Psychology Exam Notes PDF

Study Notes: Lecture 1 Key Concepts and Historical Perspectives 1. Dualism ○ Definition: The mind is immaterial and separate from the body but interacts with it. ○ Key Figure: René Descartes. 2. Monism (Materialism) ○ Definition: Mind and body are unifi...

Study Notes: Lecture 1 Key Concepts and Historical Perspectives 1. Dualism ○ Definition: The mind is immaterial and separate from the body but interacts with it. ○ Key Figure: René Descartes. 2. Monism (Materialism) ○ Definition: Mind and body are unified, forming a "bodymind" (shin jin). ○ Key Figure: Dogen Zenji. 3. Phrenology ○ Definition: Attempted to predict cognition and personality based on skull bumps. ○ Key Figure: Franz Joseph Gall (1758–1828). ○ Critique: While systematic, phrenology was misused to justify racism and sexism. ○ Legacy: Introduced the idea of localized brain functions, partially accurate. Development of Psychology Evolved from philosophy and physiology. Long-standing questions about human behavior and thought predate psychology’s formal establishment. Themes in Psychology 1. Empirical Basis: Knowledge gained through observation and the scientific method. 2. Theoretical Diversity: Multiple theories explain behavior and cognition. 3. Sociohistorical Context: Psychology reflects and is influenced by its societal and historical environment. 4. Behavioral Determinants: ○ Multiple causes. ○ Shaped by cultural heritage. ○ Influenced by heredity and environment. 5. Subjectivity: Individual experiences of the world differ. The Scientific Method 1. Steps: ○ Observation/Ask a question. ○ Formulate testable hypotheses within a theory. ○ Test hypotheses by collecting and analyzing data. ○ Modify theories based on results. ○ Repeat the process. 2. Key Components: ○ Theory: Framework for explaining observations. ○ Operational Definitions: Precise descriptions of variables. ○ Participants/Subjects: Observed organisms. ○ Data Collection Techniques: Tools for empirical measurements. ○ Statistics: Analyze results to support or refute hypotheses. 3. Replication: ○ Ensures findings are reliable and not due to chance. ○ Highlights the need for research transparency and accountability. Biases in Research 1. Sampling Bias: Over-reliance on WEIRD populations. 2. Participant Bias: ○ Social Desirability Bias: Tendency to give socially acceptable answers. ○ Safeguards: Anonymity and varied data collection methods. 3. Researcher Bias: ○ Experimenter Bias: Researcher expectations influence outcomes. ○ Safeguards: Double-blind procedures. Research Designs 1. Experimental Research ○ Definition: Manipulation of variables to identify causal relationships. ○ Key Features: Independent Variable (IV): Variable being manipulated. Dependent Variable (DV): Measured outcome. Experimental Group: Receives treatment/IV manipulation. Control Group: No treatment; serves as a baseline. ○ Random Assignment: Ensures groups are comparable, eliminating confounding variables. 2. Complexity in Experimental Designs: ○ Within-Participant Design:  Same participant exposed to both experimental and control groups. Advantage: Reduces extraneous variables. Disadvantage: Potential carryover effects. ○ Multiple IVs: Example: Manipulating both picture type (forest/city) and exposure time (20 min/2 min). Advantage: Study interactions between variables. Disadvantage: Risk of introducing confounds; design complexity. ○ Multiple DVs: Example: Measuring stress through self-report, physiological measures, and behavioral observation. Advantage: Comprehensive construct understanding. Disadvantage: Complications in combining and interpreting measures. ○ Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental Designs: Main Advantage: Allows causal conclusions. Main Disadvantages: Artificiality, practical issues, and ethical concerns. 3. Descriptive/Correlational Research: ○ Observes existing relationships between variables without manipulation. ○ Advantages: Flexible, useful for studying variables that cannot be manipulated. ○ Disadvantages: Cannot establish causation. 4. Types of Descriptive/Correlational Designs: ○ Naturalistic Observation: Observes behavior in natural settings. Advantage: High ecological validity. Disadvantages: Reactivity, difficulty quantifying data. ○ Case Studies: In-depth analysis of individuals/groups. Advantage: Ideal for rare phenomena. Disadvantage: Subjectivity, poor generalizability. ○ Surveys: Use questionnaires/interviews to gather data. Advantage: Cost-effective for large samples. Disadvantages: Self-report biases, participation reluctance. 5. Correlation and Prediction: ○ Definition: Quantifies relationships between variables. ○ Range: Correlation values from -1 to 1. Closer to ±1 = Stronger relationship. Closer to 0 = Weaker/no relationship. ○ Caution: Correlation does not imply causation. Example: Foot size and vocabulary correlate due to a third variable (age). Importance of Experimental Design Ensures cause-and-effect conclusions through control, randomization, and rigorous methodology. Emphasizes critical thinking about methodology and results interpretation. Neuroscience I: Neurons and Synaptic Transmission Neuroscience Building Blocks Neurons: Responsible for communication. They send electrical signals and release neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons, muscles, and glands. Glial Cells: Provide structural support, insulation, and modulate neuronal signaling. They also: ○ Offer nutritional support to neurons. ○ Remove debris from the nervous system. ○ Modulate signaling of neurons. Structure of a Typical Neuron Dendrites: Receive messages from other neurons. Cell Body: Contains genetic information, determines cell function, and synthesizes neurotransmitters. Axon: Conducts electrical impulses (unidirectional from the cell body). Myelinated axons have an insulating fatty sheath that speeds transmission. Axon Terminal: Releases neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons. Information Transmission Four main processes: 1. Resting Potential: ○ Baseline negative charge (-70 mV) maintained by ion channels. ○ Acts like a "battery" of potential energy. 2. Action Potential: ○ Triggered when a neuron crosses the threshold (~-55 mV). ○ "All-or-none" reaction where sodium ions rush in, reversing the charge briefly. ○ Signal travels rapidly along the axon to the terminal. 3. Synaptic Transmission: ○ Neurotransmitters released into the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic neuron. ○ Neurotransmitters bind to postsynaptic receptors, stimulating the adjacent neuron. 4. Graded Potentials: ○ Not "all-or-nothing." Neurotransmitters influence the electrical charge of the postsynaptic neuron: Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP): Sodium ions flow in, increasing positive charge.  Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP): Potassium ions flow out, increasing negative charge. Neurotransmitter Deactivation Mechanisms to "pump the brakes": 1. Autoreceptor Activation: Neurotransmitters bind to presynaptic receptors, inhibiting further release. 2. Breakdown: Enzymes like acetylcholinesterase degrade neurotransmitters. 3. Reuptake: Neurotransmitters are absorbed back into the presynaptic terminal. Key Neurotransmitters Glutamate: Excitatory, found throughout the CNS. GABA: Inhibitory, found throughout the CNS. Acetylcholine (ACh): Involved in memory and muscle activity (generally excitatory). Dopamine: ○ Functions as both excitatory and inhibitory. ○ Involved in voluntary movement, learning, motivation, pleasure, and arousal. ○ Linked to conditions like restless leg syndrome and unintended effects like increased gambling sensitivity due to dopamine agonists. The Nervous System 1. Neurons: ○ Sensory Neurons: Carry input from sensory organs to the CNS. ○ Motor Neurons: Transmit output from the CNS to muscles and organs. ○ Interneurons: Connect sensory and motor neurons, enabling higher mental functions and complex behavior. 2. Major Divisions: ○ Central Nervous System (CNS): Neurons in the brain and spinal cord. ○ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Neurons connecting the CNS to the body. Somatic Nervous System: Voluntary control of movements. Autonomic Nervous System: Sympathetic: "Fight or flight" response. Parasympathetic: "Rest and digest" response. Brain and Spinal Cord Brain: ○ 1.4 kg of tissue, consuming 20% of the body’s oxygen at rest. ○ Constant energy metabolism, day and night. Spinal Cord:  ○ Pathway for nerves entering/leaving the brain. ○ Coordinates reflexes without brain involvement. Tools to Study the Brain 1. Destruction and Stimulation: ○ Dr. Penfield’s electrical stimulation led to the mapping of motor and somatosensory cortex. 2. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): ○ Non-invasive; uses magnetic fields to stimulate or suppress neural activity. ○ Limitation: Cannot penetrate deeper brain structures. 3. Electroencephalography (EEG): ○ Non-invasive; measures electrical activity via scalp electrodes. ○ High temporal resolution but poor spatial resolution. 4. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): ○ Measures localized brain activity by detecting changes in blood oxygenation (BOLD signal). ○ Good spatial resolution but moderate temporal resolution. Applications of Brain Imaging Identifying brain regions responsible for specific tasks. Clinical applications like communicating with individuals in vegetative or locked-in states: ○ "Think about playing tennis" to signal "yes." ○ "Think about walking around your house" to signal "no." ○ Research suggests ~1 in 5 patients in vegetative states retain consciousness and can respond using these methods. Study Notes: The Hierarchical Brain and Related Systems Major Brain Areas 1. Hindbrain, Midbrain, Forebrain, and Cerebral Cortex ○ Limbic System Facilitates memory, emotional states, and communication between higher brain areas and the autonomic nervous system. Hippocampus Key in forming and retrieving memories. Damage can result in severe anterograde amnesia (e.g., Patient H.M.). Amygdala  Organizes emotional responses, particularly aggression and fear. Case study of Patient S.M. (no fear response to typical stimuli but heightened fear to CO₂ inhalation) suggests selective involvement in conditioned fear. Cerebral Cortex: "The Crown of the Brain" Thin, gray matter sheet with extensive folds for increased surface area. Divided into four lobes: Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, and Temporal. ○ Motor Cortex: Controls voluntary muscle movement (rear of frontal lobe). ○ Somatosensory Cortex: Processes sensory input (parietal lobe). Speech Areas ○ Wernicke’s Area: Language comprehension. ○ Broca’s Area: Language production. ○ Damage leads to aphasia (Wernicke’s or Broca’s). Association Cortex ○ Involved in complex functions like perception, reasoning, and language. Frontal Lobes Critical for higher-order functions like planning, judgment, and emotional regulation. Case Study: Phineas Gage ○ Post-accident personality changes highlighted the role of the frontal lobe in self-awareness and responsibility. Prefrontal Cortex ○ Executive functions: goal-setting, planning, and adaptive behavior. Lateralization and Split Brain Research Brain hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum. ○ Left: Verbal and logical abilities. ○ Right: Spatial relations and music processing. Split Brain Studies ○ Severing the corpus callosum disrupts inter-hemisphere communication but preserves visual processing via the optic nerve. Neural Plasticity  Brain’s ability to adapt structurally and functionally. ○ Injury Recovery: Sensory areas can adapt to loss (e.g., blindness). ○ Experience and Environment: Musicians exhibit somatosensory and auditory changes, showing improved representation of pitch and fine motor control. The Endocrine System Uses hormones as chemical messengers, distinct from neurotransmitters in timing and scope. ○ Hormonal Mechanisms Pulsatile release with a negative feedback system. Hypothalamus-pituitary interaction regulates hormone activity. ○ Oxytocin: Influences childbirth, empathy, trust, and social bonding by increasing sensitivity to social cues. Genetic and Evolutionary Influences Behavioural Genetics ○ Studies the role of genetic factors in traits using tools like family studies, twin studies, and CRISPR gene editing. ○ Concepts: Genotype: Genetic makeup. Phenotype: Observable traits. Traits are often polygenic. Epigenetics ○ Environmental factors (e.g., stress, nutrition) modulate gene expression, with effects potentially passed to future generations. Evolutionary Psychology ○ Examines behaviour through adaptive significance. ○ Behaviours like the fight-or-flight response are shaped by reproductive success, but caution is needed in interpreting modern actions. Key Takeaway Brain systems and genetics influence behaviour through intricate mechanisms. While predispositions exist, the environment plays a vital role in shaping outcomes: “We inherit dispositions, not destinies.” Study Notes: Module 3 - Sensation and Perception Sensation and Perception Sensation: Detecting a stimulus and possibly transforming it into a private experience. Perception: Assigning meaning to detected sensations. ○ Central to mental life; essential for knowledge and survival. ○ Influenced by context. Why Do We Sense? Survival: Senses act as gates to allow essential information in while keeping irrelevant signals out. Sensory Modalities: Specialized sensory neurons respond to specific energies: ○ Electromagnetic energy: Light (vision) ○ Mechanical sensation: Pressure, touch (somatosensation, vestibular sensation, kinesthesis) ○ Sound waves: Hearing ○ Chemical compounds: Smell (olfaction) and taste (gustation) Sensory Transduction Process: Receptors convert external stimuli into electrical signals sent to the brain. Coding: Perception arises through distinct receptor codes. Measuring Sensation and Perception Psychophysics Science of defining relationships between physical stimuli and psychological experiences. Key concepts: ○ Absolute Threshold: Minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time. Vision: Candle flame at 50 km (clear night). Hearing: Tick of a watch at 6 m (quiet conditions). Taste: 1 tsp of sugar in 7.5 L water. Smell: 1 drop of perfume diffused in a large apartment. Touch: Wing of a fly falling from 1 cm. ○ Difference Threshold (JND): Smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.  Weber’s Law: JND is a constant proportion of the stimulus level. Signal Detection Theory Quantifies observer’s ability to detect signals amidst noise (external and internal). Distinguishes sensitivity (ability to perceive signals) from criterion (willingness to report signals). Sensory Adaptation Diminished sensitivity to unchanging stimuli. ○ Frees senses to focus on changes in the environment. Aftereffects: Adaptation to a stimulus reduces neural response, giving insight into opponent processing when stimuli change. Vision and Light Light Perception Humans detect electromagnetic waves (400-700 nm). Light enters through the cornea, passes through the pupil (controlled by the iris), and is focused by the lens. Retina: Contains photoreceptors (rods and cones) that transduce light into electrical signals. Photoreceptors Rods: Sensitive to low light; found in the retina’s periphery. Cones: Enable color and detail; concentrated in the fovea (center of retina). ○ Fovea: High visual acuity but poor low-light sensitivity. Dual Visual System Adapted for high and low light conditions. ○ Dark Adaptation: Time needed for photopigments to regenerate for low-light sensitivity. ○ Red Light: Doesn’t disrupt rod sensitivity (useful in radar and darkrooms). Color Perception Trichromatic Theory (Young-Helmholtz): Three cone types (blue, green, red) perceive color via additive mixing. Opponent-Process Theory (Hering): Opponent pairs (red/green, blue/yellow, black/white) explain afterimages and complex color perception.  Dual Process: Combines both theories, with opponent processing occurring in ganglion cells and visual cortex. Beyond the Eye Pathway: Optic nerve → thalamus → primary visual cortex (occipital lobe). Feature Detectors: Neurons in the visual cortex respond to specific stimuli characteristics (e.g., edges, movement). ○ Build hierarchical representations for complex features. Inferotemporal Cortex (IT): Critical for object recognition ("what" pathway). ○ Lesions lead to agnosia (inability to recognize objects). Summary Sensation and perception rely on specific sensory modalities and shared transduction mechanisms. Psychophysics and adaptation provide insights into sensory thresholds and perception. Visual perception involves complex processes, integrating trichromatic and opponent theories, and extends to cortical object recognition pathways. Study Notes: Sensation and Perception Auditory Perception Energy Transduced: Sound wave (vibration-induced changes in pressure through a medium). Properties of Sound Waves: Frequency, amplitude, waveform shape (purity). Auditory Transduction: Outer Ear: ○ Pinnae (external ear structure). ○ Sound enters auditory canal, vibrating the tympanic membrane. Middle Ear: ○ Vibrations transferred to malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup), amplifying sound by over 30x. ○ Stapes moves the oval window. Inner Ear: ○ Cochlea: Fluid-filled, coiled structure ~3.5 cm long.  ○ Basilar Membrane: Movement varies by wave frequency (high frequencies near base, low frequencies near apex – place theory). Sound Localization: Interaural Time Differences: Slight timing differences between ears. Interaural Level Differences: Slight loudness differences between ears. Hearing Loss: Conduction Deafness: Issues with the mechanical system (e.g., punctured eardrum, ossicle damage). Hearing aids can assist. Nerve Deafness: Damaged receptors (e.g., hair cells). Hearing aids are ineffective; caused by loud sounds. Amplitude: Related to perceived loudness. Measured in decibels (dB), a logarithmic scale (10 dB increase = doubling of loudness). Taste and Smell: The Chemical Senses Olfaction (Smell): ○ Humans have ~40 million olfactory receptors; dogs have ~1 billion. ○ Direct connection between the olfactory bulb and limbic system (e.g., hippocampus, amygdala) makes smell a strong cue for emotion-laden autobiographical memories. Gustation (Taste): ○ Taste buds contain several receptor cells (~9,000 taste buds in humans). ○ Located on tongue edges, back of mouth, and throat. ○ Respond to sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami (potentially separate qualia). Flavor Perception: ○ Combines taste and retronasal olfaction. ○ Explains expertise (e.g., sommeliers). Individual Differences in Taste: Supertasters: Enhanced taste sensitivity due to more taste buds. Tactile Senses Types of tactile sensations: ○ Pressure, vibration, texture  ○ Pain: Nociceptors respond to extreme stimuli. ○ Temperature: Thermoreceptors detect changes. Pain Perception: ○ Gate Control Theory: Pain perception depends on “gates” in the nervous system. ○ Brain projections and other sensory inputs can influence these gates. ○ Endorphins: Natural painkillers inhibiting neurotransmitter release. Body Senses: Kinesthesis: Feedback about muscle and joint positions. Vestibular Sense: Equilibrium; relies on semicircular canals in the inner ear. Perception: Creation of Experience Types of Processing: ○ Bottom-up Processing: Data-driven. ○ Top-down Processing: Context and prior knowledge-driven. Role of Attention: ○ Selective processing (amplification and filtering). ○ Inattentional Blindness: Failure to notice unattended stimuli. Perceptual Organization: Gestalt Principles: ○ Figure-Ground Separation: Foreground vs. background distinction. ○ Similarity: Group similar items. ○ Proximity: Group elements close together. ○ Closure: Fill in gaps. ○ Continuity: Create continuous lines. Illusory Contours: Perceptual systems seek simplicity. Depth Perception: Monocular Depth Cues: ○ Texture: Finer details indicate distance. ○ Clarity: Distant objects appear hazier. ○ Relative Size: Closer objects appear larger. ○ Horizontal Plane Height: Distant objects are higher. ○ Linear Perspective: Converging parallel lines. ○ Interposition: Closer objects block farther ones. ○ Motion Parallax: Distant objects move slower relative to closer ones. Illusions:  Definition: Incorrect perceptions due to perceptual hypotheses (schemas, sets, constancies). Cognitive Penetrability: Knowing the illusion’s trick reduces its effect. Cultural and Developmental Influences: Cross-Cultural Research: Perception shaped by cultural experiences. Critical Periods: Specific experiences are required for normal perceptual development (e.g., kittens reared with only vertical or horizontal stimuli). Chapter 6: Learning Definition of Learning A process by which experience produces a relatively enduring change in an organism's behavior or capabilities. Key Concepts 1. Behaviorism ○ Focuses on observable behaviors in humans and animals. ○ Opposes introspective methods in psychological research. 2. Tabula Rasa ○ Suggests humans are born as a “blank slate,” with all knowledge derived from experience. 3. Types of Learning ○ Classical Conditioning ○ Operant Conditioning ○ Observational Learning Classical Conditioning Learning to associate two stimuli, where one stimulus comes to evoke a response initially triggered by another stimulus. Example: A song (stimulus) evokes happiness due to its association with a pleasant event. Pioneered by: Ivan Pavlov – Russian physiologist known for his work on salivation in dogs. Key Terms in Classical Conditioning  1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Evokes a natural, unlearned response. 2. Unconditioned Response (UCR): The natural reaction to the UCS. 3. Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially does not trigger a specific response. 4. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that evokes a learned response. 5. Conditioned Response (CR): The learned reaction to a CS. Processes in Classical Conditioning Acquisition: Learning the association between the CS and UCS. Extinction: Gradual weakening of the CR when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS. Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of an extinguished CR after non-exposure to the CS. Renewal Effect: Recovery of the CR when the organism is returned to the environment of acquisition. Stimulus Generalization: Responding to stimuli similar to the CS. Stimulus Discrimination: Distinguishing between the CS and other stimuli. Applications Phobias: Learned fears associated with certain stimuli (e.g., spiders). Exposure Therapy: Gradual exposure to a feared stimulus to extinguish the CR. Evaluative Conditioning: Changing preferences by pairing stimuli with positive or negative associations. Operant Conditioning Learning in which behavior is influenced by its consequences. Unlike classical conditioning, behavior is voluntary and emitted rather than elicited. Key Figures: Thorndike: Introduced the Law of Effect – behaviors leading to satisfying outcomes are strengthened. Skinner: Developed principles of reinforcement and the Skinner Box. Key Terms in Operant Conditioning 1. Reinforcers ○ Primary Reinforcers: Satisfy biological needs (e.g., food, water). ○ Secondary Reinforcers: Gain value through association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, praise). 2. Shaping  ○ Gradually reinforcing closer approximations of the desired behavior. 3. Extinction and Resistance ○ Behavior weakens when reinforcement stops. Resistance refers to continued behavior despite no reinforcement. 4. Discriminative Stimulus ○ Cues indicating the likelihood of reinforcement (e.g., a light signaling food availability). 5. Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination ○ Generalization: Responding to similar stimuli. ○ Discrimination: Learning to respond only to specific stimuli. Biological and Cognitive Influences on Learning 1. Preparedness: ○ Evolutionary predispositions to learn certain associations (e.g., phobias of dangerous stimuli). 2. Conditioned Taste Aversion: ○ Rapidly associating certain tastes with illness, aiding survival. 3. Cognition in Conditioning: ○ Classical conditioning relies on the predictive value of the CS. Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning Aspect Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Association Between two stimuli (CS and UCS) Between behavior and consequence Timing Stimuli presented before behavior Consequence follows behavior Behavior Type Involuntary, elicited Voluntary, emitted Operant Conditioning and Schedules of Reinforcement Schedules of Reinforcement Definition: Determines which instances of a specific response lead to a reinforcer. ○ Continuous Reinforcement: Every instance of the desired response is reinforced (e.g., every button press gives food). ○ Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement: Only some instances of the response are reinforced (e.g., food is given only for some button presses). Types of Intermittent Reinforcement 1. Ratio Schedules: Reinforcement is based on the number of responses, independent of time elapsed. ○ Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcer after a set number of responses (e.g., food after every 5 presses). Produces rapid responding with pauses after reinforcement. ○ Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcer after an unpredictable number of responses, averaging a certain number (e.g., food on average after 5 presses). Produces rapid and steady responding. 2. Interval Schedules: Reinforcement is based on time elapsed, independent of the number of responses. ○ Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcer after a set period (e.g., food for the first press after 10 minutes). Produces slower responding with pauses after reinforcement. ○ Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcer after unpredictable intervals, averaging a set time (e.g., food on average every 10 minutes). Produces slow and steady responding. General Observations Ratio Schedules: Lead to faster responses since reinforcement depends on activity. Variable Schedules: Produce steadier responses than fixed schedules because reinforcement timing is unpredictable. Extinction: Variable schedules, especially variable-ratio schedules, resist extinction longer due to unpredictability (e.g., gambling behavior). Operant Conditioning: Consequences Reinforcement: Strengthens behavior, making it more likely to recur. Punishment: Weakens behavior, making it less likely to recur. Positive Consequences: Add a stimulus. Negative Consequences: Remove a stimulus. Examples 1. Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to strengthen behavior (e.g., giving praise for good grades). 2. Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to strengthen behavior (e.g., taking medicine to relieve pain). Negative Reinforcement Variants Escape Learning: Response decreases or ends an aversive stimulus (e.g., leaving a noisy room).  Avoidance Learning: Response prevents an aversive stimulus (e.g., avoiding elevators to prevent fear). Punishment Types 1. Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to weaken behavior (e.g., giving a speeding ticket). 2. Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to weaken behavior (e.g., revoking a toy). Cognition and Operant Conditioning Learning often occurs without reinforcement, evidenced by: ○ Latent Learning: Learning that is not immediately apparent in behavior. ○ Cognitive Maps: Mental representations of spatial layouts, as observed in maze studies with rats. Key Study Rats in a maze learned the layout without reinforcement until a reward was introduced. This demonstrated the existence of latent learning and cognitive maps. Superstitions Misperceptions about behaviors and outcomes, often reinforced by coincidental associations. Observational Learning Definition: Learning through observing others, known as models. Basic Processes 1. Attention: Focus on the model’s behavior and its consequences. 2. Retention: Store the observed behavior as a mental representation. 3. Reproduction: Imitate the observed behavior. 4. Motivation: Perform the behavior when it leads to desirable outcomes. Acquisition vs. Performance Behaviors can be learned (acquisition) but not performed until motivation arises. Key Studies  Bobo Doll Experiment: Children exposed to models rewarded for aggression imitated aggressive behavior more than those exposed to punished models. Applications of Learning Theory 1. Applied Behavior Analysis: Uses behavioral principles to design interventions and measure changes, often used in therapy or education. 2. Behavior Modification Therapy: Targets unwanted behaviors (e.g., addiction, anxiety) and promotes desirable ones. 3. Token Economies: Reinforce desirable behaviors with tokens exchanged for rewards (e.g., gold stars for academic achievements). Key Terms Summary Schedules of Reinforcement: Fixed/Variable Ratio, Fixed/Variable Interval. Operant Conditioning Consequences: Reinforcement (positive, negative) vs. Punishment (positive, negative). Latent Learning: Hidden learning without immediate behavior change. Observational Learning: Learning by observing and imitating models. Applications: Behavioral therapies, token economies. Chapter 7: Memory Memory Stages 1. Encoding: Forming a memory code. 2. Storage: Maintaining information in memory. 3. Retrieval: Recovering information from memory storage. Encoding Attention: Focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events. ○ Cocktail Party Phenomenon: Demonstrates the ability to focus on a particular stimulus (e.g., your name) while filtering out others. ○ Divided Attention: Impairs encoding. Full Attention: Focus only on the primary task. Divided Attention: Split focus between multiple tasks. Enriched Encoding: Improves memory by forming better memory codes.  ○ Levels of Processing Theory: Deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memories. Elaboration: Linking a stimulus to other information (e.g., associating it with existing knowledge). Visual Imagery: Creating mental images to represent information. Dual-Coding Theory: Memory is enhanced by forming both semantic and visual codes. Examples: Concrete words (e.g., "bed") and pictures are easier to remember than abstract words (e.g., "dream"). Self-Referent Encoding: Linking a stimulus to personally relevant information (e.g., likes, dislikes). Storage Sensory Memory Definition: Preserves sensory information briefly before it decays. ○ Iconic Memory: Stores visual information (200-500 ms). ○ Echoic Memory: Stores auditory information (3-4 seconds). Key Study: Sperling (1960) demonstrated how quickly iconic memory fades using a letter recall task. Short-Term Memory (STM) Definition: Limited-capacity store that maintains unrehearsed information for up to 20 seconds. Rehearsal: Helps maintain information in STM. ○ Maintenance Rehearsal: Repetition without deeper processing. ○ Elaborative Rehearsal: Deeper processing for encoding into long-term memory (e.g., semantic associations). Duration: Peterson & Peterson (1959) showed information retention in STM lasts ~15 seconds without rehearsal. Capacity: ○ Originally thought to be 7 ± 2 items but is more accurately 4 ± 1 items. ○ Chunking: Grouping stimuli into familiar units to extend STM capacity. Working Memory: An active system for temporary storage and manipulation of information. ○ Components: Phonological Loop: Handles auditory information. Visuospatial Sketchpad: Manages visual information. Episodic Buffer: Integrates STM with long-term memory. Central Executive: Oversees subordinate systems and directs attention.  ○ Working Memory Capacity: Varies between individuals and correlates with cognitive abilities. Long-Term Memory (LTM) Definition: Unlimited-capacity store for long-term information. ○ Remote LTM: Events from years ago (e.g., a childhood birthday). ○ Recent LTM: Events from hours, days, or weeks ago. Types of Memories: ○ Episodic Memory: Personal experiences (e.g., your last vacation). ○ Semantic Memory: General knowledge (e.g., the capital of Canada). Organization: ○ Clustering: Grouping related items. ○ Conceptual Hierarchy: Classifying items based on common properties. ○ Semantic Networks: Concepts linked by pathways, where activation spreads to related concepts. ○ Schemas: Organized clusters of knowledge abstracted from experience. Memory Biases: People remember schema-consistent and bizarrely inconsistent details better. Flashbulb Memories: Vivid, detailed recollections of significant events. Despite high confidence, these memories are not always accurate. Retrieval Availability vs. Accessibility: ○ Availability: Information is no longer present in the memory system. ○ Accessibility: Information exists but cannot be retrieved at the moment. Measuring Memory: ○ Recall: Reproducing information without cues (e.g., listing words). ○ Cued Recall: Reproducing information with cues (e.g., categories). ○ Recognition: Identifying information from options (e.g., multiple-choice tests). Retrieval Cues: Stimuli that aid memory access (e.g., scents, music). ○ Context Cues: Reinstating the environment or situation of the memory (e.g., where you were). Memory Reconstruction Memory Distortion: Memories become altered over time. ○ Bartlett (1932): Participants’ retellings of the "War of the Ghosts" story became shorter and aligned with cultural schemas. ○ Misinformation Effect: Recall is influenced by misleading post-event information (e.g., Loftus and Palmer’s car crash study). Source Monitoring: Determining the origin of memories.  ○ Source Monitoring Error: Misattributing the source of a memory (e.g., thinking you read something that was actually told to you). Summary 1. Memory Stages: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval. 2. Storage Types: ○ Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory information. ○ Short-Term Memory: Limited capacity for short durations. ○ Long-Term Memory: Unlimited capacity for extended durations. 3. Memory Organization: Clustering, Conceptual Hierarchies, Semantic Networks, Schemas. 4. Retrieval: Recall, Cued Recall, Recognition, Context Cues. 5. Memory Distortions: Misinformation Effect, Source Monitoring Errors. Study Notes on Forgetting and Memory Forgetting Definition: Forgetting refers to the loss of information from memory. Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve: Hermann Ebbinghaus studied memory retention using nonsense syllables (e.g., BAF, XOF) and found that forgetting occurs quickly after learning but then levels off. ○ Retention: The proportion of material retained in memory. ○ Forgetting Curve: Graph showing retention and forgetting over time. Forgetting Relearning: Involves memorizing information again to determine how much time or trials are saved from previous learning. The retained information may not be easily accessed until relearning occurs. ○ Savings: Information retained but difficult to access without relearning. Why We Forget 1. Decay: Memory traces fade over time, leading to forgetting. 2. Interference: Competition from other information can cause forgetting. ○ Retroactive Interference: New information disrupts old information. ○ Proactive Interference: Old information disrupts new information. 3. Retrieval Failure: Momentary forgetting due to a breakdown in the retrieval process. ○ Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: When something is almost remembered but can't be fully accessed. 4. Motivated Forgetting: Emotional regulation can lead to the blocking of distressing memories. Freud called this repression—keeping unwanted memories buried in the unconscious. The Repressed Memory Controversy Support: Some individuals who experienced trauma or abuse report amnesia or delayed recollection of events. Skepticism: Memories can be distorted (e.g., misinformation effect, source-monitoring errors) and false memories can be induced. The Physiology of Memory Memory Trace: The physiological foundation for memory, involving patterns of neural activity. Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Strengthening of synapses due to repeated stimulation, making memory retrieval easier. Hebbian Learning: “Cells that fire together, wire together.” Repeated neural firing strengthens connections. Hippocampus: Essential for forming new memories but older memories are stored in the cortex. Neurogenesis: The formation of new neurons, which supports learning and memory. Consolidation: The process by which memories become stable and long-lasting over time. Reconsolidation: Reactivated memories may undergo updates, potentially causing distortions. Amnesia and Memory Loss Organic Amnesia: Memory loss due to head injuries or neurological damage. ○ Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of memories before an event (e.g., accident). ○ Anterograde Amnesia: Loss of ability to form new memories after an event. Patient H.M.: Suffered from anterograde amnesia after surgery to treat seizures, highlighting the role of the hippocampus in memory formation. Memory and Aging Aging Effects: Aging causes hippocampal shrinkage, which affects memory. Dementia: Progressive decline in memory, thinking, and decision-making. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common form, with early changes in the hippocampus. Types of Memory 1. Explicit Memory (Declarative): Conscious, effortful recall of facts and events. ○ Episodic Memory: Personal experiences tied to specific times and places. ○ Semantic Memory: General knowledge not tied to specific experiences. 2. Implicit Memory (Non-declarative): Unconscious memory, like skills or conditioned responses. ○ Procedural Memory: Memory for skills and habits, such as riding a bike. Memory Systems Explicit Memory: Conscious, effortful recollection of facts/events. Relies on the hippocampus. Implicit Memory: Unconscious, automatic, and related to skills/perceptions. Relies on the cerebellum. Memory Tasks Word Fragment Task: Implicit memory test where participants complete word fragments more easily if they’ve recently encountered the word. Memory Systems Summary Declarative Memory: Includes episodic (personal events) and semantic (facts). Non-declarative Memory: Includes skills and conditioned responses (procedural memory). Prospective vs Retrospective Memory Retrospective Memory: Remembering past events (e.g., last time you baked cookies). Prospective Memory: Remembering future tasks (e.g., taking cookies out of the oven). Study Tips Based on Memory Research 1. Test Yourself: Testing effect improves memory retention more than passive studying. 2. Space Out Study Sessions: Spacing effect enhances long-term retention. 3. Use Enriched Encoding Strategies: ○ Elaborative Rehearsal: Relate new information to what you already know. ○ Visual Imagery: Use sketches or images to enhance memory. ○ Organization: Group related items (clustering) or create hierarchies to aid recall. Chapter 8: Language & Thought Language Definition: A system of symbols with rules for combining them to form an infinite variety of messages. Structure of Language Phonemes: Smallest perceptual units in speech (e.g., "t", "ch", "th"). Morphemes: Smallest units of meaning (e.g., "friend", "unfriendly" - "un", "friend", "ly"). Semantics: Meaning of words and word combinations. Syntax: Rules governing how words are arranged into sentences. Language Development Critical Period: A window during which language skills are most easily acquired (e.g., babbling, refining to native language sounds by age 1). Vocabulary Spurt: Rapid word acquisition period between 18-24 months. Fast Mapping: Children associate a word with its concept after just one exposure (up to 20 words per week by age 2). Overextension: Using a word too broadly (e.g., calling all animals "dog"). Underextension: Using a word too narrowly (e.g., using "dog" only for their pet). Sentence Development Telegraphic Speech: Simple speech using content words, omitting less critical words (e.g., "give doll"). Overregularization: Applying grammar rules incorrectly to irregular cases (e.g., "goed" instead of "went"). Refining Language Skills Metalinguistic Awareness: Ability to reflect on language (e.g., recognizing ambiguity or metaphors). Typically develops between ages 6-8. Bilingualism Development: Bilingualism doesn’t hinder language development; vocabulary in each language may be smaller, but combined vocabulary is similar to monolinguals. Cognitive Effects: ○ Disadvantages: Slower processing speed and verbal fluency. ○ Advantages: Enhanced analytical reasoning, selective attention, and metalinguistic awareness. ○ Executive Control: Bilinguals demonstrate better cognitive control (e.g., selective attention, problem-solving). ○ Dementia: Bilingualism may delay the onset of dementia due to its impact on executive functions. Language in Non-Human Animals Primate Language: ○ American Sign Language (ASL): Chimpanzees like Washoe learned ASL and formed simple sentences. ○ Kanzi: A bonobo chimpanzee who learned to use symbols on a keyboard and follow complex instructions. Human vs. Primate Language: Humans acquire language faster and with more complexity. Theories of Language Acquisition  Behaviorist Theories: Language is acquired through imitation and reinforcement (Skinner). Nativist Theories: Humans have an innate language acquisition device (LAD) for rapid language development (Chomsky). Interactionist Theories: Both biological predisposition and social interaction contribute to language development. Linguistic Relativity The hypothesis that language shapes thought (e.g., the Inuit have multiple words for snow, reflecting different concepts of snow). Language, Culture, & Thought Culture’s Influence on Thought: A culture’s language influences how its people categorize and interpret the world (e.g., color perception). Problem Solving Types of Problems 1. Inducing Structure: Discover relationships among numbers, words, symbols (e.g., series completion, analogy problems). 2. Arrangement Problems: Arrange parts of a problem to satisfy criteria (e.g., anagrams, string problem). 3. Transformation Problems: Carry out a sequence of transformations to reach a goal (e.g., water jar problem, hobbits and orcs problem). Barriers to Problem Solving Irrelevant Information: Focusing on unrelated information can impair reasoning. Functional Fixedness: Tendency to perceive an object only by its common use (e.g., using a screwdriver only for turning screws). Mental Set: The tendency to use previously successful strategies even when they no longer apply. Unnecessary Constraints: Assuming unnecessary limits to a problem (e.g., the 9-dot problem). Approaches to Problem Solving Trial-and-error: Trying different solutions until one works (e.g., rearranging matchsticks). Heuristics: Rules of thumb for solving problems quickly (e.g., forming subgoals, using analogies, changing problem representation, taking breaks).  ○ Subgoals: Breaking down a problem into smaller, manageable steps (e.g., Tower of Hanoi). ○ Analogies: Solving a problem by using a similar problem’s solution (e.g., bio-inspired designs). ○ Problem Representation: Changing how a problem is presented (e.g., using diagrams or equations). ○ Incubation: Taking breaks to allow solutions to emerge after conscious thinking stops (e.g., shower or walk). Culture & Problem Solving Holistic vs. Analytic Cognitive Styles: ○ Holistic: Focus on context and relationships, common in Eastern cultures. ○ Analytic: Focus on objects and their properties, common in Western cultures. Masuda and Nisbett (2001): Found cultural differences in how American and Japanese participants focused on background vs. foreground elements in a fish study. Decision Making Definition: The process of evaluating alternatives and making choices among them. Choice Overload: Occurs when individuals feel overwhelmed by having too many options to choose from. Factors influencing choice overload include: ○ Decision Factors: Time constraints, complexity, and the presence of an obvious choice. ○ Personal Factors: Knowledge, mood, and mindset of the decision-maker. Risky Decision Making Definition: Making decisions under conditions of uncertainty (e.g., gambling, extreme sports, smoking). Expected Value: Refers to the potential gains from a decision. For example: ○ In a game where you win $5 if a certain number appears, but pay $1 to play, the expected value is negative (losing 17 cents per turn). Subjectivity in Risky Decision-Making Subjective Probability: Personal estimates of probabilities that may be inaccurate. Subjective Utility: The personal value placed on an outcome (e.g., the security provided by insurance). Heuristics in Judging Probabilities Availability Heuristic: Estimating the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind (e.g., estimating the divorce rate based on friends' experiences).  Representativeness Heuristic: Estimating the probability of an event based on how similar it is to a typical prototype (e.g., judging which pattern of heads and tails is more likely). Ignoring Base Rates: Ignoring statistical data in favor of specific details (e.g., assuming someone is a librarian because they fit the stereotype, even though there are more salespeople). Conjunction Fallacy: Overestimating the likelihood of two events happening together (e.g., thinking it's more likely for a person to be both a professor and a politician, rather than just one). Sunk Cost Fallacy: Continuing a behavior because of past investments, even when it’s irrational (e.g., staying in a bad relationship because of years spent together). Behavioural Economics Definition: A field of study that looks at how actual human decision-making (not idealized) affects economic choices. Simon's Theory of Bounded Rationality (1957): People use simple strategies (heuristics) to make decisions, which often leads to irrational outcomes that are not optimal. Behavioural Economics: Framing Framing Effect: The way a decision is presented can influence how it is perceived and chosen (e.g., offering a "discount for cash purchases" instead of highlighting the extra cost of credit card payments). Evolutionary Analyses of Heuristics Cosmides and Tooby (1996): Decision-making evolved to address real-world challenges (e.g., finding food, shelter, mates, and dealing with enemies). Laboratory conditions often impose unrealistic standards of rationality. Gigerenzer (2000): Humans are capable of making statistically optimal decisions but often rely on "fast and frugal heuristics" because we lack time or resources for more elaborate decision-making. These heuristics can often be just as accurate as more complex strategies. Thinking Fast and Slow Dual-Process Decision-Making Theory (Kahneman, 2011): People use two different cognitive systems for decision-making: ○ System 1: Fast, automatic, and effortless thinking. ○ System 2: Slow, deliberate, and controlled thinking. These systems often work together but can sometimes conflict with one another.