Geography Exam Notes PDF

**[Geography]** **What is Sustainability:**  Relates to the ongoing capacity of the Earth to maintain all life. This means developing ways to ensure the Earth's resources be used and managed responsibility so they can be maintained for future generations.    **Natural Environment:**  The natu...

**[Geography]** **What is Sustainability:**  Relates to the ongoing capacity of the Earth to maintain all life. This means developing ways to ensure the Earth's resources be used and managed responsibility so they can be maintained for future generations.    **Natural Environment:**  The natural environment comprises the atmosphere, land, water, oceans and the diversity of living things. It provides essential resources for health and wellbeing including food, fresh water, wood and fibre, fuel and medicines. It also helps regulate weather, vegetation, solids and the quality of water and air, and provides a range of aesthetic, cultural, recreational and spiritual services to people.   As a result of human activity, the health of most or all the planetary systems that provide these services is currently declining, including some that are already considered irreversibility damaged.    **Environmental degradation:** **  **Refers to the damaging effects human activities have on the physical environment E.g. Land degradation, air degradation and water degradation   **Land degradation** **- **The process by which the quality and productivity of land deteriorate due to natural or human activities, leading to a reduction in its ability to support life and maintain ecosystems.  o Deforestation: Cutting down trees for agriculture or urban development can lead to soil erosion, loss of fertility, and disruption of local ecosystems Salinity  \- the presence of high levels of salt in soil or water  o Irrigation: in agricultural areas, using irrigation water with high salt content can lead to salt build up in the soil, making it difficult for cops to grow and harming native plants and animals    **Salinity in Australia has several negative effects on the environment, agriculture and infrastructure such as:** 1. Soil Degradation: High salt levels in soil make it hard for plants to grow. This leads to less productive farmland and can even turn fertile land into barren areas. 2. Water Quality: Salinity can make water sources, like rivers and groundwater, too salty for drinking, farming, or supporting wildlife. 3. Damage to Infrastructure: Salt can corrode buildings, roads, and pipes, causing costly damage and requiring frequent repairs. 4. Loss of Biodiversity: High salinity levels can harm native plants and animals, reducing biodiversity and disrupting ecosystems. 5. Economic Impact: Salinity affects agricultural output, leading to lower crop yields and higher costs for farmers, which can impact the economy. Air degradation \- Air degradation is the decline in air quality due to pollution from sources like vehicles and factories o Smog from a car exhaust: emissions from cars create smog, which harms human health and the environment.  Water degradation \- The decline of water quality due to pollution and harmful activities o Industrial waste: factories discharging chemicals into rivers, making the water unsafe for drinking and harming aquatic life   **Pacific Garbage patch **  A large area in the pacific ocean were a massive amount of plastic and other debris has accumulated dur to the ocean currents.  Tons of plastic bottles, bags and other trash are floating in the ocean harming the marine life and ecosystems  ** ** **Deforestation ** **  **Forests cover 30% of the atmosphere.  If deforestation continues at the current rate then forests will be completely destroyed within 100 years.  Deforestation is a significant contributor to Climate Change.  When trees are felled, they release the carbon they are storing into the atmosphere.  Trees play a critical role in absorbing greenhouse gases that fuel global warming.   Fewer forests = larger amounts of greenhouse gases entering the atmosphere and increases the speed and severity of global warming.  Forests provide habitat for over 80% of the plants and animals that live on land.  Deforestation destroys habitat and reducing biodiversity and availability of food and shelter.  How to resolve - managing forest resources, plant new trees to replace those removed and eliminate clear cutting (cutting down/removing all trees). ** ** **Coastal landscape** \- Refers to the area where the land meets the sea. This type of landscape is characterised by a variety of natural features and processes that shape the shoreline.  Types of coastal landscapes: \- Beach  \- Dunes  \- Sea arch  \- Cliff  \- Spit  \- Bay  \- Estuary  ** ** **Coastal landscapes provide:** o Habitats for wildlife o Recreation and tourism opportunities  o Natural resources like fish and minerals o Protection from storms and erosion  o Areas for transportation and trade.  ** ** **Coastal environments can be transformed by:** 1. Erosion - the process where natural forces like wind, water, and ice wear away rocks and soil. 2. Deposition - process where sediment, soil, and rocks are added to a landform or landmass, typically by wind, water, or ice. 3. Tides - by eroding shorelines, depositing sediment, and shaping landforms such as beaches and estuaries. 4. Storms 5. Human activities (construction, pollution) 6. Sea level rise ** ** **How humans impact coastal environments:** \- Humans impact coastal environments through activities like construction, pollution, littering, overfishing leading to erosion, habitat loss and water quality degradation  Impact of coastal degradation include: o Loss of habitats  o Reduced biodiversity  o Increased coastal erosion  o Decreased fish population  o Lower water quality  o Negative effects on tourism and local economies   **Coastal Degradation** \- Is the deterioration of coastal environments due to human activities and natural processes, leading to loss of habitat, pollution and erosion   **Coastal Erosion ** \- The gradual loss of land along the coastline due to natural forces like wind, wavesand tides  \- Causes loss of land, damage to buildings and infrastructure, habitat destruction for wildlife and vulnerability to storms and flooding   **Coral Bleaching ** \- When coal turns white because they lose algae that give them their vibrant colour, usually due to water or pollution \- Causes death of coral reefs, loos of habitat for marine life, less fish population and reduced coastal protection from storms  ** ** ** ** **What is coastal management** **- **Measures that are put in place to try and control the impact of natural processes such as erosion and weathering and human activities that impact on coastal landscapes like urbanisation, pollution and agriculture    **Importance of coastal management**  About 85% of nations population live along the coast  Approximately 25% live within 3 km of the coast   important to Australia for its diverse ecosystems, economic benefits from tourism and fishing, recreational opportunities, cultural significance, and as a habitat for wildlife. ** ** **Two strategies used in coastal management:** 1. Hard engineering  2. Soft engineering    **Hard engineering ** \- Methods of coastal management which involve major construction work \- Effective in high energy wave areas where powerful waves frequently hit the shore leading to erosion \- May be costly and visually unappealing  ** ** **Methods include:** o Sea armour  o Sea walls  o Groynes  o Breakwaters  ** ** **Sea armour/rock armour** \- Large rocks or concrete blocks placed along a beach that absorb wave energy, reduce erosion to protect the shore \- They break up and reduce that force of income waves preventing erosion on the shore ** ** **Sea wall ** \- A structure made of concrete, blocks of stone or brick that is built parallel to the shore behind the beach to separate the land area from water \- Absorbs wave energy to protect inland areas against wave action, prevent erosion and flooding  **Economic growth** Economic growth refers to the increasing ability of a nation to satisfy the wants of its people over time.  Economic growth is an important indicator of the performance of the economy. It indicates: - how much the size of a country's economy increases/decreases   - the level of production and spending in the economy   **Effective growth** Economic Growth is a useful measure of well being because if the members of an economy increases the value of what is produced then more people will be employed, workers will receive a higher income and they can consume more goods. As people satisfy more wants they can attain a higher standard of living and poverty can be reduced. The most frequently used measure of economic growth is Gross Domestic Product (GDP) -- defined as the total market value of all final goods and services produced in a country during a period of time (usually a year).  The GDP numbers are of little importance in themselves.  Economists place greater importance on the rate of change in GDP (the rate of economic growth), which describes the speed at which production is rising.   **Sustainable Economic Growth** Sustainable economic development occurs when the economy grows at a pace which enables people to satisfy more of their material wants and increase their non-material well being while not compromising the living standards of future generations. The Federal Government aims for a  growth rate of between 3-4% a year.  The government aims to achieve sustainable economic growth of between 3-4%. Less than 3% economic growth is not normally high enough to generate more jobs. Unemployment will mostly likely rise due to a lack of overall demand in the economy.  More than 4% will result in high inflation. High demand for goods and services and workers will lead to shortages, forcing up the general level of prices.  It may also cause environmental problems such as resource depletion and pollution**. ** **Overview** Australia\'s current political system was adopted after Federation on 1\* of January 1901. The nation\'s political system is a constitutional Monarchy. This means that the system is headed by a king or queen, however, a parliament has the responsibility of making all the laws that affect the nation. All the different roles within the system must follow a certain guidelines which is described in the Constitution. Australia is a representative democracy. This means that people who are eligible to vote, elect candidates to represent them in parliament. The Australian political system is divided into three distinct branches (or arms). These include: 1. The Legislative - This branch makes the laws. For example, parliament (lower/upper house). 2. The Executive - Enacts or puts the laws in place. For example, the Attorney - General has the responsibility of overseeing federal legal affairs and public security as head of the Attorney-General\'s Department. 3. Judiciary - consists of the courts. They listen to legal cases and make decisions on the evidence presented to them. The three branches act independently from one another. This is called the \'separation of powers\'. The separation of powers ensures that no branch of the political system becomes too powerful. This is a safeguard to democracy in Australia. The Australian political system is divided into three levels. 1. Federal - which has responsibility over the entire nation e.g. immigration and defence 2. State - each of the six states has their own government which is responsible for state issues e.g. education, transport 3. Local - has the responsibility over areas such as waste disposal, public buildings (such as libraries) and parks. **The Federal Level of Government** The federal parliament meets in Canberra, Australian Capital Territory. The federal Parliament is bicameral. This means that it consists of two houses. **1. House of Representatives** - Is the lower house of parliament and where the law-making process begins. - It consists of 151 members who represent electorates all over Australia. The number of members that each state has is dependent on its population. For example, Victoria and New South Wales have more members in the house because they have higher populations. - The speaker is the person who is responsible for maintaining order in the chamber.
The Speaker is an experienced politician who is elected by the house. - The Prime Minister is member of the lower house and sits immediately in front and to the right of the Speaker. The Prime Minister is the leader of the party with the majority of seats in the House of Representatives. The Prime Minister is seen as the national leader of Australia. - Members of the House of Representatives serve for a term of three years, after which an election must be called - Other roles in the House of Representatives include:
 - Ministers - are politicians that are allocated specific areas of responsibility, called a portfolio e.g. Minister for Immigration, Minister for Education. - Shadow Ministers - are members of the opposition who have the role of monitoring the actions of Ministers. They may question them in parliament on decisions they have made with regards to their portfolio. - Leader of the Opposition - is the leader of the party with the second largest number of seats in the House of Representatives. - Deputy Prime Minister - is either the deputy leader of the Labor Party (when Labor is in government) or the National Party leader when the Liberals are in power. This is because the Liberal Party are National Party are in coalition (they have joined in order to gain a majority of votes). - Hansard - They are not politicians, but rather, government workers who have the responsibility of recording the proceedings of Parliament. - Independents - are politicians who are elected to the House of Representatives that do not belong to a Particular Party. **2. The Senate** - Is the upper house of parliament. - The Senate has the important task of reviewing proposed laws that have been sent from the house of representatives. - Senators serve for a term of six years. - Each state has 12 senators and the territories have two (hence a total of 76 senators). - The Senate is often called \'the house of the states\' because it ensures that each state is equally represented. - The President is the person responsible for maintaining order in the Senate. - Although a party may have a majority of seats in the House of Representatives, this does not necessarily mean they will have a majority in the Senate. - The Senate is able to send a bill (proposed law) back to the House of Representatives. **Governor General** The Governor General is the Queen\'s representative at the federal level. They are appointed by the monarch upon the recommendation of the Prime Minister. The Governor General has the responsibility of approving bills that have been passed by parliament. They can also dismiss the Prime Minister. They usually serve for a term of 5 years.