Zoology Lectures - Module 1 PDF

Module 1 - zoology 3. PROTEINS - Highly diverse in forms and functions Evolution is the main mechanism of unity and diversity - present EVERYWHERE in the cell, both of life...

Module 1 - zoology 3. PROTEINS - Highly diverse in forms and functions Evolution is the main mechanism of unity and diversity - present EVERYWHERE in the cell, both of life internally and externally. Can be used as: 1. ORGANIZATION defense (antibodies) clotting factors (blood clots) a. CHEMICAL ORGANIZATION. Catalyze reactions (enzymes) All organisms are made up of chemicals, but to be hormones considered living, there must be 4 organic compounds of structure (keratin & collagen) like: (common denominators) Transport substances in & out of cell 1. Carbohydrates 2. Lipids Glycoprotein 3. Proteins - attached to protein 4. Nucleic acid All r made up of CARBON 4. NUCLEIC ACID - “indispensable element of life.” - Store genetic info & function in gene expression - Often bonds w/ oxygen (DNA,etc) - Can form long chains of atoms - Use in metabolic reactions (utilization of ATP) - Located under cell membrane —---------------------—------------------------------- 1. CARBOHYDRATES b. CELLULAR ORGANIZATION. - Primary source of energy (stored form, like starch, glycogen) CELLS - Structural mat. (cellulose in cell wall of plants, - Basic structural & functional unit of life chitin in fungi, peptidoglycan in bacteria) - Differ vastly in form & function, yet share ANIMALS DON'T HAVE CELL WALL fundamental chemistry & other common - present in glycocalyx, which are attached to differences. lipids (phospholipid) - Diff in size, shape, & chemical requirements types reflect differences 1. Monosaccharide - All living things started unicellular 2. Disaccharide - Mitosis allows multicellularity 3. Trisaccharide - must be bordered by cell membrane 4. polysaccharide (phospholipid) Organized in a form of: 2. PHOSPHOLIPIDS (lipids) Chain (ex. streptococcus) - NOT polymers/macromolecules Colony (ex. volvox) - Do not mix well w/ water Bacterial colony (biofilm) - aka FATS. 2nd source of energy, make cell Unicellular (dinoflagellate) membrane, & act as hormones Multicellular (sponge) - Construction material that defines SIZE and SHAPE of a cell. 2 types of cells - Struc. mat. (wax, cuticles in plants) - Within atticus tissues which are full of glyceride ( PROKARYOTIC EUKARYOTIC fats) No nuclear Has membrane-bound membrane organelles Glycoplipid - w/ carbohydrate. attached to lipid bacteria/monera Domain Eukarya - role is to maintain the stability of the cell (Eubacteria, (Protista, Fungi, Plantae, membrane and to facilitate cellular recognition Archaea) Animalia)  No. of germ layers Unicellular Both unicellular and & no nucleus multicellular Diploblastic - 2 (ecto & endo) Triploblastic - 3 (ecto, endo, meso) Has cell walls Cell walls r optional Hence, 3 Domains of life are: 1. Eubacteria 2. Archaea 3. Eukarya c. STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION. 1. Cell - form tissues if similar in morphology 5. Body cavities & Coelom (shape), functions, and embryonic origin - Internal space between gut & outer body wall 2. Organ - diff types of tissues - obvious in digestive tract / gut cavity EXCEPT 3. Organ System - diff organs connect to work as sponges one specialized function - Filled w/ fluid for cushion/locomotion 4. Organism - culmination of various organ acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, coelomate systems Animal Histology Ecological levels of hierarchy Epithelial tissues Connective tissues 1. Organism Muscular tissues 2. Population - group of same species Nervous tissues 3. Community - population of diff species 4. Ecosystem - interactions of abiotic (ph levels, weather, etc.) & biotic (species) 2. GATHER & USE OF ENERGY 5. Biosphere - group of all ecosystems. Animal classification: a. METABOLISM. 1. Grades - Sum of all chemical reactions within an Protoplasmic, Cell-tissue, Organ-system, Cellular, organism tissue-organ grades - Emergent property of life that arises from orderly interactions between molecules. 2. Cell type unicellular, multicellular CATABOLISM ANABOLISM 3. Body Symmetry Breakdown of Synthesis of Asymmetrical molecules to simplest macromolecules Radial - divided into 2+ planes units (disassemble to (assembly of building Radiata - become radial during adulthood building blocks) blocks) Biradial - only 2 planes produce mirrored halves Release energy by Require energy input (ex. Comb jellies) oxidizing organic Bilateral - more fitted 4 directional movement fuels Bilateria - monophyletic group of bilaterals Cephalization - differentiation of a head Example: Glycogen 4. Developmental pattern - Storage of glucose in the body (polysaccharide) Germ layers: - Require CATABOLISM to break down into Endoderm (gut) glucose (monosaccharide) Ectoderm (blastocoel) - To produce glycogen, assembly glucose - Mesoderm (outer & inner endoderm) ANABOLISM ENERGY - Strain small organisms/food from a surrounding - Capacity to do work, fundamental to all medium (ex. fish) metabolic processes. (cellular, structural, mechanical, chemical) Bulk feeding - Governed by Laws of Thermodynamics - Large pieces of food - Heat is consequence of energy transformation - Humans, many mammals - Sun is ultimate source of energy (100% of the energy utilized by autotrophs, 10% from plants utilized by primary consumers (herbivores) c. CONTRACTILITY. - Ability to move certain parts of the body using Process: muscle contraction or any cell parts, even 1. Light energy input 2. Converted to chemical energy (glucose[main], oxygen[sub]) Movements in lower forms of life 3. To mechanical energy Pseudopodia (amoeboid) Cilia - beats synchronously Flagella - beats in diff directions (chaotic) Trophic level in an ecological system Components: Movements in higher form of life (animals) - Source of energy Muscular (voluntary/free will & - Participation of autotrophs & heterotrophs involuntary/subsconscious) Locomotion b. NUTRITION. - Active travel from place to place - How living system is able to take in food to meet - Opposed by friction & gravity, energy must be requirements to maintain life used to overcome these. - Life can be classified according to mode of - Wings (flight), flippers (aquatic), limbs nutrition (terrestrial) involved: 3. INTERNAL CONSTANCY a. EXCITABILITY. - Ability to respond to stimulus and transform it to electrical signal (impulse) - Anything that can elicit a response Types of stimulus/stimuli Photic (electromagnetic receptors) Feeding mechanism in animals Olfactory (chemo) Fluid feeding Auditory (mechano) - Fluids from a living host Gustatory (chemo) - Parasites, mosquitos Temperature (thermo) Mechanical (touch, pressure, pain) Substrate feeding - Get nutrition directly from surroundings (live in process their source) 1. Stimulus - Earthworms, maggots 2. sensory receptors 3. sensory impulse Filter feeding 4. sensory neurons - Most of aquatic animals 5. sensory nerves 6. CNS  7. motor neurons 8. motor nerves Thermoregulation 9. effector organs - Biochemical reactions are extremely sensitive in 10. reaction temperature 11. stimulus again - Enzyme works best in optimum temperature to function properly Cold-blooded (invertebrates, amphibians, insects) - can reach up to 20-30 celsius in warm climates Warm-blooded (birds and mammals) - can adopt to 0 degrees celsius in frigid environments —------------------------- Due to this adaptability, animals are classified instead to Types of impulse poikilothermy & homeothermy 1. Sensory - From sensory receptors (neurons tasked to perceive and detect impulse) Poikilothermy - body temp varies with environment 2. Motor - Related to the effector organs (muscles & Ectothermic - Origin of body heat is from their glands) surroundings Types of reaction Homeothermy Positive reaction - Constant body temp regulated independent of moving towards source of stimulus the environmental temperature. (Ex. humans) Ex. diapedesis of WBS --chemotaxis) Endothermic - Source of body temp is internal Negative reaction Moving away from the stimulus Ex. withdrawal from holding a hot iron, a prey running away from its predator 4. PERPETUATE LIFE b. HOMEOSTASIS. a. Reproduction. - maintain constant, normal, internal environment - related to heredity, association, and evolution to achieve equilibrium, allowing us to survive - Ability of animals to produce offsprings who (steady state) have higher chance of passing down traits to - Maintained by coordinated activities of all next generation as provided by evolution and systems of the body adaptation - Main control Mechanism: negative feedback - Changes occur because: 2 types: 1. mats are replenished / expelled 1. Asexual 2. Internal environment changes as it responds to - no gamete involvement the external environment (oxygen level, co2, - Relies entirely on mitotic cell division nutrition, energy, etc.)  - Offspring are clones (same genes) unless Heredity mutation occurs - There must be faithful transmission of traits from parents to their respective offsprings. Ability of sexual reproduction Gametogenesis (spermatogenesis, egg cell) Copulation (sexual intercourse) Fertilization (internal[injecting sperm to female reproductive system] or external[discharge gametes to environment and let environment do its work]) Types of Hermaphroditism Simultaneous - both M and F reproductive parts on one body. Kinds: Sequential Binary fission - assigned sex at birth then transforms to the - single cell dividing, division of body into 2 or opposite sex later on at growth. (protogyny & more parts - Common in bacteria & protozoa Parthenogenesis - Ran entirely by females yet can still produce Budding even with no sperm (biologists still debating - bud will emerge from parents, either whether this is sexual or asexual) permanently attached or detached from parents. Failure to separate from parents results in colony formation. Variation. - like jellyfish, corals, hydras - Production of different cells - Traits are modified so that offspring will now Fragmentation possess different kinds of traits (genetic - Breaking if body to several pieces followed by recombination) regeneration - flatworms, starfish Pros Cons Modes of birth 1. Oviparity - Egg laying animals Abundant offspring and very low genetic variation, 2. Ovoviviparity - live birth hatched externally rapid reproduction more susceptible to (snakes, sharks, and fishes) diseases, extinction 3. Viviparity - live birth hatched internally or externally (majority of mammals) Courtship is not a Slows down evolution problem. Less energy requirement Vulnerable to changes in Birth / Parturition. & favorable for the environment Uniparous - one birth at a time colonization Multiparous - birth with more than 1 offspring / litter. Each comes from a separate egg (ex. Twins, triplets) b. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT. 2. Sexual Growth - increase in number, size, and volume of cells - fusion of gametes (egg & sperm) through cell division. - Includes bisexual/biparental as most common Development - immature to mature state - Formation of vv noble & unique offsprings Process  1. Zygote (unicellular) converted to a permanent bone and we stop growing. 2. Becomes multicellular because of mitosis/ cell While in males, they stop growing at the age of 21. division Plant growth ‘ Life cycle. indeterminate growth because of the high rate of mitosis, - Stages of life between birth to natural death can expand for life. In humans : 1. Infancy 5. ADAPT TO CHANGES 2. childhood 3. Puberty 4. Adolescence a. EVOLUTION. 5. Maturity - “Descent w/ modification” over a long period 6. Aging of time 7. Natural death - Change in genetic composition within a population NOT organism - Aspects: diversity & unity of life, we are all In animals ; related to each other, no matter how distant or Metamorphosis close we are. (luca - last universal common - Transformation ancestor, as humans we don't know who our - Sharp change in form during postembryonic luca is yet. ) development Ex. obelia (from the medaria) - dimorphic animals 3 broad observations: 1. Unity of life 1. Zygote 2. Diversity of life 2. Cell division 3. Ways in which organisms are suited for life in 3. Larva stage (planula) their environments 4. Settle on ocean floor (attach to a substrate) 5. Polyp stage (Planula become sedentary for a while) Drivers of evolution: 6. Budding (single polyp turns to a colony of polyps Genetic drift through asexual reproduction) Genetic mutation 7. Monozoid creates another body medusa Natural selection (dimorphic) (will develop to an obelia) capable of - Most common evolution now performing sexual reproduction - Major process in darwin’s theory of evolution 2 types of metamorphosis - Gives natural explanation for origins of 1. Hemimetabolous - same body architecture, adaptation incomplete 2. Holometabolous - juvenile form (like a caterpillar) is very different from mature form, b. ADAPTATION. complete - “Evolution by natural selection” - Attributes that enhance ability to use environmental resources to survive & reproduce - Allows us to thrive through periods of time in respective environment Animal growth ‘ - Evolution = adaptation (like cacti thriving even in determinate growth (stop growing after certain size) harsh environments, to conserve their water, Ex. we stop growing at age of 18, their leaves are in the form of spines for less In females, The cartilage inside the femur contributes to evaporation.) elongation of height, however at 18 the cartilage is now c. DIVERSIFICATION. Kingdoms of life - Proposed by Robert Whittaker - Based on mode of nutrition 1. Monera 2. Prostita 3. Fungi 4. Plantae 5. Animalia ----------------------------------------------- Domains of life - Pioneered by Carl Woese - Based on nucleotide sequences 1. Eubacteria 2. Archaea 3. Eukarya