been reported in wild skunks, but again is not likely to occur in the UK as the UK is tularemia free. Toxoplasmosis has been reported as a cause of fever, lymphadenitus, splenomegaly, myocarditis, pneumonia, hepatitis and encephalitis in juvenile skunks. Serological tests used in domestic felids have been used to diagnose the condition with some success. In early cases, treatment with clindamycin at 15-25mg/kg BID, PO has been successful. Digestive tract diseases Canine adenovirus (infectious hepatitis) has been reported on serological testing in skunks resulting in liver damage in the wild. In captivity they are therefore potentially susceptible and consideration should be given to vaccinating in these cases to prevent infection. Skunks have their own adenovirus variant (skunk adenovirus 1) © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 21 which can cause an acute hepatitis with elevation in liver enzymes (ALT), diarrhoea and fever with jaundice. More commonly infections are subclinical. Eosinophilic and plasma/lymphocytic enteritis have both been reported in skunks and may result in malabsorption/maldigestion syndromes. Diagnosis is based on clinical signs with weight loss and confirmed on bowel biopsy. Treatment is as for ferrets and cats. Skunks are potential reservoirs of Bayliascaris spp. roundworms as are raccoons etc. which can be zoonotic. Regular deworming with a nemoticide is recommended. Respiratory diseases Mycoplasmosis, pasteurellosis and Streptocococcus pneumonia have all been reported resulting in pneumonia in skunks. Diagnosis and treatment is as for other domestic animals. Mycoplasma spp. have also been associated with septic arthritis in skunks. Canine distemper virus can cause similar disease to that seen in mustelids and procyonids. There is no treatment. In endemic areas, use of the canarypox vectored ferret vaccine is recommended. Influenza A viruses have also been well reported in striped skunks and they appear capable of passing them on to humans as well as being infected by humans (Britton et al., 2019). Pulmonary adiaspiromycosis has been reported in wild skunks due to the fungi Emmonsia spp. as can be found in any semi-fossorial species. In captivity such infection is unlikely unless the skunk is kept in a semi-naturalistic enclosure and is allowed to burrow. Clinical signs are those of a pneumonia. Diagnosis is based on radiography and demonstration of the organism on BALFs. Treatment is difficult but Itraconazole at 5mg/kg SID PO may be effective. Lung flukes due to Paragonimus spp. have been reported in wild skunks. It is unlikely though that captive skunks will contract the disease as it is not found in the UK and requires a mollusc intermediate host. Lung worms seen in wild canids in the UK such as Crenosoma spp. can theoretically infect skunks as similar species have been reported in the USA. They require an intermediate mollusc host so preventing contact with this host may prevent the condition. Alternatively regular deworming is advised. Cardiovascular diseases Dilated and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and congestive heart failure secondary to valvular disease have been reported in skunks. Most commonly reported are ischaemic myocardial necrosis and myxomatous valvular degeneration (Benato et al 2014). Diagnosis and management is similar to that already reported in domestic ferrets. It should be noted that skunks, like mustelids and felids, have a requirement for taurine in their diet and deficiencies in this may lead to heart disease. Dirofilaria immitis has also been reported in skunks as a cause of heart failure but not in the UK where it is currently not endemic. Diagnosis and treatment is similar to ferrets. © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 22 Urogenital tract diseases Leptospirosis has been reported in skunks resulting in an interstitial nephritis. For this reason it is often recommended to vaccinate skunks against it using a commercially available killed dog vaccine. Clinical signs usually are indicative of general malaise with fever and renal failure possible. Treatment and diagnosis is the same as for other domestic animals. Adrenal disease does not seem as prevalent in skunks that have been neutered as in ferrets and therefore ovariohysterectomy and castration are often used as permanent means of contraception. Alternatively GnRH implants have been used (Suprelorin 9.4mg® Virbac). Neutering reduces the overall odour of a skunk but does not stop the anal gland secretions. Descenting in skunks (removal, surgically of the anal glands) is viewed as an unnecessary mutilation as for ferrets and so should not be performed in the UK. Dermatological disease Fleas (typically dog and cat), ticks and scabies mites have all been reported as causing disease in skunks. Treatment with ferret-friendly spot-ons (e.g. Advocate® Bayer – imidocloprid plus moxidectin) may be effective. Neurological disease A new virus, related to Aleutian disease of mink called skunk amdoparvovirus has been reported in free-ranging skunks in California (Glueckert et al 2019). Aleutian disease has also been reported (LaDouceur et al 2015). Both seem to produce clinical neurological disease with seizures and mortalities. © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 23 Meerkats Biology and Anatomy Meerkats are herpestids from the Family Herpestidae and as such are related to mongooses. There are recognised subspecies of Meerkat – Suricata suricatta suricatta; S. s. iona and S. s. majoriae. They all live in family groups in the wild which is dominated by one breeding female and her mate. This main breeding pair may kill the off-spring of any subordinate pairing which breeds. They are diurnal and fossorial in nature – so any enclosure must have a solid floor and a sufficient depth of substrate to allow burrowing. Natural behaviour should they be spooked is to dive into a burrow so embedding plastic tubes in any substrate to facilitate this is useful. It is also a safety feature if the substrate if very soft and prone to collapsing as mortalities associated with tunnel collapses and rock movements have frequently occurred. They make poor pets as solitary animals with stereotypies being common (head rolling and weaving) and they can be aggressive. They are therefore best kept as a social family group. In captivity individuals may live 12-14 years. Their average weights are 0.6-1kg. Reproductive Biology Parameter Gestation Weaning Litter size Birth weight Reproductive season Sexual maturity Duration 73-78 days 6-8 weeks 1-4 pups 40-60g Non-seasonal, induced ovulators 18-24months Nutrition Meerkats are predominantly insectivorous, but they will take small rodent and avian prey in the wild. In captivity one sentry will stand guard whilst the group forage. Insect scatters with locusts, crickets and meal worms are a useful mechanism for environmental enrichment but care should be taken not to over feed due to cholesterol levels. A typical diet for 8 adult meerkats with SA36 dog nutritional supplement twice weekly on a per weight basis (assume each meerkat is 0.8kg and therefore supplement the group as 6.4kg) would be: Tim e 8 am Monday 50g crickets Tuesday 8 chicks (one each) Wednesday 400g adult maintenan ce dog biscuit 11 am 300g choppe d meat Grated carrot and apple (330g) Small mice – 16 (2 each) ThursFri-day day Chopped Grated rat (300g) carrot and apple (330g) 50g 50g locusts meal worms © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Saturday 50g meal worms Hard boiled eggs (1 each) Page 24 Sunday 50g hopper s (small crickets ) 50g crickets 2 pm 4 pm 50g hoppers (small crickets) 400g adult mainten ance dog biscuit Hard boiled eggs (1 each) 50g locusts 50g crickets 300g chopped meat Grated carrot and apple (330g) 50g crickets 8 chicks (one each) 50g crickets 50g hoppers (small crickets) Small mice – 16 (2 each) 8 chicks (one each) Choppe d rat (300g) Disease Problems of Meerkats Nutritional Their main problem in captivity is hypercholesteraemia resulting in cholesterol granulomas-particularly in the CNS. This can produce seizures and mortalities in older individuals. Management is rarely successful, so prevention by avoiding high cholesterol containing diets (avoid day old chicks and excessive wax/mealworms etc). Obesity is also therefore a potential problem. Taurine deficiency has been associated with cardiac disease (dilated cardiomyopathy) and may be an issue where the diet is largely based on insects. Dental disease may result from a lack of chitinous insect material to chew on-so dental checks should be performed any opportunity that arises. Digestive tract diseases Coccidiosis (Cystoisospora spp. and Eimeria spp.) has been reported in juveniles leading to a transient diarrhoea but is rarely fatal. Treatment with in-water toltrazuril for 48 hours as for poultry is recommended (1ml of 2.5% Baycox® in 1 litre drinking water as only source of water for 48 hours). Other endoparasites reported in wild meerkats include nematodes such as Toxocara suricattae, Oxynema suricattae, cestodes such as Pseudandrya suricattae as well as coccidia mentioned above (Leclaire and Faulkner, 2014). In the Kalahari, a novel mycobacterium (Mycobacterium suricattae) has been reported causing systemic disease but primarly affecting the submandibular lymph nodes, liver, spleen and lungs (Clark et al. 2017). It has not so far been reported in the UK. In the UK however M. microti has been reported in meerkats (Palgrave et al, 2012) and M. tuberculosis has been reported in Africa (Alexander et al 2002). Both infections resulted in multiple abscesses of abdominal body organs suggesting and oral transmission route. This compares with M. bovis infections of meerkats where the lungs of meerkats are affected predominantly suggesting a respiratory transmission route (Drewe 2010). Diagnosis of M. bovis infection in meerkats is challenging ante-mortem but a study advised combining multiantigen print immuneassay (MAPIA) and lateral flow immune-assay rapid test (RT) together so producing sensitivities of 0.83 and specificity of 0.73 (Drewe et al 2009). Hepatocellular carcinomas have been reported, resulting in lethargy and weight loss without obvious metastasis at post mortem (Marrow et al 2014). © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 25 Skin diseases Ectoparasite associated skin disease is uncommon (although lice, fleas etc have all been reported) but cases of scabies have been reported. Treatment with ivermectin/selamectin have been successful at standard cat/dog dosages. Melioidosis (infection with the bacterium Burkholderi pseudomallei) has been reported in meerkats causing systemic disease (septicaemia) involving most organs and with characteristic skin ulceration of the caudal carpal area (Rachlin et al. 2019). It is a tropical disease and has not been reported in the UK. Neurological and musculoskeletal As mentioned above cholesterol granulomas in the CNS are common in obese meerkats and may lead to seizuring. Toxoplasmosis has also been reported as a cause of sudden death and seizuring. It is usually contracted via wild mice caught and eaten by the group. It is difficult to mouse-proof any enclosure and in an endemic area vaccination may be consideredbut this should be an autuogenous killed vaccine and not a modified live vaccine (which the sheep toxoplasma vaccines are) due to recrudescence of the disease. Treatment may be attempted with oral clindamycin 11-20mg/kg BID but is rarely successful. Trauma is as mentioned common in this fossorial species and care should be taken to avoid placing large rocks on top of loose substrate as these may lead to inevitable tragic consequences. © Dr Simon J Girling FRCVS 10.08.20 Page 26 Mongooses Biology and Anatomy Mongooses are also members of the Herpestidae with over 12 species reported. Most commonly kept in captivity is the dwarf mongoose (Helogale parvula) which is a social species and so can be kept in a small inter-related group with a dominant alpha female and her mate. They originate from southern and eastern Africa and may live for 10-14 years. Only the dominant fem