Cognitive Psychology.pdf

Cognitive Pyschology Monday 8:10pm 11:00pm - Introduction to Cognitive Psychology Chapter 1 Outline History of Cognitive Psychology Research Methods What is Cognition? Cognitive Psychology studies the mind Mind: a system that creates mental repres...

Cognitive Pyschology Monday 8:10pm 11:00pm - Introduction to Cognitive Psychology Chapter 1 Outline History of Cognitive Psychology Research Methods What is Cognition? Cognitive Psychology studies the mind Mind: a system that creates mental representations of the world and controls mental functions such as sensations memory emotions language perception attention> , , , > decisions, thinking reasoning and “A system that creates mental representations of the world and controls mental functions such as perception, attention, memory, emotions, language, deciding, thinking, and reasoning.” “The mind is a system that creates representations of the world so that we can act within it to achieve our goals.”  History of Cognitive Psychology Philosophy Donder (1868) - HOW long it take does to make a decision ? Reaction Time Experiments to measure reaction time How long it takes to respond to Purpose : worked - time / SRT) : measures : choice reaction time Cert and simple reaction procedure used two by using 2 lights and participants push a button immediately when they saw a light come on : he measured CDs having 1 Method ! He measured SRT by asking participants to Dress the left button when the light came on CRT added a decision factor and press the right button when the right light came on - decision component was added results : reaction time was longer when the behaviours cannot be observed but can be confirmed by corresponding conclusion : mental processes s History of Cognitive Psychology Wundt (1879) basic elements experience sensations Structuralism 9. combining of - Our overall experience is determined by Analytic Introspection trained participants are asked to describe their experiences and thought Processes in response -10 a stimulus. - requires extensive training asked /participants he once to their experiences hearing describe a 5- note on + ne piano Problems? : memory of the event , 1800's individual insight and truthfulness *his methods abandoned in the  History of Cognitive Psychology. to determine Purpose? Ebbinghaus (1885) nature of procedure ; used himself forgetting and memory I Forgetting curve Yetnod : he first determined as participant memorized list OF nonsense syllables - how long it took to memorize the syllables , then wait a specific amount his Of time , and tested memory of the syllables, He continued to do this at varyingtime increments the that were Results: the more time that passed > more errors the list made recalling conclusions? Forgetting occurs gradually method used to determine how much was savings : a Forgotten relearn time after the time to learn list savings - = delay. dropped rapidly savings curve : showed that memory after 2 days History of Cognitive Psychology William James (1890) * % First made Harvard observations Pusch ology of the Professor operation of his own mind attention to one thing involves withdrawing from other things theory : paying History of Cognitive Psychology William Donder, Wundt, Ebbinghaus, & James Mechanism Explanation Process Information is stored in systematic mechanistic ways History of Cognitive Psychology Behaviourism (Watson) with atoned Introspection ¥5s Internal states and processes Mechanistic view Stimulus -- Response 1913 event focused on the external and observabletrams was dissatisfied with analytic introspection - came forward classical and operant conditioning - Evolution of behaviour is m gave us methodology and operational definitions History of Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Revolution!!! A paradigm shift back to focusing on cognitions tfp.%D1igned.cl scathing review of Skinners book reinforcement Chomsky & linguistics through imitation or - than formed biological program , rather - inborn he saw language development as being determined by an @ Tolman & cognitive maps His Did an contributions experiment were where cognitive a rat had to maps find food in a maze that it knew wey - always found the food regardless of it being in an unknown location and the lack Of smell Internal Processes Matter Again! Behaviourism gave us important things: Methodology Operational Definitions g. Information Processing cognition operations involved in approach : traces sequences of mental Conlin Cherry : purpose ; to build off games theory if multitasking one in the left ear procedure : presented participants with one auditory message in the right ear and in the other ear message and ignore the one Method : asked them to focus to one results : showed that the attended message was remembered better Operant conditioning conclusion : the brain filtered " unattended message Skinner 1983 out " - the now behaviour was controlled by stimuli - focused solely on determining History of Cognitive Psychology Information – Processing Model / analogy Easy to communicate 1956 Conferences Foo 1. Summer research project on Artifical Intelligence - Dartmouth university : the first to mention A.) technologies - defined as intelligent making in Simon & Newell : a humans machine behave in ways that would created a be deemed computer program that could create proofs logic theorist) which was demonstrated in logic called at this conference 2. MIT conference symposium on into theory - simon e. Newell demonstrated Their program again. I 0 @ items GeorgeMi9 : Proposed his theory that the human mind has a processing capacity of 7 Current Status Computer as Metaphor Cognitive Neuroscience Methodology Processing The Science of Cognitive Psychology The Research Process Methodological Designs  The Scientific Method Begin with and idea (theory) about cause of some phenomenon Perform controlled observation (usually an experiment) testing prediction Compare observed behaviour to predicted behaviour Draw conclusion about validity of theory Perform compare draw conclusions with - theory Observations - a - Begins results The Research Process § Have a good idea Translate into a clear researchable hypothesis Review past literature Operationalize the construct www..gg Make design Collect data Analyze data Make Conclusions Research Methods Basic Research Designs: Correlational method Experimentation Correlational Method or more variables relationship between two Exploring a Correlational Method Exploring relationship between 2 or more variables Correlational Method Exploring relationship between 2 or more variables Positive, Negative, None Correlational Method go positive correlation : both variables increase and decrease together Correlational Method " "" " " """" """" " " " "" "" "" Correlational Method correlation : NO relationship exists between the variables NO Correlational Method Exploring relationship between 2 or more variables Positive, Negative, or None Strength of relationship Pearson’s r: -1 to 1 Correlational Method Exploring relationship between 2 or more variables Positive, Negative, or None Strength of relationship Causation Correlational Method Exploring relationship between 2 or more variables Positive, Negative, or None Strength of relationship Causation Problems?  Experimentation control and test groups Explores a cause - effect relationship using randomized , Experimentation Hold all other factors constant Experimentation Hold all other factors constant Random assignment into experimental group or control group Experimentation Hold all other factors constant Random assignment into experimental group or control group Independent variable Experimentation Hold all other factors constant Random assignment into experimental group or control group Independent variable Dependent variable Operational definition Experimentation Hold all other factors constant Random assignment into experimental group or control group Independent variable Dependent variable Operational definition → Ecological validity ← the real world - validity of the experiment world. real The Scientific Method Begins with theory → Perform → Observations compare → results Draw conclusions Purpose Hypothesis / predictions Methodology IV/DV Results Conclusions What does this mean? Summary Cognitive psychology had its ups and downs in history Scientific Methodology of experiments is critical  [ Cognitive Neuroscience Chapter 2 , pm , ,◦gµa , me µ , * ya, cognition basis of  Levels of Analysis a number of different WAYS F. Idea studied in that a topic should be each approach contributes to its own dimension of our understanding the brain >to the chemicals that create the whole brain to structures within can study cognition ranging from , electrical signals within these structures  transmit info Central Nervous system CNSS Connected through Neural networks or learned through experience specialized to receive and in Our our body - Neurons ; cells in with dyes to stain Early research : studied Neurons and view them better allowed - them to the tissues Net : a complex pathway view what they called nerve brain for conducting uninterrupted signals through the that allowed staining technique Golgi : developed a detail Fewer cells be stained showed more - was not to the network allowed golgi to see that new technique Contino Us Net : a complex pathway for conducting un Pnter reputed Nerve signals through the brain Neurons Doctrine ? cells transmit signals in nervous system and these cells are not continue with other cells  processes long that transmit Other neurons signals -10 n / to ◦ " mm - me ÷?; metabolic center recieve signals / messages other the From neuron - contains ☐ of a keep it mechanisms to alive E- Adrian Microelectrodes Edgar - micro electrodes : small shafts OF hollow glass filled with conductive salt solution that can pick up trial signals from a single neuron : recording recording electrode tip inside the neuron reference electrodes located a distance away so it is not affected by the electrical signals  action potential environment Neuron relieves signal from another dendrites of neuron Info travels down-%xon Of that neuron to the Measuring action potential Microelectrodes pick up electrical signals placed near axon active for v1 second size is not measured size , remains constant rate of firing is measured low intensities slow ; ◦ High intensities : fast firing firing  a space between - axon of one neuron and when action potential reaches the end of the dendrite of another chemical neurotransmitters axon , synaptic vesicles open and release µ and bind with cross the synapse relieving dendrites → Chemicals that affect the electrical signal of the recieve Png Neuron  action potential : a burst Of electricity that travels through the axon insulate the travel of the electrical charge layer of fat that surronds then axon to Myelin sheath : a axon Terminal button : the other end of the neuron ,past the , that produces a neurotransmitter and pumps it out into the synapse enters the Soma OF the new neuron * IF neurotransmitter process neural communication will continue the - it  chance neuron will fore Excitatory : increases - chance neuron will fire inhibitory ; decreases is reached action potential results only if the thresholds level  info and Integrates sensory. Processes spatial information sensory info s senses : neurons that are activated to process includes sensory cortex is located in space where our body cortex : tells us Include the somatosensory process higher order cognitions - thinking reasoning , deciding, , planning processes visual info the more complex the info enters through eyes > and passes through the 0PticcnM frontal cognitions > the more the optic nerves from one eye cross paths with the optic nerves From the they are processed to vPsua-e× to be processed other eye goes pre frontal cortex : - very - high & what it is → Processed in occipitotemporal order cognitive process / not fully where it is → processed in occipito parietal developed till 25J Includes motor cortex : process all motor info and decides what to do process audio information auditorycortex : responsible for hearings located in the upper temporal lobe  WHERE (Occipitoparietal) WHAT (Occipitotemporal)  Both work closely together process all motor in decides what : to %) : tells us where our body is located in space.  mapped onto the sensory Sensory Homunculus are Visual rep of how different parts of body brain shows which cortex of brain , specifically somatosensory cortex of the , which areas of brain are responsible , for processing sensory info from specific parts like temp touch pain body. , , Hands lips and face have , more sensory receptors and occupy more space in the sensory cortex amount of brain area dedicated to reflects the sensitivity level and Distortion each part Sensation environment or the body neurons fire faster based on intensity acquiring information from me _ : ,  Representation by Single Neurons Hubel & Wiesel (1960s) Principle of neural representation : states that everything a person experiences is based on representations in the persons nervous system t-aturedexc.to# neurons that fire only for specific visuals located in visual cortex the * feature neurons can also remember faces this is in the temporal lobe ,. Hierarchical processing : more complex stimuli become increasingly processed by the brain e.g processed through multiple lobes and areas)  Representation by Single Neurons Hubel & Wiesel (1960s) Purpose : to investigate the patterns of neuronal firing Procedure : presented stimuli to cats and recorded their neuronal responses Method : repeated presentation of vertical lines and horizontal lines Results ; Different neurons fired for different orientation of the lines conclusion : neurons in the visual cortex of cats respond to different stimuli Representation by Single Neurons Representation by Single Neurons Representation by Single Neurons Are All Things Represented by Single Neurons? Input A  A Sensation / - \  A / - \ E F A N  A / - \ E F A N  A / - \ E F A N Alberta Vowel Amy Letter First Apple  Representation by Single Neurons Pattern : how information is represented stimuli are represented by the firing of 1 Specificity coding a One neuron F- for that particular stimulus 2 Population coding ; stimuli firing a are large represented by number a of neurons pattern of 3 Sparse coding F. stimuli are represented based on patterns in a small group of neurons logical - of activity Organization Localization of function ; neurons that process the same kind of ( localized ) info are clustered together ◦ certain info Brain damage processed in certain , areas ◦ Determine the functions of certain areas the deficits In function of by looking at individuals with brain - by looking at what someone loses one deficitswe learn damage. that what each brain area controls  ] ::: :::::: responsible for an area IN and temporal frontal lobe responsiblefor [ language production  - ( doesnt make ) Wernicke’s Aphasia I can produce Fluent and correct speech but its incoherent sense , made up words. ungrammatical speech) Broca’s Aphasia % impacts one 's ability produce language , slow to complete sentences cant Form pros opagnoia : damage to the. lower right temporal lobe , causing an inability to recognize faces definite conclusions by exploring if function independ-11T of each other explore if Dissociation : used mental processes can - to reach more two Double function A is absent but function B is present ÷ can recognize faces , but not objects : Wernicke s perfect example : both control language but function independ and Broca 's are Hy - Aphasia 9- language disorder , loss of a persons ability to speak or understand language due to disease or injury to the brain Brain Imaging - another way to study the brain - makes it possible to determine which areas of the brain are activated by different cognitions Structure Computerized axial tomography scan (CAT scan or CT scan) Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Function Positron emission tomography (PET) fMRI study structure : CAT or CT scan Or MRI function study : PET scan or fMRI  - Psychophysiological Measures. measures electrical activity in brain through Electroencephalogram (EEG) the electrodes on the scalp Event-related potential (ERP) ⑧ electrical measures activity in the brain but During an event -.  Pusch 0 Physiological Measures: area that is damaged in prospagnosia area in the temporal lobe that fires neurons when seeing Faces _ ☆ Fusiform face area FFA ? Discovered using brain imaging an - * Parahippocampal Place Area :P PA : area responsible for percieveihg indoor and outdoor scenes in pictures * Extra strista Body area :B A ; Activated pictures of bodies and by body parts - but not faces. 0 0 Distributed Processing % Multi. - dimensional experiences Different brain areas respond to different features - Processing that is not localized complex , cognitions Distributed representation: one stimulus can activate many brain areas " Example , looking at a face > respond to emotional aspects , to where to how Parts OF face move person is looking , cognitive processes are both localized and distributed everything done in logical fashion - Distributed Processing '  Neural Networks - Interconnected areas of the brain - Extension From Distributed Processing : If many areas are involved in particular cognition - may be connected 4 main principals of neural networks I. They complex, structural pathways called networks the brains " are information highway " - 2. within the structural pathways are Functional pathways that serve different functions - 3. these networks mirrors the dynamic nature of cognition operate dynamically - 4. there is a resting state of brain activity - structural connectivity : where they are physically originated from neural net and got gis staining techniques - new techniques allow for clearer and more detailed inn ages connectome : structural description of the network of elements and connections forming the brain. now they interact / communicate Functional connectivity :. - neural activity in two brain areas are correlated Determined by the extent to which one method of deter Ming this is resting-state-r-MR.lk measure a task location and a test location then, calculate their correlation - high correlation = high function connectivity * two areas being functionally connected does not mean that they directly communicate via. neural pathways. Default mode Network / ☐ MN) Gordan Shulman - network of structures that respond when an Individual is in a task ☐ MN : not engaged in increased brain activity resulted in decreased brain activity and stopping the task resulted the presentation of a task > - Discovered during an fMRI when " - wander " - When DMN is active mind tends to involved in processes ranging from attention, memory, creativity  Neuroscience and Cognition Geography of the brain Understanding cognitions Memory in person's life Episodic Memory : Memories a ◦ for events the world knowledge about. semantic for facts and Memory : Memories Perception Chapter 3 Recap Information is organized in the brain Some neurons are localized Some processing is distributed Knowledge is a pattern of activation Today Sensation-Perception Transition Pattern Recognition Object Recognition Perception & Action Sensation vs. Perception Sensation: The raw information that we relieve from the world Perception: attributing meaning y to what is " being sensed interpretation. - OF sensation Sensory Register Saccade: Very small fast eye movements , - always happening Sensory Register: temporarily sensory info / holds stores sensory information while still taking in current. to give us time to percieve it allows , the world to appear continuous ; processes previous Stores sensory information Sensory trace Visual and Auditory sensory stores are studied the most Sensory Register ALS Characteristics: Accurate representing in what we see - only becomes distorted once we perceive it. Large in Capacity ! holds as much info as it can Short in Duration : brief since it can't hold onto everything long - ter m  * tested capacity Sperling (1960) Whole Report Purpose: to determine the capacity and duration of the visual sensory register Hypotheses: the is capacity large and the duration is small Method: presented 3 rows of 4 letters for a very brief period , then had participants recall as many as they could Results: people on average remembered on average 4 letters -33% Conclusions: the sensory register is much smaller than expected. presented for such a brief duration Methodology impossible info * flaw ! near to register  tested capacity Sperling (1960) Partial Report * : less info report different condition to one : but to last - similar methodology Method: 2- rather than 4 letters report one row participants only had to Results: memory increased to 3 OF the 4 letters - 75 % Conclusions: we have 75% Of the visual field in our visual sensory register  * tested duration Sperling (1960) Duration Purpose: to determine how long info is held in the visual sensory register Method: varied a delay interval and had People report the same groups of letters as above. Results: significant drop in recall after a delay of 0.3 seconds Conclusions: the sensory register has a duration OF about ft 13 Of a second very short - - term holding Sensory Register Characteristics: this info must be : Accurate atgÉnot ◦ IF accurate by perceptions Purely sensory : not distorted yet to the stimulus meaning categorizedinfluences. processed enough to have accuracy Processing into category a.at#yshUdnefere: Large in Capacity - Short in Duration Sensory Register - Accuracy If accurate, then: accurate this info must be : IF Purely sensory → ◦ Purely : not distorted yet by perceptions stimulus sensory to the meaning categorized. processed enough → atgÉ to have Processing into category not influences accuracy Precategorical a.at#shUdnerfere: _ Category should interfere → Partial report with letters and numbers Results since perception was involved sensory register is purely sensory people did worse -  ACD Auditory Sensory Register Auditory info is inherently more categorical than visual info Similar to partial report, different speakers it must be attributed to processed meaning Accuracy: order to be , in because Hard to determine Capacity: research suggests it is about 50% Duration: research suggests it is slightly longer than visual 213 of a second.  meaning is derived which " "° "° " " "" " "" "^ " "° process by °" "" "" ° "" " " "" " " "" " " "" " " ° " "" * " "m " Pattern Recognition Process by which meaning is derived Match between sensory information and representation in memory Recognizing a Pattern See features together oq Put object Compare to memory Recognize Pattern Name pattern Recognizing a Pattern Bottom-Up Processing: data driven : recognizing based visual objects only on the object itself - visual Info recognition expectations and context , Top-Down Processing: help memories , and surroundings - can driven : expectations , conceptually - Both help to recognize stimuli / objects Recognizing a Pattern Agnosia: “a” = without “gnosia” = knowledge See features Put object Compare to Recognize Name together memory Pattern pattern Recognizing a Pattern Apperceptive Agnosia objects can sense but cannot percieve recognition of objects - % problem in early. a See features Put object Compare to Recognize Name together memory Pattern pattern ↑ Ap perceptive Agnosia Recognizing a Pattern Associative Agnosia : can recognize the object but can't name it - can't retrieve memory info. See features Put object Compare to Recognize Name together memory ↑ Pattern pattern Associative Agnosia  Pattern Recognition Theories – Template Matching Compare stimulus to template A Stimulu A Template s see to a template in our ( memory compare stimulus to template) matching theory : pairing what You Template that represents an object something in memory Template : Pattern Recognition Theories – Template Matching Implications of Template Theory Have to keep searching memory for a template that fits - can be time-consuming to search for template that fits , this process happens in Parallel process - Parallel. Variability of stimuli - things do not always look the same preprocessing Must have infinite templates stored - seems in effi cent  Pattern Recognition Theories – Feature Theory ① Stimulus is broken down into its features ② Features are then compared to your memory - µ, , ,µµµg*m, ,µ , g. ③ More that is shared Pattern Recognition Theories – Feature Theory A / - \ E F A N Pattern Recognition Theories – Feature / Gibson 19691 Theory Gibson (1969) Purpose: Sought to test Feature theory Hypotheses: - Features than letters that don't between letters that share it is harder to distinguish Method: measures reaction time and state if they are the same or not - see a pair of letters - features Results: for the letters P /R share two features , was longer than PIQ shares no reaction time Conclusions: areprocessingtneite.ms#-Uray. Features take longer to distinguish because we Items with similar Pattern Recognition Theories – Feature Theory Good aspects : less templates Feature related neurons Feature - - related confusions Badaspects : what is a feature what about the relation ? between the features ? Pattern Recognition Theories – Structural Theory Similar to feature theory except: Features (components) are 3D→ and Focus on the relation between the components Relation between components are key  Pattern Recognition Theories – Structural Theory have the same geons objects can is what makesthem but configuration different Ge 0ns : 3D shapes that make up objects ↑ ↑ relationship or gears is Important Objects are - more recognizable from the Intersections of shape. Pattern Recognition Theories – Structural Theory Pattern Recognition Theories – Structural Theory Good: One step further than the feature theory ; recognizes the relation between OBJECTS Bad: what is a geon ? Top-down processes  near live Helm HOI Object Perception Theories – Helmholtz this theory brings knowledge perceive the object that is most likely to have caused the pattern of stimuli ; we Ipkelp hood principle - → environment unconscious tlnrerrnferences about the are a result of assumptions : - Idea that some of our perceptions → Unconscious Object Perception Theories – Helmholtz  Object Perception Theories – Gestalt now we put objects together and now we group them are grouped into predictable ways how elements Intrinsic law : states that we organize the world these parts explains sum of its - is different than the - that the whole - Principle Of Perpetual Organization : the idea from our experiences perceptions in principles override say 's built - 0 _. i -  Object Perception Theories – Regularities perceived comes from assume light occurring physical properties ¢9 illusions Optical og we Physical we regularly affects how regularities : above , thoughts 7 Semantic in schema) and this expectation called a scene Perception OF it Expect to see desks computers the office - is fit into a.scene , which effects Your , what would knowledge of Object Perception Theories – Regularities Object Perception Theories – Regularities Light-from-above Assumption Object Perception Theories – Regularities Physical Semantic  Object Perception Theories – Bayesian the way that we estimate the probability of an outcome by *. - about the outcome Probability : initial belief Prior Likelihood 0 Chances of the outcome occurring * Prior is multiplied by the likelihood to determine the probability of an outcome priors : research saying sleep helps success likelihood Example : studying night to get good grades = most of the = Object Perception Theories Helmholtz Gestalt Regularities Bayesian Object Perception Theories Helmholtz Gestalt Regularities Bayesian  Experience-Dependent Plasticity experience shapes neurons and how they respond the way that that we exist in the environment ≈ brain is shaped by experiences in ≈ Neurons strengthen the more You are exposed to a stimulus - and vice versa activity of the FFA for Faces in comparison to computergenerated figures this measured the level OF Isabel gantner Did study on - - Perception & Action now cortex are next to each other ≈ links to the somatosensory and motor a lot of our actions and reactions to what we percieve ≈ where YOU want to go and how to get there. Need to be constantly aware of ≈  Patient D. F Example } 34 Years old woman , had temporal lobe damage from CO2 poisoning could not Orient to match objects an image but - could place object through matching slot  Dorsal pathway ] Occipital to parietal action pathway - ventral pathway temporal occipital to perception pathway Parallel Distributed Processing Parallel: not serial Distributed: not local Nodes: units Connections: excitatory or inhibitory Pattern of Activation Parallel Distributed Processing Pros: Flexible , handle diff data and> learning > models Robustness more resilient patterns learn from Cons: +0 damage experience challenging complex, to interprets Attention Chapter 4  : attending to one thing while ignoring others selective attention Attention a time than one thing at paying attention to more : Divided attention Attention is NOT unlimited Cell phones while driving The more attention one thing gets, the less something else gets How to test Attention of an unrelated stimulus eg. gorilla during their memory basketball Unattended information % attention to one thing then testing having someone pay , video Dual task µ n+a*÷÷+÷É÷÷÷÷;;÷÷ ÷÷÷ eno.com.e. attention is needed For that task sina.anoe.is that Main task disrupted % conclude Errors in Attention stimulus in plain attention perceive an unexpected sight - lack of Inattentional Blindness individual Fails to when an Occurs observer without being noticed by the. Change Blindness a change a stimulus undergoes Occurs when together Conjunction errors ! likely to occur that two events occur together and less the assumption Sensation Perception Memory Feature Integration Theory °. Anne trees man Sensation 000 Preattentive Focused Attention Perception Memory  Feature Integration Theory Objects are analyzed by their separate Features - analyzed by feature neurons erase perceptual trace first step in processing image or object followed BY a page